Factors that Contribute to Sustainable Public Open Spaces – the Case of Nairobi

Teckla Muhoro, Prof. Bernard Moirongo and Dr. Bernard Njuguna.

Centre for Urban Studies, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya

+254-724-933820; teckla.muhoro@gmail.com

1

Abstract

In Kenya public open spaces play a significant role in the life, form, and experience of towns and

cities. According to UN-Habitat, urban areas should ideally allocate 45-50% of land to public

space including streets. In Nairobi about 20% of land is allocated to public space; of this about

11.5% is allocated to streets suggesting that existing allocations are inadequate. Nairobi’s

population continues to grow swiftly, and with it the demand for social infrastructure and

services including suitable public open spaces. In view of rapid growth of urban population in

Kenya, existing public open spaces are inadequate (Government of Kenya, 2012). There has

been a decrease in availability of public open space in the city due to factors such as

encroachment, illegal acquisition and haphazard development. On one hand therefore there is a

continued demand for public open spaces while on the other hand some existing spaces seem not

to be used optimally, having low levels of activity, relevance, and attractiveness.

Against this backdrop the research focuses on the urban form of Nairobi, investigating public

open spaces as multi-faceted, integral parts of the urban fabric. The research employs analysis of

historic/archival documentation, observation checklists, and interview schedules to collect data.

It establishes the factors contributing to sustainable public open spaces in the Nairobi Central

Business District area, an important part of the growing city. The research analyzes spatial

changes in urban form as a basis to better understand configurations of open spaces in Nairobi

today in order to make recommendations on its public open spaces for the future.

Key Words: sustainability, public open space, urban.

2

Introduction

While the period 1950-1975 saw population growth fairly evenly divided between the urban and

rural areas of the world, the period since 1975 has seen the balance tipped in favour of urban

growth. In 2008, for the first time in history, over half of the world’s population lived in urban

areas. This is expected to have risen to 70% by 2050. Almost all of this growth will take place in

developing regions. Between 2007 and 2025, the annual urban population increase in developing

regions is expected to be 53million (or 2.27%) and 3million (0.49%) in developed regions. (UN-

Habitat, 2009). As their populations grow, cities in developing countries will require

infrastructure, shelter, social and other services for their populations. Kenya’s average annual

urban population growth rate from 1990 to 2011 was 4%. It is expected to maintain the same

growth rate between 2011 and 2030. (UNICEF, 2011). Despite national and local government

efforts, city development plans have so far not adequately met the needs that such rapid growth

has required.

Until 2012 urban development in Kenya took place without a comprehensive national urban

policy framework. Past sector policies did not adequately address urbanization as an evolving

system with potential to foster development and economic growth, and to integrate urban and

rural development in a mutually beneficial relationship. Historically urban development in the

country has been guided mainly by the Local Government Act CAP 265 (repealed) and the

Physical Planning Act of 1996 (revised in 2010), both of which have proved inadequate in

addressing opportunities and challenges facing the nation’s cities and towns as well as in

managing rapid urban growth. Kenya’s National Urban Development Policy (NUDP) of 2012

recognises that public open spaces play a central role in the formation and consolidation of an

3

urban culture, and that in view of the rapid growth of urban population, existing open public

spaces, including pedestrian walkways and paths, are inadequate. (GOK, 2012). The policy also

responds to the Constitution of Kenya 2010, which calls for devolved governance at the county

level and to urban areas as per the Urban Areas and Cities Act, 2011.

Worldwide, streets are a critical type of public space. According to UN-Habitat, urban areas

should ideally allocate 45-50% of land to public space including streets. Nairobi presently has

about 20% of its land allocated to public space, and about 11.5% of the city’s land is allocated to

streets – this compared to Kigali (15.7%), Singapore (21.6%), and Manhattan (36%). (UN-

Habitat, 2012). Beyond the quantity of public open space, the quality, function and access to

public space is also of importance. Open spaces should be created with multiple, relevant, and

complimentary functions in mind. If not, they will become redundant spaces, environments for

muggings, and bleak vacuums between buildings, as opposed to spaces for ordinary people to

use and enjoy. Indeed, people do not use city open space just because it is there and because city

planners or designers wish they would. (Jacobs, 1961).

The theoretical framework for the research includes the theory of evolution, the concept of rarity,

and the concept of atrophy. Regarding the theory of evolution parallels can be drawn to the

design, form, and function of public open space in that truly alive, well-functional spaces cannot

remain static. Public open spaces that are relevant and responsive to city and neighbourhood

needs and desires naturally survive (are naturally selected). They are continuously modified and

become reproduced carrying on those characteristics that increase their chances of enduring as

public open spaces. The concept of rarity is anchored in the thinking that among a set of

4

ecologically similar species, those that are rare will have a greater extinction risk than those that

are common (Johnson 1998; Matthies et al. 2004). Atrophy is a gradual decline in effectiveness

or vigour of a space due to underuse or neglect. In this case it would be concerned with

advantageous characteristics not being passed down at all or sufficiently. The thinking that

streets and sidewalks are the main public places of a city – its most vital organs (Jacobs, 1961)

also contibutes to the theoretical framework of this research.

Cities and their public spaces are organisms that are birthed and can therefore grow, flourish,

reproduce, and die. According to evolution theory, advantageous characteristics that have varied

and been passed through generations increase the chances of an individual’s or organism’s

survival. Public space that has not embraced or had application of these advantageous

characteristics has a reduced chance of survival and reproduction. Public spaces that exhibit

morbidity would imply that advantageous characteristics have not been embraced or applied

within them. Such spaces therefore have a lower chance of survival (lower survival rate), unless

identified characteristics or features are applied to remedy their situation and restore them to

good health.

Steve Marshall (2009) observes that there is need to understand the city as tempo-spatial order

without deliberate design of the city as a whole. Marshall looks at evolutionary theories and

complexity theory thus defining cities as complex adaptive nested systems. Functional order can

be achieved without overall design but with individual design increments. It is therefore through

evolution that successful adaptations of urban order appear (Marshall, 2009).

5

In terms of sustainability for a developing context such as Kenya the constituent elements of the

sustainability discourse deals with aspects of the economic, social, environmental, and

governance.

Current Situation in Nairobi

Pressures of urbanization, property and infrastructure development, that is, construction of roads

and bridges, have rendered some of Nairobi’s public open spaces inadequate in terms of size,

usefulness, or design. In the city therefore, some such spaces are not attractive and well-suited

for use. It seems that some public open spaces in the Central Business District (CBD) do not

allow for free and easy movement of pedestrians in and around them. Circulation and access

seem to be made difficult by chain barriers, dead-ends in the space, and roads along the edge of

the spaces. There seems to be a low visual and functional interaction between buildings and the

surrounding environment and conflicting land uses within the space. In some instances the use of

open space is replaced with uses that are not for the common good. Orientation, location, and

design of sitting areas seem to also contribute to the level of activity of the space (Figure 1).

6

Figure 1: Seating, Hilton Hotel Circle, Nairobi CBD. Source: Authors.

Some open spaces in the CBD seem to have low use (Figure 2) possibly because of the way in

which they are designed and the activities conducted within them. Many open spaces seem to be

in need of maintenance services. Trancik (1986) suggests that different types of urban spaces

could be either positive or lost. Positive spaces are considered to be those urban spaces that are

serving well their intended functions, lost spaces are those that for a number of reasons do not

contribute positively to their surrounding or users. According to NUDP, social facilities

including public open space are affected by poor maintenance (Figure 3), little appreciation of

the role played by open spaces, parks and recreational facilities in enhancing the quality of urban

life, and inaccessible and inappropriate physical setting. Inadequacy and failure of buildings

adjacent to or defining open spaces to incorporate into their design and use interaction with

people, accessibility, visual appeal, and relevance of function has contributed to open spaces

being underutilized or abandoned.

7

Figure 2: Seemingly low level of activity in open space, Hilton Hotel Circle, Nairobi CBD. Source: Authors

Figure 3: Open space seemingly requires organization and maintenance, Globe Cinema Roundabout, Nairobi CBD. Source: Authors

It is therefore evident that Nairobi has failed to define many of its urban open spaces well, and

efforts in good design, use, and management of open spaces has had limited success. By looking

at evolution of public open spaces, this research therefore establishes the factors that would help

create spaces that are better and more suitable for their users.

Urban Sustainability for Nairobi

As indicated, the population of Nairobi continues to increase rapidly and with it the demand for

provision of social infrastructure and services including suitable public open spaces. In view of

rapid growth of urban population, existing public open spaces are inadequate (GOK, 2012). The

city has experienced a decrease in open space enjoyable by the public due to factors such as

encroachment, illegal acquisition, haphazard implementation of development plans, and

conflicting land use. So, on the one hand there is a demand for publicly accessible open spaces

that are currently inadequate, while on the other hand, it seems that existing open spaces may

have low levels of activity and may not be utilized as much as they possibly could. This research

is therefore significant because given urbanization trends in developing country cities such as

Nairobi, pressures on land availability, land use, and service provision is set to increase. This

research is timely because it provides information that could assist in mitigating or finding a

solution to this practical urban challenge. As pertains to open space, the research also establishes

factors that promote more effective and suitable use of land, which is an important and limited

resource in Nairobi. The research investigates public open spaces in Nairobi. Nairobi is the focus

because as the capital city, it is Kenya’s largest and most populated urban centre that is

experiencing the effects of urbanization acutely.

8

Methods – the Case of Nairobi

Following compilation of an inventory of public open spaces in a defined area of Nairobi CBD

and a reconnaissance research, a pilot research was undertaken ahead of the main research. All

open spaces identified within the research area establish the ‘universe’. From this list the

population of spaces to be studied was drawn and categorized according to the type of spaces.

The research employs maximum variation sampling. Instruments employed were primarily an

observation checklist and photography. Spaces for analysis are public open spaces that have been

designed or developed for particular use(s), are open-air (predominantly free of structures) and

not less than 1 acre in size. Such spaces include parks/ gardens, pedestrian accessible

roundabouts, car parks, bus termini and promenades.

Discussion - Emerging Factors

As indicated the research aims to formulate a design-use framework for public open spaces in

Nairobi. Results from Jeevanjee Gardens, Aga Khan Walk and the Nairobi City Council (NCC)

Sunken Car-park are included.

Jeevanjee Gardens is a park located towards the north end of the CBD covering approx.

17,300sq.m. (length approx. 155m; width approx.112m). It is bound on four sides by roads and

enclosed by a fence. It is surrounded by buildings with mostly commercial activities. The

average building height is 4 floors with building entrances predominantly facing the park. It is

less than 20m from the nearest major PSV stop, and has a level change of about 0.6m from

ground level. Approx. 32% of its area is covered by pathways; the park ground is generally level

with no notable undulation. On the sidewalks surrounding the space, kiosks e.g. sweepstake and

9

telephone credit booths are the predominant commercial activity. No restaurants or eateries are

found on the sidewalks surrounding the park.

In the buildings surrounding and facing the park, commercial activities are predominantly retail

shops and service business; they also include restaurants, eateries, and hotels. Offices, banking

and learning institutions are also found in the buildings. Most buildings surrounding the park are

privately owned. Majority of users of the spaces are men; elderly and children are a minority in

use of the park.

From the research conducted, it appears that permeability is one of the factors that contribute to

making public open spaces in the CBD sustainable. Permeability involves the capacity of

connections to carry people or vehicles. (Marshall, 2005). It also relates to the ability of

vehicular and pedestrian traffic to penetrate to the boundary of a space. Coupled with other

variables, it appears that the greater the ability of pedestrians and vehicles to arrive at the space,

the more likely that the space will be sustainable. For the purpose of this research, a sustainable

space is one that has the ability to keep up its attractiveness, relevance, and vitality while

employing resources in a diligent and optimal manner.

The research indicates that about one third of the park surface area is dedicated to pathways.

Paths enable circulation within the space that can be described as movement using the network

of habitual or potential lines of movement or passage in a space. Paths are described as the most

potent means by which the whole can be ordered (Lynch, 1960). As alluded to by Lynch for the

city, at a smaller scale spaces within the city can also be structured by an organized set of paths.

It seems that the presence of paths within the park contributes to its order, directing and

10

potentially diversifying ways of movement within the space. Circulation can therefore be

considered as a factor contributing to sustainable public open spaces.

The park is surrounded on all sides by a green vegetation fence that is approx. 1.75m high. This

forms a boundary to the space. Boundaries are linear elements not used or considered as paths;

typically continuous, they define the limits between sections of spaces. (Lynch, 1960). Lynch

further observes that the edges that seem strongest are those which are not only visually

prominent, but also continuous in form and impenetrable to cross movement. The research

suggests that the presence of this continuous fence at its height influences the sustainability of

the space. It limits access and cross-movement through the park and decreases visual interaction

between the space and its surroundings. These factors may therefore reduce the attractiveness,

relevance and vitality of the space and its employment in a diligent and optimal manner.

11

Moktar Daddah St Source : Authors

Jeevanjee Gardens Interior. Source :www.nariobiwire.com

Aga Khan Walk is a promenade located towards the south end of the CBD covering approx.

6,900 sq.m. (length approx. 350m; width approx. 20m). Its north and south edges are defined by

12

Jeevanjee Gardens – Surrounding Building Activities/Land Use, Building Height and Ownership Source : Authors

Building on Moktar Daddah/Muindi Mbingu St Source : www.panoramio.com

Buildings on Moktar Daddah St. Source : www.bauzeitgeist.blogspot.com

roads while its other edges are bordered by buildings and open spaces, including the Nairobi City

County (NCC) Sunken Car-park. Although the space is not fenced in, some buildings have a

fence at their ground floor level, facing Aga Khan Walk. It is surrounded by predominantly

office buildings with commercial activities (retail shops and service businesses) being located in

the ground floors of buildings surrounding the space. Banks and financial institutions are also

found surrounding the Walk. The average height of surrounding buildings is 12 floors with

entrances predominantly facing the promenade. It is approx. 30m from the nearest major PSV

stop; the space is at ground level but experiences a drop in height of approx. 1.2m on its north-

south axis. Approx. 31% of the space is covered by grass with the rest of the surface covered

predominantly by concrete block paving. Predominant commercial activities within the space are

services businesses and newspaper/magazine/snack vendors. During the weekday evenings, the

space is predominantly used by men and youth at which time the Walk is less popular with

women and the elderly.

13

Aga Khan Walk  bordering Sunken Car-park Source : www.wordpress.com

Harambee Ave / Aga Khan Walk  Source : www.bauzeitgeist.blogspot.com

Sunken Car-park is a NCC facility located adjacent to Aga Khan Walk (AKW) covering approx.

5,420sq.m. (length approx. 94m; width approx.58m). It is bound on three sides by roads, one of

which is not a through road, terminating in AKW. It is bordered on its east edge by AKW. As

with the Walk, it is surrounded by predominantly office buildings with commercial activities

being located in the ground floors of buildings surrounding the space. Banks and financial

institutions are also found surrounding the Walk and hence the car-park. The average height of

surrounding buildings is 12 floors with entrances predominantly facing the Walk. It is approx.

200m from the nearest major PSV stop; the space is below ground level. Approx 65% of the

space is parking area; approx. 27% is circulation space within the car-park and approx. 8%

encloses tree trunk bases and a disused building. During the weekday evenings, the space is

predominantly used by men with fewer youth and then women users. On weekends users of the

car-park are mostly youth for recreational activities primarily roller-skating.

14

Aga Khan Walk  from south edge looking north Source : www.pichayangu.wordpress.com

Sunken Car-park at the weekend Source : www.ifhp.org

The research indicates that around AKW and the Sunken Car-park building heights range from

4-22 floors, and that building height is one of several elements that influence enclosure of a

space. In gardens, arks, walks, plazas – enclosure does for some reason seem to create a feeling

of security. (Alexander et al, 1977).

Activities in buildings surrounding the spaces were identified according to categories:

commercial (retails shops, businesses, services, hotels, restaurants); residential; institutional

(banks, religious, learning); entertainment/social; and offices. Mixed land use indicates the

diversity of functional land uses such as residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, and

those related to transportation. The results indicate that most buildings around AKW and the

Car-park had predominant commercial activities, especially on the ground floor. Upper floors

were often a mix of commercial and offices or institutional functions. Mixed land use has an

15

Aga Khan Walk and Sunken Car-park – Surrounding Building Activities/Land Use, Building Height and Ownership Source : Authors

important role in achieving sustainable urban form. Mixed-use or heterogeneous zoning allows

compatible land uses to locate in close proximity to one another and thereby decrease the travel

distances between activities (Parker, 1994). Mixing uses ensures that many services are within a

reasonable distance, thus encouraging cycling or walking (Thorne and Filmer-Sankey, 2003).

Regarding density and liveliness/vitality, at 150sq. ft (approx. 14sq.m.) per person, an area is

lively. If there are more than 500 sq. ft. (approx. 47sq.m.) per person, the area begins to be

dead.” (Alexander et al, 1977). It therefore appears that the mixed use or diversity of activities in

buildings surrounding the spaces generates more users of the sidewalks and more pedestrian

traffic. This in turn contributes to the vitality of the space and therefore to its sustainability.

Conclusion

In order to develop a design-use framework for public open spaces based on research of the

urban form of Nairobi, several factors have been proposed as contributing to sustainability of

public open spaces: permeability, circulation, boundary of space, building height and diversity of

space use. These influence the ability of spaces to keep up their attractiveness, relevance and

vitality, employing resources in a diligent and optimal manner. Policies and strategies on

improvement of public spaces in Nairobi CBD for greater sustainability can be informed by this

research. Areas for further research can include study of non-commercial spaces in locations

away from the Central Business District in particular residential neighbourhoods in the city.

16

ReferencesAlexander, C. (1966). A city is not a tree. Design, London: Council of Industrial Design, No. 206.

Bronowski, J. (1973). The Ascent of Man. Little, Brown and Company. Massachusetts, USA and London, England.

Dafe, F. (2009). No Business like Slum Business – the Political Economy of the Continued Existence of Slums – a Case of Nairobi. DESTIN Working Paper Series. LSE, 2009, p. 16.

Darwin, C. (1859). Origin of Species. 22 October 2013. http://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

Government of Kenya. (2012). Kenya National Urban Development Policy Draft. Ministry of Local Government, Nairobi.

Government of Kenya. (2011). The Urban Areas and Cities Act. 15 July 2013. http://www.cickenya.org/index.php/legislation/acts/item/239-the-urban-areas-and-cities-act-2011

Government of Kenya. (2011). Constitution of Kenya. 19 July 2013. http://www.kenyaconstitution.org/

Government of Kenya. (2011). Kenya Vision 2013. 19 July 2013. http://www.vision2030.go.ke

Jacobs, J. (1961). Death and Life of Great American Cities. Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc. New York.

Lynch, K. (1960). Image of the City. MIT Press, Massachusetts, USA and London, England.

Marshall, S. (2008). Cities Design and Evolution. Routledge Publishers. New York.

Moirongo, B. O. (2011). Urban Space Design and Environmental Management of Sustainable Cities. Lambert Academic Publishing. Saarbrucken, Germany.

Mugenda, O., & Mugenda, A. (1999). Research Methods. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Acts Press, Nairobi, Kenya.

Nash, S/Conservation International (2009). Charles Darwin & Evolution (1809-2009). Christ’s College, Cambridge. 17 July 2013. http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk

Simon, M. K. (2011). Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations. Dissertation and scholarly research: Recipes for Success. Seattle, WA, Dissertation Success, LLC. 14 November 2013. www.dissertationrecipes.com

17

Trancik, R. (1986). Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT). (2009). Planning Sustainable Cities - Global Report on Human Settlements 2009. Earthscan UK & USA.

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT). (2010). State of African Cities 2010. UNON Publishing Section, Nairobi.

United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF). (2011). Kenya Statistics - Demographic Indicators. October 2013. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/kenya_statistics.html

18