Urban Hydraulics - un-ihe.org · PDF fileThe Hazen –Williams Equation ... V= flow...

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Urban Hydraulics

Transcript of Urban Hydraulics - un-ihe.org · PDF fileThe Hazen –Williams Equation ... V= flow...

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Urban Hydraulics

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Hydraulics for Urban Storm Drainage 

Learning objectives:

• understanding of basic concepts of fluid flow and how to analyze conduit flows, free surface flows. 

• to analyze, – hydrostatic pressure force on a surface– steady pressurized flows through conduits – force exerted by steady fluid flows– steady open channel flows 

• to derive mathematical formulation for estimation of flood water levels and inundation areas due to floods. 

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What is Fluid?Fluid

– Deforms continuously under the action of anapplied shear stress.

– Both liquids and gases– Conforms to the shape of its container.Liquid retains its own volume, gas takes the fullvolume of the container

Solid– When subjected to a shear stress deformsdepending on the force and attains a finalequilibrium position.

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Continuum concept• Fluid is considered as continuous substance

• The conditions at a point is the average of a very large number of molecules surrounding the point within a radius large compared to the intermolecular distance

• The variation of fluid and flow properties from point to point is considered to be smooth

• Any property at a point (x,y,z) at time t can be  expressed as φ(x,y,z,t). 

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Properties of FluidsDensity – ρ

– Mass per unit volume [M/L3]Bulk Modulus – K

– Ratio between volumetric stress and volumetric strain [ ML‐1T‐2 ]

Viscosity – μ– Property of a fluid that enables it to develop resistance to deformation [ML‐1T‐1 ]

Surface tension– Measured as the force acting across a unit length of line drawn in the surface [MT‐2 ]

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Fluid statics

• All the particles of the fluid are motionless. – No Shear stresses

• Pressure at a point  is the same in all directions

• Pressures at the same level in a continuous expanse of a static fluid are same– e.g. two points at the same elevation in a U‐tube manometer.

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Hydrostatic forces Hydrostatic pressure on the surface increases linearly with depth 

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Hydrostatic forces 

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Steady flow – Properties at a point do not change with time. (at a point (x,y,z) at time t any property  is φ(x,y,z,t) =  φ(x,y,z) only)  

Uniform flow – Properties at a given instant are same in magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid flow. (at a point (x,y,z) at time t any property  is  φ(x,y,z,t) =  φ(t) only)

Types of fluid flows

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Types of fluid flows

Fluid flows

Fluid flows

Steady flows Unsteady flows

Steady  uniformflows

Steady  nonuniform

flows

Unsteady  uniformflows

Unsteady  nonuniform

flows

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Control Volume Concept

Control volume• A definite volume in space with fixed boundaries through which matter is allowed to cross.

• The effect of fluid flow on its boundaries are of more interest

• The conservation laws are applied to  control volumes to describe changes of flow properties

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Reynolds Transport Equation

CVSystem boundary

System boundary  & CV

(a) Control volume and system  at t

(b) Control volume and system  at

t =t +δt

At t,

tCtS NN ,,

At t + Δt,

outinttSttC NNNN ,,,

outinSC NN

dtdN

dtdN

Reynolds Transport Equation 

N is an extensive property

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Mass Continuity EquationLet N  be the mass  m .Since the mass in the system is constant,

dtdmCinm outm 0

dtdmS

outinC mm

dtdm

For steady flow

outin mm

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Unsteady flow continuity equation:

Mass Continuity Equation

Q

CV

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Force‐Momentum Equation

Let N  be the linear momentum of fluid  in X‐ direction,MX. 

dtdM XCXinM

XSF

XoutM dtdMF XS

XS

inXoutXXC

XS MMdt

dMF

For Steady flow

inXoutXXS MMF

From Newton’s Second law

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Steady flowSpeed of incoming jet = v1Speed of outgoing jet = v2Diameter of jet = D

Force on the vane?

Continuity Equation:

Force Momentum Equation‐ Impact force on a vane

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Application of Force Momentum  Equation:

In X‐direction:

In Y‐direction:

Force Momentum Equation‐ Impact force on a vane

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Energy Equation Let N be the total energy (E)

EnergyInternalinchangenoflowadiabaticsteadyFor

mEdtWd

dtdQ

dtdE

EEdt

dEdt

dE

SSS

outinSC

,,gz)+/2V+u( 2

dtdEC

dtWd S

inE outE

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Bernoulli’s Equation When there is no shaft work, viscous work, shear work, electromagnetic work, change in internal energy 

Application of Bernoulli’s Equation limits tosteady, inviscid, incompressible flow along a stream line.

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Bernoulli’s Equation 

• The total head which is the energy per unit         weight of the fluid is constant along a streamline  in a steady, incompressible, inviscid fluid flow

H (Total Head) = p/ρ (pressure head) + V2/2(velocity head)+ gz (elevation head) 

= constant

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H z

2

2V

g

Elevation datum

gp

Constant2

2

zg

VgpH

Bernoulli’s Equation 

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Steady incompressible  flow    through a bend

Force on the bend?

Continuity equation:

Bernoulli equation:

Force Momentum Equation‐ Force on a bend

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In the vertical direction ,  force is RzNo change in momentum Force Momentum Equation in Z‐direction,

Force Momentum Equation‐ Force on a bend

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Forces in x‐direction:

Rate of change of Momentum in x‐direction:

Force‐momentum equation in x‐direction:

Force Momentum Equation‐ Force on a bend

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Laminar and turbulent flows

In laminar flow• Fluid particles move in layers, with one layer sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer.

• Random fluctuations in particle velocities are damped by the viscous forces and orderly flow is maintained. 

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Laminar and turbulent flows

In turbulent flow,• Fluid particles deviate to move from orderly manner and viscous shear stresses are not sufficient to eliminate the random fluctuations.

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• Reynolds Number  (Re = ρvℓ) / µ )‐ proportional to ratio of forces 

inertia force/viscous force‐ criterion to determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent

‐ when the Reynolds Number is below a critical value of [( ρvD) / µ]= 2000, pipe flow is normally laminar.

Laminar and turbulent flows

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• In turbulent flows, compared to laminar flow,‐ mixing of fluid (transfer of momentum) results in                

more even velocity profile at a pipe section‐ Wall shear stress  is greater‐ Energy loss rate is higher‐ Pipe roughness is also an important factor

Laminar and turbulent flows

Laminar

Shear stress = du/dy

Turbulentw w

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Pressurized flow in conduits 

• Flow is driven by the total head difference at the two ends of the conduit

• Head loss between two sections is equal to difference in total head at the sections

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Pressurized flow in conduits 

• Total headline or total energy grade line (EGL) referred to the datum 

• Hydraulic grade line (HGL) or piezometric head line referred to the datum 

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Friction losses in pipe flows

Friction loss • depends on geometric properties, fluid properties and flow properties 

• semi‐empirical or empirical equations established based on experimental investigations to estimate friction loss– Darcy‐Weisbach equation – Hazen–Williams equation– Manning’s equation– Chezy’s equation. 

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The Darcy‐Weisbach equation 

Where,hL = head loss due to friction f = f(Re, ε/D) is the friction factorRe = ρvD/µε/D = relative roughness ε = equivalent sand grain roughness of the pipe L = pipe length D = pipe diameter V = cross-sectionally averaged velocity of the flowg = gravitational acceleration

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• For Re < 2,000, where the flow is laminar flow,  fdepends only on the Re.    f = 64/Re

• For large Re where the flow is fully turbulent fdepends only on the relative roughness of the pipe. 

• In the transitional region between laminar and fully turbulent flow, f depends on both Re and relative roughness. 

The Darcy‐Weisbach equation 

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The Darcy‐Weisbach equation Moody diagram

103 2(10 )3 4 6 81042(10 )4 4 6 8105 2(10 )5 4 6 8 106 2(10 )6 4 6 8 107 2(10 )7 4 6 8 108

0.00005

0.0002

0.00040.00060.001

0.002

0.006

0.004

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.05

4 610.60.40.20.1 2 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 10,000

0.008

0.009

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.080.09

0.10

Values of (VD) for water at 60 F [Diameter (D) in in., Velocity (V) in ft/sec]0

Rel

ativ

e ro

ughn

ess,

/De

Reynolds number, Re = VD n

Smooth pipes

e, ft.Riveted steel 0.003 - 0.03 0.9 - 9Concrete 0.001 - 0.01 0.3 - 3Wood stave 0.0006 - 0.003 0.18 - 0.9Cast iron 0.00085 0.25Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15Asphal ted cas t iron 0.0004 0.12Steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.045Drawn Tubing 0.000005 0.0015

e, mm.

Fric

ti on

fact

o r, f

=

h L

VD

2

g

L2

Laminar flow, f = 64Re

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The Hazen –Williams Equation

Where V = flow velocity  Cf = a unit conversion factor

(0.849 for SI units)Ch = Hazen –Williams resistance coefficient R = hydraulic radius  Sf = Energy gradient 

V = Cf Ch R0.63 Sf0.54• Primarily used for water distribution design

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Minor losses • energy losses at fittings in pipelines, entrance and exits of reservoirs/man holes, pipe expansion and contractions, changes in pipe alignment

• Head loss at a fitting is expressed as

Where V = velocity at the downstreamK = loss coefficient 

gVKhL 2

2

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Loss coefficients

Fitting  KFlanged 90o elbow 0.22‐0.31

Globe valve fully open 10

Flange T‐joint Line flowBranch flow

0.140.69

Sudden expansion‐ referred to upstream velocity  head. 

D1 and D2 : upstream and downstream velocities respectively

,

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Pipe Flow1

2Z2 = 130 m

150 m

10m

75 m

f = .035

Oil flows from the upper reservoir to lower reservoir  through a    pipe with the diameter of 150mm . If the velocity  in the pipe is 1.8m/s , find the elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir?

Kexit=1

Oil density = 9.0 kN/m3

Loss Coefficients :  Kbend = 0.19,  Kentrance = 0.5,  Kexit = 1

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Pipe Flow

1

2Z2 = 130 m

150 m

10 m

75 m

Z1 = ?

Kexit=1

• Head balance   between (1) and (2):

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 9.06m + Hminor

Hminor= 2KbendV2/2g + KentV2/2g + KoutV2/2g

• From Loss Coefficients :  Kbend = 0.19    Kentrance = 0.5     Kout = 1

Hminor = (0.19x2 + 0.5 + 1) * (1.82/2*9.8)   = 0.31 m

Datum 

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Pipe Flow1

2Z2 = 130 m

150 m

10 m

75 m

Z1 = ?

Kout=1

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmajor + Hminor

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 9.06m + 0.31m

Z1 = 139.4 meters

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Types of open channel  flows

Open Channel Flow

Steady uniform Flow

Steady Flow

Unsteady Flow

Unsteady nonuniform 

Flow

Unsteady uniform Flow

Steady nonuniform 

Flow

Gradually Varied Flow

Rapidly Varied Flow

Rapidly Varied Flow

Gradually Varied Flow

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Open channel geometry factors

T

A

d

P Hydraulic radius,  R = A/PHydraulic depth, Dh = A/T

A = cross‐sectional area  P = wetted perimeterT = top width 

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Pressure Variation in Open Channel Flow

• Force‐Momentum Equation in the direction perpendicular to the flow,

Assumption: the acceleration of flow in the direction is negligible

. cos 0 cos

• In an open channel flow with small bottom slope and no flow   acceleration in the direction perpendicular to the flow,

the pressure distribution is hydrostatic.

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Energy Relationships 

gV

dZH2

cos2

LhgVdZ

gVdZ

2cos

2cos

222

22

211

11

Where,Z = channel bottom elevationd = depth of flow normal to the 

channel bottomθ = channel slope angle, So = sin θα = a velocity distribution        coefficient  defined by 

A = cross sectional areaV = average flow velocity

13

3

Total Head

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Specific Energy• Specific energy, E is the energy head relative to channel bottom elevation

2

22

22 gAQy

gVyE

EEmin = EC

y = yc

y

y

A AT

Alternate depths

Critical depth

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Specific Energy

22

22

221

21

1 22 gyqy

gyqyE zEE 21

A) Channel width decreases, discharge per unit  width

q2 q1

B) Channel bed level decreases    E2 E1

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Critical Flow DepthE becomes minimum at the critical flow Critical depth yc

1

011

3

2

3

22

gATQ

gATQ

dydA

gAQ

dydE

1; No., Froude2/1

3

2

C

h

FrgDV

gATQFr

22

2

minch

cc

c

Dy

gV

yE

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Rectangular channelT= B,  A = B.y and  Dh = y

At critical flow, 

q = discharge per unit width

gyV

gABQFr

2/1

3

2

32

3 2

2

gq

gBQyc

22

2

minc

cc

cyy

gVyE

2

22

22 gyqy

gVyE

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Uniform Flow

motivating forces = resistive forces

τ = γRnS0

S f = S0

W sinθ  = γALS0

yn = Depth is called normal depth or uniform depth

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Flow Resistance

Constitutive relationships for uniform flow• The Manning Equation (for metric units)

V = cross‐sectional averaged flow velocityn = Manning’s roughness coefficient

• The Chezy Equation

C = Chezy’s Constant (m0.5/s)

2/13/21on SR

nV

fRSCV

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Momentum forces

v2

v1

P1

P2

W

Wsin

Rf

L

f21s RPsinWPF

)vv(qRsinW2y

2y

12f

22

21

1̅ 1

2

12̅ 2

2

2 sin

For steady flow

2

v1

P1

P2

W

Rf

L

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The hydraulic jump is a phenomenon that occurs when the  flow in an open channel changes abruptly from supercritical flow to subcritical flow, with a considerable loss of energy

Hydraulic jump

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Hydraulic jump

12

2

2

1

22

2

2

2

2

1 2

12 1 2

Continuity equation,1 1 2 2

2

1

12 1 8Fr12 1

1

2

12 1 8Fr22 1

Head loss at the hydraulic jump,

1 2 1 22 1

3

4 1 2

Momentum equation neglecting friction force,

If y1 and y2 are conjugate depths

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Gradually varied flow

‐ occurs in an open channel reach when the motivating force and the resistance forces are not balanced

• Hydrostatic pressures can be assumed to exist in the flow and uniform flow,

2

2

2gAQyZEZH

2

2

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12

3  

1 Fr2

/

/

0

1 Fr2

Gradually varied flow

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Computation of gradually varied flow profiles

∆ 1 112

2

∆ 2 222

2

∆ 2 1

The direct-step method• a simple method applicable to prismatic channels

E1 and E2 are specific energy at sections 1 and 2  respectively

In the computations Sf is calculated for depths y1 and y2 and theaverage of two values are taken in the equation.

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Classification of Flow Profiles

Flow profiles are classified based on the relative position of normal depth, y.

• If y  ≥ yc ‐ hydraulically mild  channel slope. (M curve) • If y  = yc ‐ critical slope. (C curve  •If y  ≤  yc ‐ hydraulically steep slope. (S curve) 

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Flood hydraulics

• Flood is an unsteady flow phenomenon and is due to unusual discharge 

• Based on different approximations to represent hydrological processes involved  Various methods to carry out flood analysis

• Selection of the method is justified by the objective of the analysis, availability of data and resources. 

• Simple lumped methods, or hydrologic models, based on the principle of conservation of mass fails to consider the influence of downstream flow conditions that control the flow in subcritical flow conditions

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Hydraulic models

• Physically‐based distributed models (or Hydraulic models) are based on the simultaneous solution of continuity equation and approximated momentum equations. 

• Different models of varying complexities developed with different approximations used to simplify the momentum equations

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Channel routing

A flood discharge at moderate floods may be carried  within the stream cross section and designated flood plain. In this case, the analysis is carried out to determine the behavior of flood hydrograph

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River routing ‐Muskingum method

Volume stored in channel reach

K  =  proportionality coefficient  

S  =  travel time through the reachX  = a dimensionless weighting factor (0.1  ‐ 0.5)I   =  inflow discharge into the reach (m3/s)Q =  outflow discharge from the reach (m3/s)

Continuity equation to the reach

])1([ QXXIKS

tQQtIISS

22

212112

QCICICQ 211202

tXKKXtC

5.0)1(

5.00

tXKtKXC

5.0)1(5.01

tXKtXKC

5.0)1(5.0)1(2

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• Muskingum coefficients

River routing ‐ Muskingum-Cunge method

0

T = top width,   Δx = distance step equal to C. Δt

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Hydraulics channel routing models

• Discharge and water levels are calculated simultaneously by the application of laws of mass and momentum conservation

One‐dimensional modelsSaint Venant equations,

Continuity Eqn

0

tA

xQ

Momentum Eqn

02

fgASxHgA

AQ

xtQ

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• St Venant Eqns are approximated to

Continuity Eqn 0

tA

xQ

Momentum Eqn 0SS f

• Velocity c, called kinematic wave celerity, along the channel dy

dQTdA

dQc 1.

• Kinematic wave model is applicable when the slope dominates in the momentum equation

• The flood peak discharge will move downstream at a velocity c with no attenuation. 

Kinematic wave model

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• St Venant Eqns are approximated to

The diffusion wave model is applied when the slopes are not large  and when backwater effect is dominant

Continuity Eqn

0

tA

xQ

Momentum Eqn

0

fSx

H

Diffusion wave model

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Two‐dimensional hydraulic models

• Two‐dimensional models are based on– Continuity equation– Two momentum equations

• Above equations are depth averaged  to derive governing equations of 2‐D models– e.g. Shallow Water Equations

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Solution of hydraulic models

• Numerical methods are used to solve the governing equations of hydraulic models as analytic methods are not able to solve them.

• Numerical methods need to solve the equations for both space and time

• Equations are discretized in the 2‐D domain using  finite volume method, finite element method, etc.