Urban transport in Swedish development cooperation · issues such as land use planning, municipal...

Urban transport in Swedishdevelopment cooperation

September 1999

Organisation of the study

Client: Göran Tannerfeldt, Head of INEC�s Urban Development DivisionProject Manager: Mikael Söderbäck, INECWorking group: Tor Eriksson, Tomas Nyström, Gösta Werner (later replaced by AndersKreitz), Ann Jennervik (INEC�s Environmental Advisor)

Members of the reference group:Astrid Dufborg (Head of INEC), Anders Hagwall (Head of Infrastructure Division,INEC), Elisabeth Ekelund (Finance Division, INEC), Jan Essner (Regional Departmentfor Asia), Mats Segnestam (Sida�s Environmental Advisor)Kenneth Asp, Swedish National Road and Traffic Research InstituteStig Egnell, consultantMats Ekenger, Ministry of the EnvironmentGöran Friberg, Swedish Transport and Communications Research BoardMariken Vaa, Nordic Institute for African StudiesLars Westermark, Swedish Environmental Protection AgencyHans Örn, consultant, CONTRANS

Photos: Hans Örn

URBAN TRANSPORT IN SWEDISH DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION 1

List of contents

Summary and policy conclusions ..................................................................... 3

1. Background .......................................................................................... 51.1 Urban transport in previous Swedish development cooperation ................................51.2 Implementation of the policy study .............................................................................61.3 What is �urban transport�? ..........................................................................................6

2. Urban transport: one of the major challenges of the next millennium ........... 82.1 Transportation � a basic need and a serious problem ..................................................82.2 Urban transport � a poverty issue ...............................................................................82.3 Must millions more die from accidents in urban traffic? ..............................................92.4 Urban transport � a gender issue .............................................................................. 102.5 Motorisation: a time bomb ........................................................................................ 102.6 ... with serious impacts on the local, regional and global environment ...................... 112.7 The development of urban transport � a question of choice? ................................. 112.8 Vicious circles in developing cities ............................................................................ 13

3. There are good examples! .................................................................... 143.1 Many problems � but also solutions .......................................................................... 143.2 The Curitiba story ..................................................................................................... 143.3 Singapore and motorisation ...................................................................................... 153.4 The environmental potential of the modern bus ...................................................... 163.5 The bicycles in Havana ............................................................................................. 163.6 Paratransit � from a different perspective ................................................................. 163.7 �Prevention is better than cure� ............................................................................... 163.8 The good examples may be difficult to replicate ....................................................... 17

4. The role of development cooperation ..................................................... 184.1 Development of policy, institutions and competence � a key to success .................. 184.2 Processes that range from individual cities ... ............................................................ 194.3 ... to the level of national agencies ............................................................................ 194.4 What can be done in weak or turbulent environments? ............................................ 204.5 Should investments in physical infrastructure be supported? ................................... 204.6 What about support to public transport operators or the purchase of

means of transport? .................................................................................................. 214.7 Should priority be given to certain types of cities? ................................................... 22

5. A broad resource base and many good examples in Sweden ................... 23

6. Implications for Swedish development cooperation .................................. 246.1 Points of departure .................................................................................................... 246.2 Priority areas ............................................................................................................. 246.3 Long-term cooperation and institution-building programmes .................................. 256.4 Short-term support .................................................................................................... 266.5 Reaching the poor through community-based projects ............................................ 266.6 Sida�s international courses play an important role in the development of

professional competence skills .................................................................................. 266.7 More research is required on urban transport problems in developing

countries .................................................................................................................... 276.8 Benefits of international cooperation ....................................................................... 276.9 Professional networking � new possibilities for knowledge development ................ 286.10 A coordinated approach to urban transport within Sida .......................................... 28

2 URBAN TRANSPORT IN SWEDISH DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION

Appendixes1. References and selected bibliography

2. The Agenda 21 and the Habitat Agenda on urban transport

3. List of Swedish institutions and companies in the field of urbantransport

4. The Swedish way � examples of innovations in the Swedish urbantransport sector

Background papers1. Experiences of Swedish Aid in Urban Transport (CONTRANS, 1998)

2. International Experiences and Development Strategies in UrbanTransport (CONTRANS, 1998)

3. Urban Transportation � priorities for Swedish aid � a contribution fromthe Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1998

4. Urban Transport in a Road Safety Perspective (Swedish National Roadand Traffic Research Institute, 1998)

5. Physical Planning and Sustainable Urban Transport � a ComparativeAnalysis of Four International Cities (FFNS Arkitekter, 1998)

6. Swedish Competence and Resource Base (Stig Egnell, 1998)

All papers are available in full-text pdf-format at Sida�s web site(www.sida.se/urbantransport). They can also be ordered from Sida�s UrbanDevelopment Division (e-mail: [email protected]).


Urban transport in Swedishdevelopment cooperation� Summary and policy conclusions

Sida shall therefore systematically broadendevelopment cooperation in the urban transportsector. The goal shall be as follows:

Sida shall contribute to the development of efficient andsustainable urban transport systems which promoteeconomic and social development, improve the environmentand reduce the risks for human life and health.

However, urban transport is a wide concept whichincludes a number of areas such as physicalinfrastructure, vehicles, forms of management andorganisation, safety, legislation and so forth. It isalso closely related to urban and developmentalissues such as land use planning, municipalgovernment, environmental policies, private sectordevelopment and many other areas.

Based on policy options favoured by Sida, thefollowing five priority areas have been selectedwithin the urban transport sector:

1. Comprehensive urban planning including land useplanning and transport planning with a particularemphasis on public transport, non-motorisedtransport, traffic safety and environmental control.

2. Public transport based on buses and organised topermit competition between private operators whileretaining public control through regulatory measures.

The purpose of this policy document is to provide support and guidance forSida and the embassies in the identification, screening, assessment andpreparation of urban transport projects. It should further be a tool for infor-mation to interested counterparts in recipient countries and in Sweden onhow Sida intends to work with urban transport, what thepriorities are and thecriteria for projects to be considered for support. The policy should apply toall forms of development cooperation within Sida.

A general conclusion is that urban transport isan essential element of urban development anda relevant area for Swedish development co-operation on account of its impact on urbanpoor, the urban environment and the urbaneconomy:

· Efficient, safe and affordable urban transportsystems which include disadvantaged areascontribute to the alleviation of urbanpoverty and promote socio-economic andgender equality.

· Urban traffic is a major environmentalproblem and only coordinated actionsguided by a consistent policy can succeed indealing with the problems caused by rapidlyincreasing motorised traffic, pollutingengines and inferior fuels.

· Efficient urban transport systems contributeto urban productivity and national economicgrowth.

Urban transport is further an area for which co-operation partners in developing countriesincreasingly need and request support and inwhich Sweden has a well-developed base ofconsiderable know-how including two of themajor bus manufacturers in the world.


3. Non-motorised traffic including improved conditionsand infrastructure for pedestrians, bicycles and othernon-motorised transport vehicles.

4. Traffic management to improve efficiency, reducepollution and improve safety.

5. Regulation and monitoring of fuels, vehicles andemissions in order to reduce harmful pollution.

Institutional development, including policy andlegislation, economic and other incentives anddisincentives, promotion of public awareness,enforcement of regulations and so forth shouldbe important aspects of any long term coope-ration project within the priority areas but mayalso be considered independently for support.

In all investment projects, be it infrastructure,vehicles or buildings, and irrespective of theform of financing, it is essential that sustainableoperation and maintenance facilities are alreadyin place or will be established through the pro-ject. This should be specifically assessed beforeSida can reach a decision on project support.The fact that environmental problems are oftenregarded as the main justification for urbantransport interventions, underlines the need ofcomprehensive environmental impact assess-ments in connection with project preparation.

Needs and prevailing conditions differ fromcountry to country and between cities. It doesnot seem practical to apply any generalisedgeographical criteria, but rather to emphasizethat it is necessary to assess every project on itsown merits. However, long term cooperationprogrammes including institutional develop-ment, will have to be limited to a select numberof countries for administrative reasons, and theselection of those countries will depend onseveral factors. One obvious option is to expandon-going urban or transport programmes, butnew countries could also be identified, forexample as part of the country strategy process.

Development cooperation will normally have itsfocus at the city level with a key role for themunicipality. Intervention at the national levelshould not be ruled out, however, if it is neededor provides support for action at the local level.

Transport systems need a long time to developand experience shows that cities which havebeen successful in this respect also have enjoyedconsiderable political consistency and continuity.If such conditions are not in place, Sida shouldrefrain from long term projects or, alternativelyand if possible, promote institutional arrange-ments that may survive political change.


1. Background

1.1 Urban transport in previous Swedish development cooperation

Figure 1: Number of urban transport projects started bySwedish aid organisations (SIDA, BITS, SAREC and Sida)between 1980 and 1998.

Figure 2: Urban transport projects financed by Swedish aid1980�1998, distribution according to number of projectsof different categories.

Urban transportstudies etc

17%

Infrastructure6%

Public transport24%

Air quality etc.27%

Trafficsafety 15%

Training7%

Traffic

management 2%

Non-motorisedtransport 2%

The rapid pace of urbanisation in many deve-loping countries has created increasing needs oftransport for people and goods within the cities.Unfortunately, there are very few examples ofcities that have been able to create an effectiveand sustainable transport system that meets theneeds. The transport situation in many largecities in developing countries is usually in a stateof acute crisis with serious effects for the localenvironment as well as for economic and socialdevelopment. The worst affected are often thepoor, the women and the children.

Sida�s support to urban development, based onthe strategy formulated in 1994�1995, hasexpanded rapidly during recent years. However,development cooperation hitherto in the urbanarea has only occasionally touched upon theurban transport issue. The same applies to Sida�scomprehensive programmes in the transportsector, which, during the past few years, havemainly focused on transport reforms, support toroad administrations and rural roadconstruction.

The environmental aspects are given highpriority both in Sida�s strategy for support tourban development and in Sida�s transportsupport. According to its plan of action forsustainable development, Sida shall draw upguidelines for support to environmentallysustainable urban development as well as astrategy for Sida�s transport assistance, adaptedto the needs of the environment.

Even if a co-ordinated approach for support tourban transport has been lacking, it can never-theless be noted that Sweden has financed anincreasing number of projects in this sector overthe years. The inventory of Swedish aid tourban transport during the 18-year period from1980 (Background Paper No. 1) to 1998includes 54 projects within different fields ofurban transport at a total cost of SEK 700million (in 1998 values).

The list of projects in the urban transport sectorprovides a typical sample of the various types ofassistance provided by the former developmentagencies, SIDA and BITS, to short-term projects.Not many of the identified projects have beensubject to comprehensive evaluation, and in thecases when project evaluations have taken place,they were, for natural reasons, not made speci-

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fically from the point of view of urban transportsystem. This makes it somewhat difficult to drawconclusions regarding the success of the urbantransport components of the projects. Urbantransport-oriented goals and objectives were notformulated before the projects started andconsequently no attempts have been made tofollow up goal fulfilment. The main reason forthis is that urban transport has not been definedas a specific development sector. This does notmean that earlier involvement in the urbantransport sector has been unsuccessful; only thatan evaluation is hard to make.

The new Sida, formed in 1995, offers newopportunities for synergy between sectorexpertise, working methods and forms offinancing. Hitherto, no overall analysis has beenmade of experience gained, problems andopportunities for development cooperation inthe urban transport sector.

Against this background, Sida�s Department forInfrastructure and Economic Cooperation(INEC) initiated in early 1998 a policy studywith a focus on urban transport development.The purpose of the study was first to give anoverview of urban transport and its environ-mental impact in developing countries, second toanalyse the causes of the present problems andto discuss possible remedies and third to outlinehow Sida can assist partner countries to developtransport systems which are socially,economically and environmentally sustainable.

1.2 Implementation of the policy study

The policy work was organised with the aim ofcreating a process of learning and transparencywhich would involve a wide range of stake-holders. An overview of the main activities isprovided in Box 1.

1.3 What is �urban transport�?

Urban transport is a broad topic. In this contextwe have not tried to define the concept and itsmany elements very precisely. Precise definitionsare difficult � there is for instance no singleuniversal definition of �urban�. An area which

Box 1: The development of Sida�s policy onurban transport

· a half-day seminar in May 1998 with 30professionals from a wide range of developingcountries participating in the course organised bythe Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute(VTI) in Linköping in April/May 1998 on�Environment and Public Transport�

· a number of studies carried out by externalexpertise including a study on internationalexperience and strategies (a list of BackgroundPapers is enclosed)

· three half-day seminars in August-October 1998on the following topics:(i) �Public transport � an area for future Swedishdevelopment assistance?� (ii) �Can developmentassistance contribute to a better environmentin cities in developing countries� and (iii)�Physical Planning and Sustainable UrbanTransport�

· consultations with representatives of other donorsand international organisations

· a web-page connected in July 1998 to Sida�shomepage where all basic documents have beenmade public and are easily retrievable through theInternet

is classified as urban in one country would berural in another.

This policy document does not exclude anyaspect of urban transport, although we havechosen to emphasize some issues because theymay be critical from an environmental point ofview, particularly relevant for improving thesituation of the poor, or because they areconsidered strategic areas for developmentcooperation. Swedish experience and know-howor the fact that a problem area has been neglec-ted are other reasons.

Therefore the policy deals more with the publictransportation of people and non-motorisedmodes of transport than, for example, issuessuch as the transport of goods or parking of


For obvious reasons there is not scope in adocument like this to provide a broad descrip-

tion or analysis of all the various components inthe urban transport sector. We refer the interes-ted reader to the background paper on �Inter-national Experiences and Development Stra-tegies in Urban Transport�, which also containsan extensive bibliography with recommendedliterature on urban transport.

private cars. The policy also highlights safety,traffic management and planning and otherinstitutional issues which are not limited to anyparticular kind of transport.


2. Urban transport: one of the major challengesof the next millennium

2.1 Transportation � a basic need anda serious problem

Table 1: �Main worries in Bangkok�(source: Allport, 1995).

Factor Per cent of the surveyedTraffic 44Cost of living, inflation 20Poverty, unemployment 7Air, water, noise pollution 6Education 5Crime, corruption 5Other 13

Bangkok is also a good example of the contra-dictions inherent in the urban economic deve-lopment. On one hand, it has been estimatedthat in Bangkok one third of the city�s grossproduct is lost on account of traffic jams, i.e.USD 4 million per day. On the other hand,Bangkok experienced (until the present crisis)very high economic growth in spite of its trafficproblems. It is evident that the relationshipbetween an efficient urban transport system,urban productivity and urban economic growthis complex and not yet sufficiently understood.

2.2 Urban transport � a poverty issue

There is sometimes a tendency to regard urbantransport as a luxury for the rich. This may bebased on the misconception that urban transportplanning is an activity which aims at buildingmore roads in order to create more space forprivate vehicles. In reality, urban transport has avery strong bearing on poverty and is one of thefactors with the greatest impact on the economyof families in low income groups.

New migrants arriving in the cities from therural areas typically end up on the outskirts ofthe cities where they have to find shelter. Tothem, as well as to many other poor peri-urbanhouseholds, transport is essential to enable themto benefit from the employment, schools andother services available in the city.

One of the most powerful trends in the develo-ping world is urbanisation. In 2020, 3,5 billionpeople in developing countries will live in citiesand in Africa alone, it has been projected that theurban population will escalate to 820 millionfrom 177 million in 1985. At that time, Africaand Asia will be predominantly urban in thesame way as Latin America has been for a longtime. The challenge for the future is to createpolicies to make this growth sustainable, efficientand equitable. With these types of growth rates,developing countries must increase their capacityto supply and manage their urban infrastructureby at least 75%, merely to maintain the presentlevel of service, which is inadequate anyway.

One of the important urban functions is thetransportation system which directly affects theeconomic efficiency of cities and the well-beingof their inhabitants. It is important to note thattransportation is one of the fundamental needs for people,not least for new settlers in the outskirts of thecities, since it expands their options for work,education, health care, and other amenities.

On the other hand, inefficient urban transport is amajor source of problems for cities and theirinhabitants. Traffic congestion reduces the city�sproductivity and consumes time. Air pollutionfrom traffic is one of the major environmentalproblems in a city. Noise is another importantenvironmental stress factor, and little has beendone in developing countries to reduce trafficnoise which is sometimes unbearable.Investments in urban transport infrastructure suchas roads and streets often constitute a substantialdrain on the city�s economy although in manycases existing facilities could be used moreefficiently. Above all, traffic problems and lack oftransportation facilities affect individuals at alllevels in the society. In a survey made in 1995 inBangkok it was found that the main worries oflocal residents were:


But since they travel long distances, cost is anessential factor.

A recent study in Africa found that an averagelow-income urban family may spend 30�40%of its earnings on transport. Some poor familiesin Kingston spent almost all of their �disposableincome� (after deduction of costs for housing,food and fuel) on transport which shows onceagain that urban transportation is far from aluxury, but one of the very basic needs of poorfamilies. For the poor, almost all trips are worktrips with few school trips and almost no socialtrips.

For many poor families, walking is the normalmode of transport. In Metro Manila this appliesto families below the 30th percentile householdincome. In some countries the bicycle may bean alternative.

Subsidised public transport has been introducedin many developing countries (as is the standardpractice in almost all industrialised countries).There can be good reasons for this, althoughthere are many examples of badly designedsubsidies which have distorted the incentives foroperators and caused severe inefficiencies.However, projects aiming at improving non-motorised transport, e.g. walking, can have agreat impact on the poorer segments of theurban population.

2.3 Must millions more die fromaccidents in urban traffic?

Every year over 700,000 persons die and over10 million persons are injured or crippled intraffic. The majority, 67%, of traffic accidentsoccur in developing countries.

In its 1998 World Disaster Report, the RedCross/Red Crescent recognises traffic accidentsas one of the major threats to human lives andhealth in an increasingly urbanised future.It projects that by 2020 traffic accidents will bethe third most important cause of death anddisability, well ahead of war, HIV and otherinfectious diseases. Together with the socialimpact in terms of grief and suffering, it isestimated that traffic accidents cause developing

countries economic losses of USD 53 billion,about the level of all international aid.

The number of accidents and fatalities is rapidlyincreasing in most developing countries due torapid motorisation. In industrialised countries,counter-measures in the form of traffic safetyprogrammes are giving results and the numberof fatalities is being reduced despite increasingcar usage. Figure 2 illustrates the developmentof �personal unsafety�, measured as the numberof traffic fatalities among one millioninhabitants.

In developing countries, motorised transporttends to be highest in cities where we also findthe highest concentrations of pedestrians andother unprotected road users. In these countries,�personal unsafety� is higher in cities than thenational average.

Unprotected road users are over-representedamong traffic fatalities in developing countriescompared to developed countries. This ismainly due to the larger proportion of pedes-trians, cyclists, motor-cyclists etc in poor coun-tries combined with a lack of proper infra-structure to serve these groups of road users.

Figure 3: Traffic accident fatalities by country incomegroup (based on World Bank, 1996).

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2.4 Urban transport � a gender issue

Urban transport is essential for both men andwomen, but there are also clear gender diffe-rences in the use of different means oftransport. Access to a private vehicle is morelimited for women than for men, and womentherefore tend to depend more on public trans-port than men. In Nairobi, 66% of women�strips are made by bus compared to 56% formen. The specific needs of women are rarelyconsidered in the design of public transportsystems.

In Pakistan and India, the public transportmode called tongas (horse-driven carts) fulfil arole since they provide an opportunity forwomen to travel with many children. In someMuslim societies women and men are separatedin public buses.

Cycling is a very common form of transport insome Asian and African societies, but its use bywomen is often limited because of local customsand culture. Traffic risks sometimes have diffe-rent implications for men and women. Evidence

from South America suggests that low-incomewomen from the peripheral areas of citiesperceive a high risk of theft and sexual assault,and are therefore reluctant to make bus journeyswithout an escort. In Kingston and Nairobi, asin many other cities, there is an element of riskin walking home from the bus stop, particularlyduring late hours.

2.5 Motorisation: a time bomb

The dynamic pace at which urbanisation andmotorisation are growing is illustrated in twofigures below. Figure 4 shows that not only thenumber of motor vehicles, but also the use ofthese vehicles, is growing even faster than thegrowth of the urban population. As illustrated infigure 5 this trend is very closely linked toeconomic development. Car ownership ratesincrease in parallel with increasing income levels,in some countries without any visible limits togrowth. Behind these trends lies the fact that, ingrowing economies in poor as well as in richcountries, households tend to allocate increasingshares of their incomes to transportation.

Figure 4: Estimated global growth in ownership and use of motor vehicles since 1950(Source: World Bank, 1996).


Figure 5: East Asia Motorisation 1960�1990 (Source:World Bank, 1995).

2.6 ... with serious impacts on thelocal, regional and globalenvironment

Probably no effect of urban transport comes tomind stronger than the environmental impact ofmotorised traffic. The quiet whirl of bicyclesaround Hoan Kiem Lake in Hanoi is gone andhas been replaced by the noise of motorcycles.Bangalore, once the �Garden City of India�, isnow characterised by exhaust fumes from traffic.

In some large cities road traffic accounts for 90 to95% of health-threatening lead and carbon-monoxide emissions and a major share ofsuspended particulate matter. In Bangkok, it hasbeen estimated that an average child loses 4 IQpoints by the age of 7 due to air-borne lead.Motor vehicles are responsible for nearly 50% ofthe emissions of smog-precursors world-wide.

At a global level, pollution from motor vehiclesnow produces about 20% of the incrementalcarbon dioxide in the air arising from human

activity. As motorisation gains momentum, notleast in the two most populous countries in theworld, China and India, an enormous urbanpopulation is about to be affected. These effectsare not only local, many experts are warningabout the serious potential effects of globalwarming in a world where motorisation ismultiplying and is often characterised by badengines and poor fuel.

In the general ambition to come to grips withthe urban environmental problems, for examplein Eastern Europe, it should be recognised thatit may be even more urgent to counter andprevent the future dangers of dynamic andirreversible traffic development than to improvea polluting, but more static, industrial sector.

2.7 The development of urbantransport � a question of choice?

While there are many parallels between thegrowth of motorisation in various parts of theworld, it is also possible to identify some strikingdifferences in respect of the role that the privatecar plays in cities in different parts of theindustrialised world. In many American cities, theincreasing growth of motorisation has interactedwith declining public transport services andchanges in land-use towards lower and lowerpopulation densities (�urban sprawl�). The endresult is a situation which could be described asalmost total dependence on the private car.

In most European cities, municipalities haveexercised a strong public control of the spatialdevelopment of the cities and managed tomaintain the fairly compact structure of the oldcities. An important element of the Europeanmodel is a high quality public transport system.European cities are characterised by somewhatlower levels of car ownership, combined with, andmore significantly, much lower levels of car usagethan American cities. The consequencesmeasured in terms of energy use for transport incities with similar income levels appear clearlyin Figure 6.


Figure 6: Fuel consumption and urban density in citiesworld-wide 1980 (Source: Newman, Peter W G andJeffrey R Kenworthy 1989, Cities and AutomobileDependence: an International Sourcebook, Gower Techni-cal, Aldershot)

Figure 7: Pump prices for premium gasoline(Source: Metchies, G. and Rausch, E., 1996 based on aprice survey in December 1995).

Japan

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United States

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South Africa

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China

Nigeria

Zimbabw e

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Western European averageDeveloping country average

From the development of cities in industrialisedcountries, we can conclude that a number ofstrategic choices determine the development ofcities. Town planning and development controlare key instruments of any policy aiming atspatial development of cities which reduces theneed for private car transport.

There are also other factors which stronglyinfluence the role of public and private transport,and indirectly, the development of city structures.One major factor is the fuel and vehicle taxationpolicy, where West European countries generallyhave much higher taxes than the United States,Australia and most developing countries. Theresulting differences in gasoline prices are clearlydemonstrated in Figure 7.

The World Bank transport policy documentsubmitted in 1996 (�Sustainable Transport �Priorities for Policy Reform�) included ananalysis of public sector pricing and taxationpolicies that apply in the transport sector. Thisanalysis resulted in a recommendation to�establish road user charges that reflect exter-nalities (road damage, air and noise pollution,congestion, and safety); where fuel taxation isused as a proxy, Western European levels aremore appropriate benchmarks than US levelsfor developing countries on the threshold ofrapid motorisation�.

Today�s policies and decisions have a strongbearing on our future. While motor-vehiclesusually last 12�15 years and investments in oilrefineries may have an economic life of some25 years, investments in city infrastructure leadto more or less irreversible changes. Townplanning policies interact with policies on publictransport and taxation in the shaping of ourfuture cities and transport systems. This under-lines the need of long-term visions andconsistent policies.


2.8 Vicious circles in developing cities

Many industrialised cities have managed toovercome some of the most obvious negativeimpacts of the high levels of motorisation withthe aid of improvements in traffic management,infrastructure, vehicles and fuels. The situationlooks very different in most major cities indeveloping countries.

Picture 1: The transport market in Medan, Sumatra.

Despite low levels of motorisation, the trafficsituation in most major and many medium-sized cities has developed into what could bedescribed as traffic infernos. Many of thesecities have been caught in a vicious circle in

1 Anthony Downs was first to describe this mechanism in 1962. It has subsequently been called�the law of congestion� or �Downs� Law� (Zegras, C. in UNCHS, 1998).

Severe congestion

Heavy losses in public transport operations

Mushrooming minibus sector

Deteriorating publicinfrastructure

Rapid urban and economic growth

Rapid motorisation

Low degree of public development control

Weak governance

Causes Impacts

Severe air and noise pollution

Traffic accidents

The poor suffer most

Poor service levels, high costs

which the services offered by organised bustransport gradually deteriorate and are partlyreplaced by an unregulated fleet of paratransitvehicles (mini-buses, emergency taxies,jeepneys, matatus etc). In combination withincreasing levels of private car ownership, thisleads to increasing levels of congestion, whichin turn undermines the capacity, economy andservice levels of organised public bus transport.The resulting break-down of the urban transportsystem is illustrated in Figure 7.

The traditional response by cities has been tocombat the congestion problems with substantialinvestments in increased street capacity. Thismay be especially tempting for cities in deve-loping countries where the proportion of urbanspace devoted to roads is usually much smallerthan in European cities. However, history hasshown that investments in increased streetcapacity often result in additional traffic volumeswhich rapidly end up in even higher levels ofcongestion1. Any solution will have to combinephysical investments with measures whicheffectively manage and regulate private trafficwhile at the same time create the foundations ofa public transport system.

Figure 8: The break-down of the urban transport system.


3. There are good examples!

3.1 Many problems � but also solutions

A visitor to some of the new megacities of theworld can sometimes get the impression that thedestructive powers of development are over-whelming, and that nothing can be done tocontrol the exploding urban transport problems.It is easier to identify problems than it is to findgood solutions and examples worth following.Still, there are many examples of interestingsolutions and successful interventions in cities indeveloping countries. Often, however, these areon a limited scale and do not encompass theentire urban transport sector. It is rare to findcities which have managed to fully controlurban transport and to shape the city in aplanned way. (This is not always easy in theindustrialised countries either).

The search for good working examples indeveloping countries is somewhat complicatedby the fact that it takes time before long termpolicies have a full effect on the city�s totaldevelopment. While it is sometimes possible tocompare the development of cities which wereat a comparable level 30 years ago, some of thesuccessful cases are now no longer regarded asdeveloping countries. Their accomplishmentsare then sometimes mistakenly explained by thefact that they are now �rich� and therefore notrepresentative of poor cities.

Occasionally, a city stands out for its coherentand consistent policies over a sufficient periodof time to give urban transport and the city acharacter of its own. Although it may notpossess a formula which is automaticallyapplicable in other cities, such a city can stillserve the important function of being aninspiration to others. Two examples of suchcities are provided below � Curitiba andSingapore. These cities illustrate a number offeatures of high quality transport systems as wellas the processes whereby these systems develop.

3.2 The Curitiba story

The Brazilian city of Curitiba is a good exampleof what can be achieved with limited invest-ments, but with consistent and innovativepolicies. This development was initiated as earlyas in the 1960s by a visionary architect/mayorempowered with sufficient authority and resour-ces to implement his vision of an environ-mentally sustainable city. Today, the two-millioncapital of the state of Paraná is the target ofnumerous study groups wanting to see forthemselves a city where the bus is more impor-tant than the car.

Box 2: The bus system in Curitiba

The main principle in Curitiba is the promotion ofan organised public transport system based on buseson dedicated busways. This development started inthe 1970s when the city found that it could notafford an urban rail system. In existing central areas,part of the road and street capacity was redistributedfrom cars to buses, while in new areas new buswayswere built first of all. Having priority in trafficmakes public transport economically efficient andattractive to passengers� buses in Curitiba operate at the same commercialspeed as the New York subway, but at a fraction ofthe cost.

The bus network is centrally organised and plannedas one coherent and integrated system � not as aseries of competing routes. System components varyfrom 300-passenger bi-articulated buses on trunklines to smaller buses on fast express routes. Routepackages are operated by private bus companies andthe whole system runs without subsidies.

Basing its public transport system on modern bustechnology, Curitiba has managed to create anaffordable, environmentally sound and highlypopular public transport system, yet without


imposing restrictions on private car ownershipwhich is the highest in Brazil. The success ofCuritiba demonstrates the potential efficiency ofan organised bus system operated by a privatesector competing for a carefully monitored � not�free� � market. It thus highlights the importanceof public sector intervention as much as ofprivate sector drive and efficiency.

Picture 2: Characteristic tube stations in the Curitiba bussystem.

3.3 Singapore and motorisation

Singapore, the city-state island off the Malaccapeninsula, has, like Curitiba, found its own waysand methods of creating a good urban transportsystem, and the strategies have been partlydifferent. A number of innovative schemes forurban transport have been introduced.In particular, Singapore has devoted moreefforts to control demand by introducingrestrictions on both ownership and use ofprivate cars. Through the area licensing scheme,described in Box 3, in combination with othermeasures (including an attractive and efficientpublic transport system), Singapore managed tokeep motorisation under control in spite of itsrapid economic growth.

Picture 3: Singapore�s area licensing system.

Box 3: The area licensing systems in Singapore

In the 1970s, the city introduced restrictions ontraffic in the sensitive city centre area. Under thearea licensing scheme (ALS), a car driver enteringthe city area during peak hour had to pay a fee,which was adjusted so that no more traffic enteredthe city than the system could swallow. The low-cost and non-sophisticated, but remarkably efficient,scheme remained in operation for more than 20years. After proving to be a sustainable concept, thesystem was replaced in 1998 by the ElectronicRoad Pricing system (ERP), where payment isautomatic.

Singapore�s consistent transport policies, aimed atcontrolling both the number of cars and their use,have resulted in a situation where traffic is controlledrather than seen as a force of nature. The ALSconcept has been implemented in other cities, forexample in Tehran.

3.4 The environmental potential of themodern bus

The positive environmental impact of an orga-nised bus system is exemplified in Figure 8,which compares the emissions from a moderndiesel bus with a capacity for 100 passengers,a minibus with 30 passengers and a motorisedpetrol-driven rickshaw (auto-rickshaw) with 2passengers. Since the comparison is not madebetween vehicles but between their performancein terms of emissions per passenger-km, theeffect of the operating characteristics of differenttransport systems is visible.

This example illustrates that in many developingcountries the public transport system itself offersconsiderable potential for reducing trafficemissions, namely if passenger trips can betransferred from small, polluting vehicles tomodern buses with greater capacity.

It also highlights the impact of vehicle enginesand fuel qualities on air pollution. A number ofmajor cities in Asia and Latin America are nowgradually introducing stricter regulations withregard to engine standards and fuel qualities.


Thailand, for example, has managed to reduceairborne lead over a five-year period byswitching over to unleaded gasoline.

Figure 9: Environmental potential of the modern bus.Emissions in grams per passenger-km (Source: CON-TRANS, 1998).

3.5 The bicycles in Havana

Cuba�s economic decline resulted in an urbantransport crisis in Havana. A massive shift tobicycles became an affordable and feasible wayof providing mobility for the population.Previously a bicycle policy was not consideredeasy to implement in Latin America, forexample for cultural reasons. Interest in non-motorised transport has now increased, andbicycle networks are now planned in, forexample, Lima, Peru and Cordoba, Argentina.

3.6 Paratransit � from a differentperspective

The negative impacts of un-regulated para-transit vehicles which cause congestion andpollution in city centres have been illustratedabove. It should be pointed out, however, thatthis segment of the transport industry never-theless offers important low-cost transportservices to many off-track and poor communi-ties, for which no other type of public transportis available. The paratransit industry is also animportant source of employment for thousandsof poor drivers. Consequently public regulationmust aim at creating an optimal mix of differenttypes of urban transport services.

In South Africa the important role of paratransitin the overall transport system, for example as aprovider of feeder services, has been recognised.At the same time, efforts are being made bypublic authorities to regulate the paratransitindustry � a major challenge which will require ahigh degree of participation by the industry itself.

3.7 �Prevention is better than cure�

Cities such as Curitiba and Singapore havedemonstrated the benefits of applying a long-term vision to the planning of a city. There aremany medium-sized cities in developing coun-tries where the situation today is still manage-able but could rapidly deteriorate and get out ofcontrol. In many cases it is possible to introducepreventive measures. China and Vietnamprovide many examples of cities where the levelof motorisation is still low (with only about 10cars per 1,000 inhabitants) and where it is stillpossible to prevent developments which mightend up in chaos.

Picture 4: The �urban transport system� in Hanoi, Vietnamin 1993.

3.8 The good examples may bedifficult to replicate

Why have few cities in developing countriesbeen able to introduce effective solutions tourban transport problems, in spite of growingpublic pressure and awareness of possiblesolutions? Evidently there are forces which mayobstruct the replication of positive examples.

First, when the density of a city and the level ofmotorisation has already reached a certain level,

Emissions g/pass - km

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it is much more difficult to introduce trafficmanagement and organised public transport.When public transport corridors wereintroduced in Curitiba, the city was in thefavourable situation of still having wide landcorridors available.

Second, in Curitiba as in Singapore, thereforms had strong political support throughlong-serving politicians with clear visions for thelong-term development of the city. In mostdeveloping cities the political situation is un-stable with fragile political leadership and fre-quent changes of power. With weak governancethe risk is also much greater that inefficiencieswill occur in the regulation of public transport.

Third, as pointed out above, in many cities a

large share of the public transport market isdominated by an unregulated flora of smalloperators, sometimes exercising strong politicalinfluence, which may resist the introduction(or re-introduction) of organised publictransport. With a fragmented private transportsector, it is also more difficult for cities to findoperators that have the capacity to undertakeconcession contracts for bus lines.

The conclusion which can be drawn from thischapter is that there are some good examples ofcities in developing countries which havemanaged to create efficient and sustainableurban transport solutions. At the same time,there is a need of much more knowledge aboutthe kind of processes of change that arerequired to develop such solutions.


4. The role of development cooperationof-payments support and are not based on truepolitical commitment, have limited prospects ofsuccess. Second, models which try to implantexternal �ready-made� solutions based on tradi-tional engineering studies made by internationalconsultants without proper interaction with localstake-holders, are rarely successful.

In contrast, the type of close cooperationbetween many different stake-holders which hasbeen applied within the so-called EST-project inSweden (�Environmental Sustainable Trans-port�) and is now being tried at the level of theEuropean Union, is an example of what is alsorequired in developing countries in order forpolicy reforms to be successful. Key factors insuch processes are: (i) a consensus in the initialproblem analysis, (ii) a set of goals that specifywhat should be achieved, by whom and whenand (iii) a work process that involves all stake-holders. In line with the ideas of Agenda 21,local involvement and public awareness arecrucial for making reform measures legitimateto the public.

The support that donors could meaningfullyprovide to such processes of change is quitedifferent from the traditional models of �tech-nical assistance�. Instead, through developmentcooperation, one or several external partnerscould be linked to local stake-holders in thereform process over long periods of time.This external partner would be expected to(i) provide high quality advice at the right time,(ii) provide targeted training for key staff and(iii) organise study visits and seminars; all as anintegral part of a reform process. Given theimportance of transparency and public aware-ness, local and external non-governmentalorganisations may also play important roles insuch processes.

4.1 Development of policy, institutionsand competence � a key to success

The urban transport environment is characte-rised by a high degree of institutional fragmen-tation with a number of Government ministriesand agencies involved as well as many partici-pants at the regional and municipal levels, notto mention the various private parties involvedin the sector. At the same time, reforms areusually not possible without close interactionand co-ordination between different parts of theurban transport system. Box 4 gives a concreteexample in the form of a project aiming at airquality improvement in Santiago de Chilewhich includes the introduction of natural gasbuses. The project involves a number of publicand private actors.

Box 4: Air quality improvement in Santiagode Chile

Public transport corresponds to 60% of totaltransport in Santiago, one of the worst pollutedcities in the world in terms of air quality.Measures to achieve acceptable air quality includeimproved efficiency in public transport, introductionof natural gas buses, systems for the prediction andmonitoring of environmental effects of specificmeasures and their effects on human health.

Support to this process has been given by theGothenburg region to the environmental authorities,traffic institutions, the public transport company,and meteorological and medical research institu-tions. Their Chilean counterpart in theMetropolitan Region is a joint project ofcorresponding institutions working under theumbrella of the Santiago �Clean Air Act�.

What do we know then about the way thatdonors can contribute to policy reforms?We have learnt two things from the history ofdevelopment cooperation. First, policy changeswhich are forced upon developing countries, forexample through conditions linked to balance-


4.2 Processes that range fromindividual cities...

As demonstrated above, the integration at citylevel of transport, land-use and environmentalplanning has been the key to successes such asCuritiba. The establishment of these types ofinterdisciplinary planning structures andprocesses is a major challenge, especially whenconsidering the fragmented institutionalenvironments and the short-term politicalagendas that prevail in many cities.

Does development cooperation have a role toplay in such a situation? Given that there is abasic political will and consensus on the needand direction of change, we believe that theapproach outlined above is relevant for institu-tional development in individual cities. Thiswould indicate a form of city-to-city co-operation, a much discussed concept which wecomment upon below.

The major functions which are relevant at citylevel are listed below:

· Overall policy-making within municipalpolitical bodies for urban development andtransport

· Land use planning

· Traffic planning and management (includingnon-motorised transport)

· Organisation and management of publictransport systems

· Construction, maintenance and operation oftransport infrastructure

· Pricing policies and policies regardingprovision of subsidies (if any) to urbantransport operators

· Regulating, monitoring and enforcingenvironmental and other impacts of urbantransport

· Local participation and public awareness

Given the need of integrated solutions, inprinciple all of these functions will have to bedealt with in the development of sustainabletransport systems. In the design of a co-operation programme, it appears to be prefer-

able to focus initially on one or possibly a fewkey problems. A different approach, whichmight be suitable in the case of reform of thepublic transport system, would be to focus on acertain part of the transport system or a certainarea of the city.

Land use planning, physical planning, townplanning � there are many names for thisdisputed but still necessary activity. Planningand development control are important tools forurban management, without which it isimpossible to manage the urban environmentand develop a functional transport system.However, planning as practised earlier was oftenuncritically based on concepts from Westerncities. It was carried out by American andEuropean consultants, badly guided by localpoliticians dreaming of a rosy future, andresulted in nice maps and documents with verylittle relevance to the actual situation. Theimpact was limited or even negative whenunrealistic plans were legally adopted andbecame an obstacle to more appropriatedevelopment decisions. Planning has sincedeveloped and needs to be assessed for what itis today and not for mistakes made 30-40 yearsago. Planning today is less technical and moreto be seen as part of a broader consultation andparticipatory process, something which wasunheard of in the 1960s.

4.3 ... to the level of national agencies

There are large variations between differentcountries in respect of the division of respon-sibilities between central and local government,fiscal powers etc. Although urban transportproblems are naturally �owned� by localgovernment, in many cases central governmentministries and national agencies are in charge ofinstruments which determine incentives and setlimits for actors in the local arena. Someexamples of such factors are listed below:

· General transport policies

· Legislation on physical planning anddevelopment control

· Traffic law


· Taxation and (potential) environmentalpricing policies for fuels, vehicles andinfrastructure

· Policies and legislation for the organisationof public transport services

· Traffic safety (policies, education,regulations, enforcement, etc)

· Vehicle emissions and fuel qualities(regulations, enforcement, testing andmonitoring)

· Planning, financing and implementation ofmajor investment projects.

In principle, any of these factors may be rele-vant components in a programme of policy-oriented donor support. Their relative impor-tance, and the role that donor support may play,will obviously depend on the circumstances in aspecific country.

4.4 What can be done in weak orturbulent environments?

In many of the poorest countries the capacity ofmunicipalities is so weak that it is not realistic ina short-term perspective to apply the models forinstitutional support described above. At thesame time recent research shows that byapplying low-cost measures, for example fortraffic calming, it is possible to radically improvethe mobility and safety of pedestrians, cyclistsand other types of unprotected road users.

In such situations alternative approaches maybe tried which channel resources directly tolocal community groups. The basic idea is thatan organisation with firm roots in the localcommunity identifies the needs of traffic safetymeasures, requests the approval of themunicipality and carries out the improvementswithout having to rely on the municipal admini-stration. In an environment with an activepublic debate, successes with fairly small pro-jects could have a sizeable impact by demon-strating to the public and to politicians what ispossible to achieve with small means.

4.5 Should investments in physicalinfrastructure be supported?

As described above, there are many examplesof large investments in expanded or new streetand traffic infrastructure which have not had anylasting positive impact on the urban transportsituation. In many cases it is much moreeffective to improve the management andmaintenance of the existing infrastructure incombination with measures to control and limittraffic volumes in sensitive sections. The con-ditions for bus transport may be radicallyimproved by introducing reserved lanes or busstreets.

Depending upon the size and density of cities inindustrialised countries, modern urban transportsystems usually combine several transportmodes, including underground metros, whichmay carry huge traffic flows. Examples of costsand capacities of different types of modes areillustrated in Table 2. The construction of heavycorridor systems requires huge investments andpublic subsidies which are feasible only inrelatively rich cities. They also require a level ofcoordination and management of feedersystems which is rarely available.

Experience from poor cities such as Calcuttawhich have invested heavily in the constructionof one or two metro lines, shows that the expan-sion of metro systems is often hampered byfinancial constraints, while integration withother modes is often lacking. The result is anisolated and expensive sub-system which servesonly a very limited part of the population.

Contrary to many other cities, Singaporedeveloped its public transport system step bystep. Only when a well-functioning modern bussystem had been established was an extension toother modes considered. Today Singapore isequipped with a modern subway and a light railsystem is underway.


Table 2: Examples of capital costs and capacity of masstransit solutions (based on a compilation of data fromvarious sources)

Public Capital cost Capacitytransport Million USD pass/houroption per km

Underground 50-100 70,000metro

Light rail 20 30,000

The CuritibaMetrobus 5 15-20,000system (incl.Busways, terminalsand buses)

Bus lane with 0.05-0.5 *) 5-15,000physicalseparation

*) Cost of vehicles (buses) is not included

Modernisation of existing rail-based systemsmay be an interesting option especially in citieswith long commuting distances, as is the case inSouth Africa. It is important, however, to con-sider not only the technical upgrading, but alsothe future operational and financial conditions.

The logical role for development cooperationwill be to support the early phases of thedevelopment of mass transit systems in poorcities. Normally this will involve the establish-ment of a modern bus transport system. Thecost of the infrastructure required for such asystem is usually small compared to the needof public funding in connection with metrosand light rail systems.

We have indicated above that developmentcooperation should focus on the developmentof institutions and know-how, rather thaninvestments in infrastructure. The most cost-effective action is usually to use existinginfrastructure better. However, in a situationwhere the implementation of an organisedpublic transport system is blocked by financialconstraints at the city level, developmentcooperation may play an important role byfacilitating investments in improved streetinfrastructure, bus lanes or bus terminals.

4.6 What about support to publictransport operators or thepurchase of means of transport?

The need for the reform of public transportoperations is high on the agenda in many cities.If financial assistance from donors in the formof concessionary or other types of credits ischannelled directly or indirectly to transportoperations, it must be clearly linked to theobjectives of the reform process.

Given the many examples of inefficiencies inpublic enterprises, there are good arguments fortransport operations to be run on commercialprinciples by private operators. At the same timeit has been clearly shown that urban transportmarkets must be subject to firm public planningand regulation. For this reason, municipalitiesshould endeavour to separate policy and regu-latory functions from the ownership and ope-ration of public transport. Such separation couldbe seen as a first necessary step towards improvedgovernance of existing public transportenterprises. It is also a prerequisite for privateoperators to be awarded concessions (franchises)for specific parts of the public transport system.Such operators should normally be selectedthrough competition (�for the market�).

Subsidies for urban transport services may bejustified on grounds of equity and public serviceobligations or to compensate for the fact thatprivate cars are not charged for road use. Anysubsidy should be transparent and designed insuch a way that operational efficiency is nothampered. The required level of subsidy maybe one of the factors which are considered inthe competition for public transport concessions.

The possibility for donors to provide concessio-nary credits is limited by OECD/DAC within theframework of the so-called Helsinki Agreement.As urban transport projects are not regarded byOECD as financially viable, it is possible to useconcessionary credits in connection with thefinancing of such projects provided that otherconditions relating to the country�s economicsituation etc are fulfilled.


One purpose of the provision of concessionarycredits may be to facilitate the introduction ofmodern and more environment-friendly vehicles.

How should then donors design their financialassistance in a situation when the roles of thepublic and private actors are being graduallyreformed? One way may be to link donorassistance to a �public-private partnership�-scheme, whereby a municipality leases vehiclesfinanced by a donor to one or several privateoperators who have been awarded transportconcessions. It may also be possible to consideran arrangement whereby the ownership ofvehicles financed by donors is transferred toprivate operators within the framework ofconcession contracts.

In principle the value of the resources financedby a donor should be on-lent by the recipientGovernment/municipality to the end-user ofthe resources, i.e. to a transport operator (publicor private). It could be assumed that the grantelement will be used by the municipality tofinance subsidies which may be justified withinthe framework of the objectives of the donorsupport. It must be observed that any subsidyscheme must be financially sustainable withoutdonor support in the long run.

Training programmes for key staff in publictransport may be supported by donors providedthat such programmes are not designed tofavour staff from a specific operator.

4.7 Should priority be given to certaintypes of cities?

Arguments have been raised that Sida shouldtarget its support at small or medium-sizedcities. So-called mega-cities are rare in most ofthe main Swedish partner countries, but do existin the countries where the �reactive� type ofdevelopment cooperation is applied (see 6.3).Needs and conditions vary from country tocountry and from city to city. There is no goodreason why Sida should introduce any specificlimitation with respect to city size. Projectproposals need to be examined and justified ontheir own merits. The country strategy, Sida�sgeneral policies for sustainable development,poverty alleviation, gender quality anddemocratic governance as well as the presentsector policy for urban transport providesufficient guidance and limitations, and otherfactors such as opportunity, implementationcapacity, political will and so on may be morerelevant in the selection of projects.


5. A broad resource base and many goodexamples in Sweden

Sweden has been active in developing variouskinds of innovative solutions to urban transportproblems. Some of these are presented in apublication entitled �Good Examples in theSwedish Public Sector� (Peterson, 1997).Although many of these examples are mainlyapplicable to industrialised countries, it is obviousthat Sweden can offer a number of examples andmodels of interest to developing countries.

The Swedish experience of involving manydifferent stake-holders in planning processes inmunicipalities as well as at the national level hasbeen mentioned above. The successful Swedishexperience of traffic safety development is onegood example of such an approach. Anotherexample is the Swedish experience of engagingprivate operators, through competitive tende-ring, to run parts of the public transport system.Finally the systematic integration at the muni-cipal/regional level of the planning of land-use, transport systems and environmentalaspects could provide a useful model for muni-cipalities in developing countries. Some furtherexamples from the Swedish Urban TransportSector can be found in Appendix 4.

Are there any weaknesses in the Swedish resourcebase? For obvious reasons not many Swedishprofessionals have experience from working withcomplex processes of change in developingcountries, for example in connection with theintroduction of new policies and new forms for theorganisation and management of public transport.Language ability may also be a limiting factor forthe involvement of Swedish professionals inprojects in West Africa and in Latin America.

Sida could contribute, in various ways, to thedevelopment of Swedish resources. Sida, forexample, may stimulate Swedish municipalities(or public authorities) to create links with similarinstitutions in developing countries. Such co-operation could cover loose friendship relationsto more developed forms for �city-twinning�.Sida may also promote research in Sweden onurban transport problems, for example byintroducing urban transport as an �invitationarea� within SAREC�s research programme.

As a part of Sida�s policy study, an inventorywas made of the availability of know-how andresources in Sweden in relation to urban trans-port development in developing countries. Thisinventory showed that there is a strong resourcebase and a great interest among a broad spect-rum of professionals and institutions in Swedenin cooperating with developing countries intheir respective subject areas. In this respect thesituation appears to be favourable in compari-son with many other cooperation sectors. Box 5gives examples of the various types of Swedishresources, while Appendix 3 provides a detailedlist of Swedish organisations active in the fieldof urban transport.

Box 5: Examples of Swedish resources of relevancefor urban transport development in developing countries

· several municipalities with internationallyrecognised experience in physical planning

· public authorities with unique experience, forexample from introducing environmental andtraffic safety regulations and programmes

· two of the world�s leading bus manufacturerswith strong environmental and safety profiles aswell as a well established industry with acomplete range of systems and products forrailway applications

· transport operators experienced in competing forurban transport concessions

· a number of consulting firms with experienceof working in developing countries with physicalplanning, traffic planning and engineering,environmental planning and monitoring etc

· large construction companies capable of winningcontracts in international competition

· a transport research institute, the Swedish Roadand Traffic Institute (VTI), with broadexperience of organising courses for developingcountries

· an international research institute, StockholmEnvironment Institute (SEI) with a longexperience of research into environmentalproblems related to energy use and fuels.


6. Implications for Swedish development cooperation

6.1 Points of departure

Agenda 21, which is the approved action planof the UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro,serves as a framework for national policy andoutlines general principles and obligations invarious areas, including transport. The HabitatII Conference in Istanbul further articulated thetransport-specific objectives of the signatorygovernments in the Habitat Agenda. This set ofobjectives and principles forms the basis of anySwedish support to urban transport develop-ment. An abstract of relevant statements in thesedocuments can be found in Appendix 2.

Swedish development cooperation is governedby a set of objectives defined by the SwedishParliament. The overriding goal is to improve thequality of life of poor people in the partner countries.We have already given a number of examplesof the links between this objective and theurban transport situation. We have also exem-plified the links between urban transport andsome of the important subsidiary goals ofSwedish development cooperation, mainlyeconomic growth, sustainable use of naturalresources and protection of the environment,and gender equality.

Given these premises, Sida should broadendevelopment cooperation in the urban transportsector. This cooperation should contribute to thedevelopment of efficient and sustainable urban transportsystems which promote economic and social development,improve the environment and reduce the risks for humanlife and health.

The type of cooperation which may be appliedin any specific situation, will primarily be deter-mined by objectives and restrictions stipulatedby the Swedish Government for Swedish sup-port to the country in question. For a certaingroup of �partner countries� with which Swe-den has entered into long-term programmes ofco-operation, country strategies are available. For alarger group of developing countries, short-term

projects may be financed from various globaland regional aid allocations.

In relation to the dimension of problems andneeds which have been described above, theresources available to Sida have obvious limits.Given the fact that core problems are oftenfound in attitudes, policies and institutions, theprofessional and administrative capacity of Sidaand its cooperation partners will often impose amore serious constraint than the availability offunds. This indicates the need to identify areaswhere Sida and the Swedish resource base havetheir main �comparative advantages�.

One example of such an advantage is the abilityto cooperate with a broad range of partners in adeveloping country, including different levels ofgovernment, the private sector and non-govern-mental organisations.

Another example is Sida�s flexibility to choosebetween different approaches and to apply(combine) various financing instruments in away that is suited to the specific country, city andcharacter of the project. By strategic targeting ofinterventions and by selecting the most cost-efficient means of assistance, the support mayhave a �catalytic� impact.

6.2 Priority areas

Given Sida�s limited resources, Sida shouldfocus its professional attention to certain priorityareas in the extensive urban transport field.The selection of priority areas listed in Table 3is based on one or more of three criteria: (i) therelevance of the area in relation to theobjectives of Swedish development assistance,(ii) our analysis of the character of the urbantransport problems and (iii) the relative strengthsof the Swedish resource base.


Table 3: Priority areas for Swedish development cooperation in the urban transport field.

Level Priority areas

I. National level · development of policies, laws andActors: Ministries (transport, environment, regulations regarding vehicle emissions,local government, finance etc), public fuel qualities, taxation (of vehicles, fuelsauthorities, public and private organisations, and road use), traffic safetyfinancial market actors · development of institutions aimed at

enforcing and monitoring policyimplementation

II. City level · development of bus transport systemsActors: Political bodies, municipal and other including the introduction of regulatedauthorities (town planning, civil works, competition between private operatorstransport & traffic, traffic police, vehicle · institutional and human resourceinspection, environmental monitoring etc), development for town planning and traffictransport operators, press, NGOs etc management

· investments in infrastructure for publictransport

· programmes for traffic safety improvement,non-motorised traffic, reduction of vehicleemissions (including impact monitoring) etc

III. Community, households · awareness creationActors: Road users, owners of motorised and · small-scale improvements of the trafficnon-motorised vehicles, CBOs, paratransit environment for pedestrians and non-employees etc motorised traffic through local initiatives

6.3 Long-term cooperation andinstitution-building programmes

In most cases institutional development at themunicipal or national level requires a long-termperspective. When Sida participates in suchlong-term processes it must be prepared to playa �pro-active� role by taking part in a dialoguewith relevant local stake-holders during theformulation and implementation of the project.

Examples of projects where this kind ofapproach has been applied are the urban deve-lopment projects in South Africa where Sidaprovides support to land-use planning, housingfinance and infrastructure improvement. In thefield of transport, the support given over anumber of years for the development oftransport policies and reforms in Namibia alsoprovides an example of a �pro-active

approach�. It should be noted that it will nor-mally not be possible to enter into this type ofcooperation unless the specific sector has beengiven priority in the country strategy for Swedishassistance.

On account of its capacity constraints, Sida willhave to limit the number of broad and long-term commitments of this type. One interestingoption may be to extend one or more of the on-going urban development programmes ortransport sector programmes into the urbantransport field.

To qualify for this kind of support a city or anational institution should demonstrate (i) a clearpolitical interest, (ii) reasonably stable economicand institutional conditions and (iii) preferablyalso a supporting environment including thepotential to raise public awareness and support.


Support to projects of this type would befacilitated if a capable cooperating partner could beidentified in Sweden. Approaches which arebased on �city twinning� or twinning betweeninstitutions with similar objectives represent aninteresting option. However the limited expe-rience and capacity of Swedish municipalitiesand other types of institutions will normallylimit the possibility of launching full-scaletwinning models. Combinations of municipa-lities and resources from commercial firms maybe a more realistic alternative.

Interesting proposals in this respect haverecently been presented in a report commis-sioned by the Swedish Government on thepotential for the export of Swedish environ-mental technology (�Sustainable Sweden�,SOU 1998-118). One proposal in this report isto create a basis in Sweden for the developmentof various kinds of public-private partnershipswith developing countries. This proposal isclose to the concept of support to �economic co-operation� which is currently being developed bySida. The basic idea is that Sida�s role shouldmainly be a promoter of contacts aiming atcreating self-sustaining long-term economicrelations. The urban transport sector andespecially the field of environmental techno-logy appears to be well suited for this concept.

6.4 Short-term support

Short-term support is usually used in middle-income countries with which Sweden has notestablished any long-term cooperation pro-grammes. Organisations in these countries oftenhave a better capacity than those in poorerpartner countries to define needs and implementprojects without active participation by Sida.

In such cases Swedish companies and organ-isations usually play an active role in theidentification of projects suitable for Swedishsupport, while Sida�s own role could be cha-racterised as �reactive�. The Contract-financedTechnical Cooperation programme and theConcessionary Credit programme are thefinancing instruments which Sida usually usesin such cases.

The �reactive� approach may be well suited forconsultant studies or vehicle investmentshandled by reasonably capable clients in a goodpolicy environment, but is usually less appro-priate for projects which involve complexprocesses of change. Support to such processesrequires careful monitoring and a preparednessto adapt the external support to changed cir-cumstances. This may be difficult to combinewith the principle of handling the reactive typeof assistance �at arm�s length�.

6.5 Reaching the poor throughcommunity-based projects

An interesting feature of the on-going urbandevelopment programmes in Central America isthat they are based to a large extent on theinvolvement of the communities, sometimesthrough capable local non-governmental orga-nisations. Such institutions may be interested inapplying a �bottom-up� approach to small-scaleimprovements of urban streets in close co-operation with local community groups.As described above, such interventions mayprovide immediate and tangible benefits for thesafety and mobility of pedestrians and non-motorised transport.

It should be observed that although communitywork at the local level may give some imme-diate impacts for poor people, it is not possibleto achieve sustainable and city-wide solutions tourban transport problems without the fullinvolvement of the municipal administration.

6.6 Sida�s international coursesplay an important role in thedevelopment of professional skills

Sida�s international courses contribute to thedevelopment of the skills of key personnel in thefield of urban transport. The main arguments fororganising courses in this way are first thatspecialised courses are difficult and expensive toorganise at the national level, and second thatsuch courses contribute to the creation ofprofessional networks across developing countryborders and with the Swedish resource base.


VTI�s annual six-week course on �Environmentand Public Transport Management� coverscentral themes in the urban transport area. Theirannual traffic safety course as well as the annualcourse on �Road and Traffic Management� (runby Swedish National Road Consulting,SweRoad) and the course on �Air PollutionManagement & Technology� (run by theSwedish Meteorological and HydrologicalInstitute, SMHI) do not focus directly on urbantransport, but incorporate elements which areclearly relevant to this sector.

An interesting extension of the �Internationalcourse� concept is courses on a regional basis.It would then be possible to invite a somewhatlarger number of participants from each countryand to create training environments whererepresentatives of different professional fieldsare trained in cross-sectorial team-work. Thistype of exercise appears to be well suited to theneeds in the urban transport sector.

It is recommended that various options tofurther develop Sida�s programme of inter-national courses in the field of urban transportshould be considered.

6.7 More research is required onurban transport problems indeveloping countries

There is an obvious lack of relevant research onurban transport problems in developing coun-tries. Given the importance of research forknowledge and human resource development,Sida should look for ways to stimulate suchresearch, and to strengthen research capacity inthis field. If this could be done through co-operation between a university or researchinstitution in Sweden and corresponding insti-tutions in developing countries, positive side-effects may occur in the form of strengtheningthe Swedish resource base in the urban transportfield.

This is related to the broader question of highereducation. The capacity and quality of educa-tion at university level in technical areas isalready low. The capacity to train specialists in

urban transport management and relatedsubjects is even more limited. Most probably aspecialisation of this kind can only be efficient ifdeveloped on a sub-regional basis.

The rapid growth of motorisation in developingcountries is an area which has hitherto not beenthe subject of any extensive research. Sidashould consider the possibility of supportingsuch research in cooperation with the WorldBank which has expressed an interest in thisresearch field. Issues relating to road, fuel andvehicle taxation policies would play an impor-tant role in such research.

6.8 Benefits of internationalcooperation

The history of international development co-operation provides many examples of how co-ordination problems decrease the value of aidin cases where several donors support the samesector or programme. This is due not only toduplication of effort and procedures, but also tothe fact that donors may have divergingopinions about key policy issues in the sector.

For this reason Sida should encourage active co-operation with other donors in the field ofurban transport. This implies that Sida shouldparticipate in relevant initiatives for policydevelopment and dialogue organised byorganisations such as the World Bank, UNDP,UNCHS/Habitat and the European Union.Furthermore, Sida should actively participatein and support coordination efforts at sector andproject level. Although the urban transportsector may not easily lend itself to a moreadvanced form of �sector programme support�,several of the elements in this type of approachare clearly also relevant to more traditionaltypes of donor coordination.

As can be seen in the background paper oninternational experience (CONTRANS, 1998),there were conflicting views some years agobetween different donors on what constituted�good policy� in urban transport, especially inrelation to the role of competition in the urbantransport market. The document �Sustainable


Transport � Priorities for Policy Reform� whichwas issued by the World Bank in 1996 repre-sented an important step towards new thinkingin relation to urban transport.

Since the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul aconsiderable degree of policy consensus seemsto have emerged between the major inter-national actors. This consensus was clearlydemonstrated at the CODATU VIII Conferencein Cape Town in September 1998 which wasbased on the main theme �Urban TransportPolicy � a Sustainable Development Tool�.

6.9 Professional networking� new possibilities for knowledgedevelopment

A positive aspect of international cooperation isthe creation of networks between professionalsin developing countries and developedcountries. One example of such cooperationin which Sida participates, is the �Sub-SaharanAfrica Transport Programme� initiated by theWorld Bank. This programme includes a specialUrban Transport Component sub-programmewhich receives support from, among others,France, Holland and Sweden. It has a certainbias towards French-speaking countries in WestAfrica, but also incorporates several countries inEastern and Southern Africa. It has also interes-ting links to research institutes in West Africa.

An interesting initiative has been taken by VTIaiming at the development of a professionalnetwork between traffic safety professionals(including previous course participants) in a

selected group of countries. The proposalincludes the establishment of an informationresource centre, development of an informationdata base, launching of an Internet-basedcommunication network, provision of tailor-made training programmes and the possibility toinitiate distance education programmes. Links areto be created to Swedish institutions and experts.

6.10 A coordinated approach to urbantransport within Sida

Although an increasing number of urban trans-port projects have been financed by Swedishinternational development cooperation fundssince the early 1980s, these projects have gene-rally been implemented and followed-up in anad-hoc manner. It is recommended that, in thefuture, the urban transport sector should besubject to a coordinated policy approach anda higher degree of organised learning fromexperience.

This means that focal point for knowledgedevelopment in the field of urban transportshould be created within Sida�s Department forInfrastructure and Economic Co-operation.The main functions will be (i) the preparationand monitoring of urban transport projects,(ii) systematic learning from experience gainedfrom Sida�s urban transport projects, (iii) policydevelopment in the field of urban transportincluding participation in international fora,(iv) an internal advisory function, and finally(v) promotion of networks with institutions andindividuals in Sweden and in developingcountries.


Appendix 1

References and selectedAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK/AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT FUNDUrban Development PolicyTransport Sector PolicyAbidjan, 1992

ALLPORT, R.Transport management: Private Demands andPublic NeedsMegacity management in the Asian and PacificRegion, Vol 1Manila, 1995

ARMSTRONG-WRIGHT, A. and S. THIEZBus Services. Reducing Costs, RaisingStandardsWorld Bank Technical Paper No 68Washington, 1987

BOOK, K. and ESKILSSON, L.Transport, Built Environment and DevelopmentControl - a Comparative Urban Study.University of Lund. Department of Geography.Lund, 1998

CODATU VIIIProceedings of the International ConferenceCODATU VIIIUrban Transport Policy - a SustainableDevelopment ToolCape Town, 1998

DE LANGEN, M., KISISA, I., andRWEBANGIRA, T.Traffic Calming Experiments in Tanzania.Proceedings of CODATU VIIICape Town, 1998

EUROPEAN COMMISSION. TRANSPORTSECTOR GUIDELINESTowards Sustainable Transport Infrastructure.Ch 7: �Urban Transport�.July 1996

JANSSON, J-O.Transportekonomi och livsmiljöSNSStockholm, 1996

METCHIES, G. and RAUSCH, E.Financing Road MaintenanceGTZ, Energy and Transport DivisionEschborn, 1996

NEWMAN, P. and KENWORTHY, J.Cities and Automobile Dependence, AnInternational SourcebookEngland, 1989

OECD. ECONOMIC COMMISSIONFOR AFRICA3rd African Road Safety Congress. Lead papers12-14.Pretoria, 14-17 April 1997

PETERSON, B.E.Good Examples in the Swedish Public TransportSectorKFB-report 1997:5Stockholm, 1997

RABINOVITCH, J. and J. LEITMANUrban Planning in CuritibaScientific American, March 1996

RED CROSS/RED CRESCENTWorld Disasters Report 1998, ch. 1-2Oxford University Press, 1998

SIDATowards an Urban World. Urbanization andDevelopment Assistance.Stockholm, 1995

STARES, S. and L. ZHI (ed)China�s Urban Transport Development Strategy.World Bank Discussion Paper No 352Washington D.C. World Bank, 1997

References and selected bibliography


THYNELL, M.Automobility in the Perspective of InternationalPolitical Economy of Development illustratedby two case studies: Tehran and Brasilia.Göteborg University. Department of Peace andDevelopment Research.Gothenburg, 1998

WORLD BANKSustainable Transport. Priorities for PolicyReformWashington, 1996

WORLD BANKUrban Transport. A World Bank Policy Study.Washington, 1986

WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE; UNEP,UNDP and WORLD BANKWorld Resources Institute, UNEP, UNDP,World BankThe Urban Environment: ch. 4 :�UrbanTransportation�Oxford University press 1996-97

UNCHSThe Missing Link - Towards Sustainable UrbanTransportHabitate Debate 1998, Vol. 4 No. 2Nairobi, 1998

UNDPSustainable Human Transport (about to belaunched)New York, 1999


Appendix 2

Agenda 21 and Habitat IIAgenda 21, signed at the Earth Summit in Riode Janeiro, included several objectivesspecifically related to urban transport:

7.53.(a) Integrate land-use and transportationplanning to encourage development patternsthat reduce transport demand (number of tripsand trip distance);

7.53.(b) Adopt urban-transport programsfavouring high-occupancy public transport incommunities, as appropriate;

7.53.(c) Encourage non-motorised modes oftransport by providing safe cycle-ways and foot-ways in urban and suburban centres incountries, as appropriate;

9.12.(d)...promote economic mechanisms,including pricing, which, inter alia, seek todiscourage large, fuel-consuming and pollutingvehicles, and encourage the development anduse of alternative fuels;

9.12.(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate,mechanisms to integrate the transport planningstrategies and urban and regional settlementplanning strategies, with a view to reducingadditional needs for transport.

The Habitat II Global Plan of Actionoutlined a number of measures relevant tourban transport:

147. Transport and communication systems arethe key to the movement of goods, people,information, and ideas, and to the access tomarkets, employment, schools and otherfacilities and land use, both within cities andbetween cities, and in rural and other remoteareas. The transportation sector is a majorconsumer of non-renewable energy and of landand is a major contributor to pollution,congestion and accidents.

Integrated transport and land-use policy andplanning can reduce the ill effects of currenttransport systems. People living in poverty,women, children, youth, older persons, andpeople with disabilities are particularlydisadvantaged by the lack of accessible,affordable, safe, and efficient public transportsystems.

148. Developments in communicationstechnologies can have a significant impact oneconomic activity and human settlement patterns.It is important for the potential impacts to beaddressed so as to ensure that maximum benefitsaccrue to the community and to reduce anyadverse outcomes in relation to access to services.

149. Managing transport in human settlementsshould be done in a way as that promotes goodaccess for all places of work, social interactionand leisure facilitates important economicactivities, including obtaining food and othernecessities of life. This should be done whilereducing the negative effects of transport on theenvironment. Transport-system priorities shouldbe given to reducing unnecessary travel throughappropriate land-use and communicationpolicies, developing transport policies thatemphasise mobility alternatives other than theautomobile, developing alternative fuels andalternative fuel vehicles, improving theenvironmental performance of existing modes,and adopting appropriate pricing and otherpolicies and regulations.

150. Non-motorised transport is a major modeof mobility, particularly for low-income,vulnerable and disadvantaged groups. Onestructural measure to counteract the socio-economic marginalisation of these groups is tofoster their mobility by promoting affordable,efficient and energy-saving modes of transport.

Agenda 21 and Habitat II on urban transport


Actions:

151. In order to achieve sustainable transport inhuman settlements, Governments at the appro-priate levels, in partnership with the privatesector, the community sector, and other relevantstakeholders should:

(a) Support an integrated transport policyapproach which explores the full array oftechnical and management options and paysdue attention to the needs of all populationgroups, especially those whose mobility isconstrained because of disability, age, povertyor any other reason;

(b) Co-ordinate land use and transport planningin order to encourage spatial settlement patternsthat facilitate access to basic needs such asworkplaces, schools, health care, places ofworship, goods and services and leisure, therebyreducing the need to travel;

(c) Encourage the use of optional modal com-position of transport including walking, cycling,and private and public means of transportation,through appropriate pricing, spatial settlementspolicies and regulatory measures;

(d) Promote and implement disincentivemeasures that discourage the increasing growthof private motorised traffic and reduce con-gestion which is damaging environmentally,economically, socially and to human health andsafety, through pricing, traffic regulation, par-king, and land-use planning, traffic calmingmethods, and by providing or encouragingeffective alternative transport methods,particularly to the most congested areas;

(e) Provide or promote an effective, affordable,physically accessible and environmentally soundpublic transport and communication systemgiving priority to collective means of transport,with adequate carrying capacity and frequencythat supports basic needs and the main trafficflows;

(f) Promote, regulate, and enforce quiet, use-efficient and low-polluting technologies, inclu-ding fuel-efficient engine and emissions controlsand fuel with a low level of polluting emissionsand impact on the atmosphere and other alter-native forms of energy;

(g) Encourage and promote public accesselectronic information services.


Appendix 3

List of Swedish institutions and companiesin the field of urban transport

Public sector

Trafikutskottet, Riksdagen100 12 StockholmTel 08-786 40 00www.riksdagen.se/debatt/utsk/tu

MiljödepartementetMinistry of the Environment103 33 StockholmTel 08-405 10 00Fax 08-21 96 28www.miljo.regeringen.se

Kommunikationsforsknings-beredningen, KFBThe Swedish Transport andCommunications Research BoardBox 5706114 87 StockholmTel 08-459 17 00Fax 08-662 66 09www.kfb.seAuthority under Ministry of Transportand Communications funding research,development and demonstrationprojects

BanverketSwedish National Rail Administration781 85 BorlängeTel 0243-750 00Fax 0243-44 50 09www.banverket.se

NaturvårdsverketThe Swedish Environmental ProtectionAgency106 48 StockholmTel 08-698 10 00Fax 08-20 29 25www.environ.se

VägverketSwedish National Road Administration781 87 BorlängeTel 0243-750 00Fax 0243-758 25www.vv.se

Miljöförvaltningen, GöteborgBox 360401 25 GöteborgTel 031-61 26 10Fax 031-61 27 67Air pollution monitoring and modelling,noise control

Stadsbyggnadskontoret,GöteborgBox 2554403 17 GöteborgTel 031-61 10 00Fax 031-71 14 21www.stadsbyggnad.goteborg.se

Trafikkontoret, GöteborgBox 2403403 16 GöteborgTel 031-61 37 00Fax 031-711 98 33www.goteborg.se

Gatukontoret, Malmö205 80 MalmöTel 040-34 10 00Fax 040-34 37 66www.gatukontoret.malmo.se

Stadsbyggnadskontoret, Malmö205 80 MalmöTel 040-34 10 00Fax 040-34 35 63www.stadsbygg.malmo.se

Gatu- och fastighetskontoret,StockholmBox 8311104 20 StockholmTel 08-508 260 00Fax 08-508 267 11www.gfk.stockholm.se

Stadsbyggnadskontoret,StockholmBox 8314104 20 StockholmTel 08-508 260 00Fax 08-508 271 70www.sbk.stockholm.se

Research institutions andsimilar

CTS, Centre for Research onTransportation and SocietyHögskolan Dalarna781 88 FalunTel 023-77 85 00Fax 023-77 85 01cts-nt1.du.se

Statens Institut förKommunikationsAnalys, SIKASwedish Institute for Transport andCommunications AnalysisBox 17213104 62 StockholmTel 08-506 206 00Fax 08-506 206 10www.sika-institute.seAuthority under Ministry of Transportand Communication

Föreningen för de OskyddadeTrafikanterna, FOTChalmers Tekniska Högskola,Sven Hultins gata412 96 GöteborgTel 031-772 23 91Fax 031-18 97 05www.ntf.se/fot

Institutet för Transport Forskning,TFKTransport Research InstituteBox 760781 27 BorlängeTel 0243-734 26Fax 0243-734 30www.tfk.se

IVL Swedish EnvironmentalResearch InstituteBox 210 60100 31 StockholmTel 08-729 15 00Fax 08-31 85 16www.ivl.seAn independent research institute inthe environmental field


GöteborgsregionensLokaltrafik ABBox 405401 26 GöteborgTel 031-15 47 27Fax 031-15 62 33www.glab.se

Linjebuss ABBox 1820171 24 SolnaTel 08-629 50 00Fax 08-29 00 96www.linjebuss.com

Länstrafiken ÖrebroBox 8013700 08 ÖrebroTel 019-15 39 00Fax 019-10 06 08

Stadstrafiken GöteborgBox 2403403 16 GöteborgTel 031-61 37 00

AB Storstockholms Lokaltrafik120 80 StockholmTel 08-686 10 00www.sl.se

ÄlvsborgstrafikenBox 1085462 28 VänersborgTel 0521-27 38 00Fax 0521-27 38 10

BK TågBox 28574 21 VetlandaTel 0383-196 50Fax 0383-147 57www.bktag.se

TransportledetSkenvägen 8281 43 HässleholmTel 0451-477 00 Fax 0451-126 18www.transportledet.com

Consultants and individualexperts

BEP KollektivtrafikkonsultSkogvaktarevägen 6131 50 Saltsjö-DuvnäsTel 08-718 45 33Fax 08-716 11 65Consultant on public transport

Statens Väg- och Transport-forskningsinstitut, VTIThe Swedish Road and TransportResearch Institute581 95 LinköpingTel 013-20 40 00Fax 013-14 14 36www.vti.se

NTF BohuslänBox 14033400 20 GöteborgTel 031-63 52 16Fax 031-35 95 90www.ntf.se/bohusInformation activities on traffic safetyaiming at the Swedish 0-vision

Universities

Chalmers Tekniska Högskola,CTHDepartment of Road and TrafficPlanning412 96 GöteborgTel 031-772 10 00Fax 031-772 38 72www.vsect.chalmers.se

Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan,KTHInstitutionen för Infrastruktur ochsamhällsplanering, Avdelningen förtrafik och transportplaneringDepartment of Infrastructure andPlanning, Division of Traffic andTransportation100 44 StockholmTel 08-790 80 05 Fax 08-21 28 99www.infra.kth.se/ttp

Lunds Tekniska Högskola, LTHInstitutionen för Teknik och samhälleDepartment of Technology and Society,Traffic Planning and Traffic EngineeringBox 118221 00 LundTel 046-222 91 25Fax 046-12 32 72www.tft.lth.seEducation and research re design andanalyses of traffic systems focusing onsafety and environment

Luleå Tekniska UniversitetInstitutionen för Samhällsbyggnadste-knik,Avdelningen för TrafikteknikDepartment of Environmental Engineer-ing, Division of Traffic Engineering971 87 LuleåTel 0920-91 000Fax 0920-913 99www.sb.luth.se/tftFocus on traffic safety and economy

Umeå UniversitetKulturgeografiska institutionenDepartment of Social and EconomicGeography901 87 UmeåTel 090-786 50 00Fax 090-786 76 29www.umu.se/soc_econ_geographyApplied research, planning andadministration

Göteborgs UniversitetDepartment of EconomicsEnvironmental Economics Unit411 80 GöteborgTel 031-773 10 43Fax 031-773 25 03www.gu.seSpecialized in environmental economicsresearch and training including policyinstruments for transport

Göteborgs UniversitetDepartment of Peace and DevelopmentResearchBox 700405 30 GöteborgTel 031-773 49 37Fax 031-773 49 37www.gu.se

Public transportoperators anddistribution companies

Svenska Lokaltrafikföreningen,SLTFBox 1108111 81 StockholmTel 08-788 08 60Fax 08-788 08 78www.sltf.se


Bilprovningen International ABBox 508162 15 VällingbyTel 08-759 21 00Fax 08-759 54 24www.bilprovningen.seMotor vehicle inspection company,subsidiary to AB Svensk Bilprovning,offering international consultingservices and know-how

Bjerkemo KonsultHubertusvägen 29226 53 LundTel 046-211 51 00Fax 070-611 20 81Consultant on traffic and transportplanning, urban and regional planning

Bo Blide TrafikkonsultFregattgatan 12426 74 Västra FrölundaTel 031-29 57 42Fax 031-29 57 42Senior transport consultant

Bohlin & StrömbergManagement Consultants ABBox 6732113 85 StockholmTel 08-522 560 00Fax 08-522 560 01www.bs.seManagement consultants

Complan ABBovägen 23181 43 LidingöTel 08-765 10 98Fax 08-765 10 98Consultant in urban and regionalplanning and development

Conexor Sensus ABEhrenstralsvägen 30168 51 BrommaTel 08-37 11 44Fax 08-87 71 41www.conexor.seConsultant in the field of environmentalprotection

Contrans ABTallboängen 65436 44 AskimTel 031-28 38 35Fax 031-28 48 57Consultants in urban transport

Ecotraffic Research& Development ABBox 5671114 86 StockholmTel 08-614 50 56Fax 08-614 50 08www.ecotraffic.seConsulting company in the transportsector with specialities in enginetechnology, motor fuels, emissions andenvironmental management

EFEM Arkitektkontor ABBrogatan 2413 01 GöteborgTel 031-17 84 60Fax 031-13 32 94Consulting planners and architects withfocus on energy and environment

EnEn Miljökonsult ABToppvägen 36 A177 40 JärfällaTel 08-580 345 06Fax 08-580 345 06Consultant on environmental urbanmanagement and transport

GBT Consulting ABBröstorp713 91 NoraTel 0587-921 01Consultant in various fields of transport(public transport, ambulances, refusecollection)

Granberg ConsultingHalmstad ABKarolinergränd 1302 35 HalmstadTel 035-13 01 75Fax 035-13 01 75Consultant in traffic and transportplanning

Hifab International ABBox 19090104 32 StockholmTel 08-674 66 00Fax 08-673 56 60www.hifab.seConsulting company in the field ofproject management and procurement

Ingemansson Technology ABBox 276401 24 GöteborgTel 031-774 74 00Fax 031-774 74 74www.ingemansson.seConsulting company in the field ofacoustics, noise and vibration

Inregia ABBox 12519102 29 StockholmTel 08-737 44 00 Fax 08-734 44 60Subsidy to Stockholm County Office.Consultants in strategic analysis andforecasting in the fields oftransportation, environmentalassessment and regional economics

KM ABBox 92093170 07 SolnaTel 08-555 230 00Fax 08-555 230 10www.km.seConsulting engineering company

MTC ABBox 223136 23 HaningeTel 08-500 656 00Fax 08-500 283 28www.mtc.seMotor test centre. Subsidiary companyto AB Svensk Bilprovning, specialisingin engine emission testing and studies

Nordic Consulting Group ABVästmannagatan 81113 26 StockholmTel 08-610 02 95Fax 08-32 88 70Consultants in transport planning,administration and human resourcesdevelopment

Scandiaconsult ABBox 4205102 65 StockholmTel 08-615 60 00Fax 08-702 19 13www.scc.se

SL KonsultAB Storstockholms Lokaltrafik120 80 StockholmTel 08-686 19 00Fax 08-686 19 50www.slkonsult.seAnalysing and consulting departmentwithin SL on route network planning,passenger surveys and interviews


Trivector ABAnnedalsvägen 9227 64 LundTel 046-38 65 00Fax 046-38 65 25www.trivector.seConsultants in traffic planning includingtraffic safety, public transport andenvironment

VTI Utveckling ABBox 426581 04 LinköpingTel 013-13 69 39Fax 013-12 61 62www.vti.seConsulting company, subsidiary to VTIPublic Research Institute. Training andeducation regarding traffic safety,environment and public transportmanagement.

Lars ÖrtenholmTrafikplanering ABSvärdsvägen 4B192 73 SollentunaTel 08-754 88 90Fax 08-754 66 66Consultant in traffic studies andinfrastructure design

Manufacturing industry

Scania Sverige AB (Busses)151 87 SödertäljeTel 08-553 810 00Fax 08-553 810 37www.scania.se

Volvo Bussar Sverige AB405 08 GöteborgTel 031-66 01 00Fax 031-66 41 08www.bus.volvo.se

ABB ADtranzÖstra Ringvägen 2721 73 VästeråsTel 021-32 20 00Fax 021-18 25 74www.adtranz.se

Siemens ABJohanneslundsvägen 12-14194 87 Upplands VäsbyTel 08-728 10 00 Fax 08-728 11 28www.siemens.se

SMHI601 76 NorrköpingTel 011-495 80 00Fax 011-495 80 01www.smhi.seGovernmental agency with acommercial consultant division.International consulting on environ-mental impact regarding air quality

Solvicom ABLivbåtsgatan 4426 71 Västra FrölundaTel 031-29 55 10Fax 031-69 44 76www.solvicom.seConsultant in public transportorganisation and management

Stig Egnell ABUrban Management ConsultingBarnhusgatan 13411 11 GöteborgTel 031-15 27 40Consultant in comprehensive urbanplanning and management

Stockholm Konsult ABBox 9611117 91 StockholmTel 08-785 85 00Fax 08-785 85 12www.stockholmkonsult.seConsulting company specialising inurban planning and housing

Strateco Utveckling ABBox 90136 22 HaningeTel 08-745 55 69Focus on natural gas vehicles

SWECO ABBox 34044100 26 StockholmTel 08-695 60 00Fax 08-695 66 10www.sweco.seConsulting company with broadcompetence including the completefield of urban transport

Swedcon KBBox 1269141 26 HuddingeTel 08-772 19 00Fax 08-642 47 87www.swedcon.ccConsultants in private sectordevelopment, urban planning etc

VBB-VIAK ABBox 2203403 14 GöteborgTel 031-62 75 00Fax 031-62 77 22www.vbbviak.sweco.seThe Gothenburg branch specialises inpublic transport and comprehensiveplanning

SwederailKlarabergsviadukten 78105 50 StockholmTel 08-762 37 80Fax 08-10 62 43Consulting company fully backed by theSwedish State Railways (SJ) and theNational Rail Administration (BV)

SweRoadBox 4021171 04 SolnaTel 08-799 79 80Fax 08-29 46 89Subsidiary to Swedish National RoadAdministrationwww.sweroad.se

Thoreb ABGruvgatan 37421 30 Västra FrölundaTel 031-49 69 10Fax 031-47 39 85Company developing IT-based tools forpublic transport information and control

TRANSEK ABSolna Torg 3171 45 SolnaTel 08-735 20 20Fax 08-735 20 30www.transek.seConsultants in transport planning andevaluation

Transportidé i Uppsala ABKälkvägen 10756 47 UppsalaTel 018-59 12 90Fax 018-591 291Consultant in bus transport planningand management


Appendix 4

The Swedish way � examples of innovations in urban transport

transport system for all members of the society,business and industry.

If transport planning is based on a clearlyformulated transport policy, conflicts of interestbetween different objectives will be revealedand priorities can be made in order to achieve aproper balance. The application of a transportpolicy in both general and detailed transportplanning is a standard procedure, although notnecessarily formalised.

Integrated transport and land use planningEach Swedish city is required by law to preparea comprehensive land use plan for the areaunder its jurisdiction. The relationship betweenland use and the transportation system is bytradition a key issue in comprehensive urbanplanning. The general focus on transportationissues as an important element in an efficientand competitive urban area and the strongposition of urban comprehensive planning haveformed the foundation of the development ofconsiderable Swedish know-how in integratedtransport and urban planning. Importantplanning objectives are to minimise travel timeand costs, and to improve accessibility to workand public facilities for all groups of urbanresidents.

During the 1960s there was a great focus onautomobile traffic systems and infrastructure.Today, however, the emphasis is on publictransportation and the need to improve thesituation for cyclists and pedestrians. Road safetyis also very much in focus. Moreover generalattempts are being made to minimise thenegative impact of traffic on the urbanenvironment in favour of sustainabledevelopment.

IntroductionSweden has been active in developing variouskinds of innovative solutions to urban transportproblems. Some examples of Swedish expe-rience, that are also considered to be of interestin an international context and which focus ondeveloping countries, are briefly describedbelow.

Obviously, there is a strong interrelationshipbetween the different issues concerned. Hencethe development of an efficient public transportsystem requires an integrated transport and land-use planning approach and contributes to a betterenvironment. Concerns for non-motorised trafficand traffic management result in improvementsto road safety and the environment.

The continuous development of knowledge andmethods is supported by research activities atuniversities and other public and private re-search institutions.

Transport policyA transport policy document for urban transportdescribes the objectives of urban transport froma number of aspects such as the desirable roleand standard of different means of transport forpeople and goods in relation to transportdemand. Other important elements of a trans-port policy are safety, environment, energyconsumption, regional balance and economy.

Sweden has considerable experience of formu-lating transport policies at the national level,policies which can be broken down and appliedat the local community level. According to aproposal presented to Parliament in 1998, thegeneral objective of the Swedish transportpolicy is to provide a sustainable and efficient


Public transportNew solutions in the field of public transportare being continuously implemented in differentparts of Sweden. One common characteristic isthe holistic approach, from planning andorganisation to procurement and operation.

A comprehensive transport service is providedin each Swedish county by an organisationwhich has the overall responsibility for bothlocal and regional public transport. The servicesare procured in competition which results inworkable private/public sector partnerships.

Efficient route networks and schedules,comfortable buses and attractive bus-stops arebeing developed and alternative environment-friendly fuels are being introduced in severaltowns. Traffic control and real-time systems arebeing developed which will offer information topassengers and give priority to bus and tramservices.

The existence of a Swedish motor industry,including the production of buses, facilitates acomprehensive approach to urban publictransport needs.

Non-motorised transportOne important objective of urban land useplanning is to offer basic services such asschools, shops and recreation facilities andpublic transport connections within reasonablewalking or cycling distance from the home. Insmaller Swedish towns workplaces can also bereached in this way.

Measures have been taken in most Swedishurban areas to facilitate, give priority to andstimulate non-motorised transport and toimprove the safety of unprotected street users.These include separated and differentiatedtraffic systems, car-free zones, traffic signals andspeed limits. Special lanes and road networksfor bicycles and pedestrian-friendly design ofstreets in residential and shopping areas havealso been introduced.

Traffic managementManagement systems for public mass transit

facilities have a long history, but recentdevelopments using modern informationtechnology have provided efficient tools formanaging traffic, for communication and forproviding information to the public. Suchsystems exist and are being developed in bothStockholm and Gothenburg.

Traffic restrictions and zoning regulations, co-ordinated signal systems, giving priority topublic traffic, speed limits etc. are traditionalmethods of traffic management.

The use of the Global Positioning System (GPS)and other modern technologies opens up anumber of new possibilities. It could providedrivers with instructions on how to reach theirdestinations as efficiently as possible. It couldcontrol traffic in general as well as individualvehicles. It could also be used to charge fees tomotorists travelling in certain areas duringcertain periods of time. Research anddevelopment in this field is taking place both inSweden and abroad.

Even simple systems and approaches might beuseful. Information on the traffic situation overthe ordinary radio network could be better thana more sophisticated system. Other examples ofsimple, but useful, measures to improve trafficflow which have been put into practice inSweden include mobile patrols to assist trafficand report traffic problems. Information aboutparking regulations and their enforcement servesthe same purpose.

Traffic safetyA large proportion of road injuries occur inurban areas. Pedestrians and cyclists are themain victims. In Sweden a new approach knownas �Vision Zero� has been introduced. Here theemphasis is on adapting traffic systems to roadusers instead of the reverse. Vision Zero hashad to accept that preventing all accidents isunrealistic. The long-term objective is atransport system which permits human error butdoes not lead to serious injuries.

The problem of road accidents and subsequentfatalities and injuries has long been recognised


in the western world. Road, street and vehicledesign and other devices and regulations whichaffect road safety have been studied andimproved considerably over the years. Todaythe accident rates in Sweden are among thelowest in the world. There is also considerableknow-how on how to improve road safety. Thisincludes engineering, education andenforcement - aimed at the vehicles, individualroad users, road design and environment.Examples are special road networks for bicycles,pedestrian-friendly design of streets inresidential and shopping areas, measures toreduce driving under influence of alcohol andcompulsory vehicle testing.

Environmental concernUrban transport is one of the most importantenvironmental factors of all since so manypeople are exposed to its negative effects.Swedish experience proves that a strategy forenvironmentally sustainable urban transportmust be comprehensive and address all relevantenvironmental issues.

Noise and air-quality control systems, regularvehicle inspections etc. have been introducedfor monitoring the environmental impact oftraffic.

Studies show that transport demand, lorry trafficand fuel consumption can be reduced byplanning, co-ordination and managementmeasures. The introduction of environmentalzones with traffic restrictions for certain vehiclesand/or during certain hours reduces thenegative effect of traffic in sensitive city areas.

An efficient and attractive public transportsystem is given priority in order to reduceprivate traffic while retaining accessibility. Otherimportant elements in the reduction of trafficemissions are the development of new enginesand vehicles and the introduction of alternativefuels, such as ethanol and biogas, incombination with financial incentives. Sweden isplaying a leading role in applying this newtechnique to heavy vehicles such as buses. Newpavement materials have been developed toreduce traffic noise in residential areas.

SWEDISH INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION AGENCY

Department for Infrastructure and Economic Cooperation, INECSE-105 25 Stockholm, SwedenTel: 08-698 50 00. Fax: 08-20 88 64Homepage: http://www.sida.se

ISBN 91-586-7731-3

Urban transport in Swedish development cooperation · issues such as land use planning, municipal...

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