Urban development induced displacement creating secure or vulnerable urban communities through relocation of underserved settlers- A study of select forced relocated settlements in Colombo, Sri Lanka

Nishara Fernando, Department of SociologyUniversity of Colombo

Outline • Introduction and background

• Key Research concepts : Forced relocation and Vulnerability

• Analytical Framework

• Salient features of relocation projects

• People centered relocation policy guide lines

• “Capital intensive, high technology, large scale projects convert farmlands, forests, fishing grounds and underserved settlements into highways, urban renewal, industrial complexes, hotels all in the name of regional and national development. These projects have all too often left local people permanently displaced, disempowered and destitute” (Oliver Smith, 2009)

• Resettlement/relocation has been so poorly planned, designed, inadequately financed, incompletely implemented and administered that these projects generally end up being “DEVELOPPMENT DISASTERS” (Oliver Smith, 2009).

“Accountability politics” to ensure socially and environmentally responsible development in order to benefit less powerful. Urban renewal projects often are carried out to prepare areas for private development by forcedly relocating people into new settlements. However, urban relocation is defined as housing instead of economic, social and cultural reconstruction.

Urban relocation is not just picking up urban communities and settling them down in somewhere else.

Key Research Concepts: Forced Relocation and Social Vulnerability

Forced Relocation “Persons are forced to leave their homes or home lands for whatever reason and have been allocated specific areas for them to settle down in their own country with at least minimum resources and services to re-establish their lives” (Turton, 2006:13-14).

Forced relocation is primarily a political phenomenon.

Like refugees, forced resettlers belong to the poorest and politically most marginal members of society and may end up alienated from their government (Turton, 2006).

Conceptual Perspectives on Forced Relocation

1. Thayer Scudder’s (2005) conceptual model on stress and settlement process.

This is based on the concept of stress to analyse the process of resettlement based on four distinct stages.

• (Stage One) Planning and Recruitment

• (Stage Two) Coping and Adjustment.

• (Stage Three) Community Formation and Economic Development

• (Stage Four) Handing Over and Incorporation

Strengths and Weaknesses of Scudder’s Stress and Resettlement Process

• It sheds more light on the complex relationship that exists between economic, social and psychological dimensions of stress (Sorensen, 1996).

• No other existing resettlement model can replace this, as it has been refined over the last few decades based on empirical research, discussions and debates (Oliver-Smith, 1991).

• A key weakness is that this framework does not adequately deal with variations other than generalizations (Sorensen, 1996).

• It deals with the usefulness of the stages that automatically follow one another. It does not clearly explain for what reason resettlers transit from one stage to another (Koenig, 2002).

Michael Cernea’s Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction Model for Resettling Displaced Populations (IRR model)

• Applicability of this model as a planning and monitoring tool.• Displaced people have a risk of economic, social and cultural

impoverishment when they settle in new locations.

The main weakness of the IRR model, argued by Scudder (2005) is that it does not deal with the behaviour of resettlers as the key actors in resettlement.

Scudder stresses the importance of combining these two models for a more successful process of resettling communities & settlements.

Eight important possible risks which influence one another, are discussed in this model. They are:

Landlessness

Joblessness

Homelessness

Marginalization

Food Insecurity

Increased Morbidity and Mortality

Loss of Access to Common Property Resources

Social Disarticulation (Cernea, 2000).

Two Conceptual Frameworks to Study Vulnerability

Source: Bohle, 2001:4

Source: Ashley, C & Carney, D, 1999:47

Bohle’s Conceptual Model on Double Structure of Vulnerability

Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

Analytical Framework of the Study

ContextHousehold

AssetsActions Outcomes

External Shocks

Forced Relocation

External Intervention

Government Level Ministries,Provincial & Local councilsInternational/National level NGOsPrivate Business Organizations etc.

• Physical• Natural• Human• Social• Financial

Liv elihoodStrategies

•Coping•Enhancement

Liv elihoodOutcomes

Security or

Vulnerability

Internal Side (At Household Level)

Direct Impact

Interlinkages

Risks & Stresses

•Income related

•Housing and infrastructure

•Fragmented relationships

•

Direct Intervention

Direct Feedback

Policy

Legislation

Institutions

Before

Stages of Relocation

Soon After (1-2 years) Some time After (2-5 Years) Now

Draft: Fernando, 2015.

Key points of Involuntary Resettlement Policy

Avoidance of involuntary resettlement wherever feasible, and minimizing of resettlement where population displacement is unavoidable by exploring all viable project options

Compensation at replacement cost (Replacement cost of an affected asset is equivalent to the amount required to replace the asset in its existing condition) Assistance to the affected people for relocation Assistance to the affected people to improve their living standards, capacity for income generation, and production levels, or at least to restore to their former levels Participation of all stakeholders Consultations with project affected persons at every stage Grievance redress mechanisms for project affected persons

Source: Involuntary resettlement policies/ guidelines of the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and JBIC

Key principles of the Sri Lanka National Involuntary Resettlement Policy

According to the National Involuntary Resettlement Policy, people adversely affected by development projects should be(a) Fully and promptly compensated, (b) successfully resettled, and, (c) provided assistance to:

(i) Re-establish their livelihoods,(ii) Deal with the psychological, cultural, social and other stresses caused by compulsory land acquisition,(iii) Make them aware of processes available for the redress of grievances that are easily accessible and immediately responsive, and,(iv) Have in place a consultative, transparent and accountable involuntary resettlement process with a time frame agreed to by the project executing agency and the affected people.

SETTLEMENT INFORMATION TOTAL

No. of Under-Served Settlements (USS)

1,735

No. of Households 77,957

Population 470,542

Extent of Under-Served Settlements in Acres

970

Source: Sevanatha, 2012

Underserved and relocated settlements

Colombo City Flood Prevention and Human Environment Development Project (FPHEP)

• The illegal inhabitants on the embankments of several canals were relocated into seven locations :Sri Maha Vihara Mawatha, Badowita, Bathiya Mawatha, Obeysekarapura, Dematagoda Armaya Road, Kadirana Waththa and Wadugoda Waththa) situated in or around the immediate suburbs of the Colombo Municipal Council area with the intention of doing minimum harm to their existing social relationships and livelihood activities.

• The government took steps to relocate the shanty dwellers living on the embankments of canals and slum settlements.

• They were relocated in the vicinity of some of the selected canal banks in and around the Colombo Municipal Council area.

• The intention was to repair and maintain the canals in order to control flooding to improve the economic and social status of the poor urban inhabitants.

• The Japanese government provided funding for this project and it was initiated by the National Housing Development Authority together with the Land Reclamation and Development Board.

Table –1 Number of Housing Units Allocated for Each Stage by Extent of Land for Each Stage

Stage –1 Stage-2 Stage-3 Stage-4

Number of plots 136 364 284 93

Extent of land allocated 4 acres 14 acres 11 acres 6 acres

Source: Land Reclamation and Development Board

• Relocatees received 1-2 perches of land with Rs. 20,000 given in four installments (Rs, 4,000,6000,4000 and 6000) as an interest free loan to build their houses.

• Foundation was constructed by the National Housing Development Authority. Home owner driven construction.

• Transitory shelters were provided with common water and toilet facilities in the relocation site.

• NGO’s did not act as intermediaries

There are four different types of settlers living in Badowita:

1. Old settlers – families who resided in the area before the resettlement project commenced.2. Relocatees – families relocated under FPHEP project.3. New settlers – families who either purchased plots of land from the relocatees or who have received them from various politicians. 4. Unauthorized settlers – Second or third generation of relocated families who have sold their plots to new settlers and others who do not have a single plot of legal land.

Lunawa Environmental Improvement and Community Development Project (LEI & CDP)

• An extension to the Colombo Flood Control and Environmental Improvement Project (GCFC & EIP) funded by Japan Bank for International Cooperation

The specific objectives of the project included

• Upgrading the living conditions of the communities identified for resettlement (870 households) and under-served communities in the inundated area and communities along new canal and Lake Front.

• The focus is on human settlements & community development of user communities in the area leading to and generating a sustainable area based urban development process without floods.

Affected households were provided three options under the project:

•1) Settled in 4 resettlement sites (Lake View Garden, Hike Terrace and River Side Garden and Green view ) prepared by the project. A relocated household receive Rs. 424,000.•All basic infrastructures such as, access roads, water supply, electricity and sewerage facilities have been provided in resettlement sites.•2) Settled in lands purchased by project affected persons (self-relocation-Rs. 619,000)•3) Settled in the original site after regularizing the plots (on-site resettlement) (UN-HABITAT, 2009).

Salient features of the Lunawa Environmental Improvement & Community Development Project Relocation Strategy

• Redefining of project affected persons according to the National Involuntary Resettlement Policy

• Active participation of project affected persons (participatory resettlement)

• Strong ‘partnership” among stakeholders

• Effective communication linkages between project affected persons and the project through the Community Information Centre

• Determining entitlement with project affected persons through consultation

• Linking up with banks for paying entitlements

• Ensuring security of tenure

• Inclusions of host communities in the project

• NGOs to act as intermediaries

Sustainable Township Program of the Ministry of housing and Urban development

Voluntary relocation of slum and shanty dwellers into six compact townships instead of forced eviction

A modern apartment instead of a sub-standard abode

Participatory decision making instead of top-down decision making

Drawing urban poor into the mainstream of the urban economy instead of welfare

Full ownership of the apartment instead of conditional tenureship

Real Estate Exchange (PVT) (REEL) was formed to implement the program

Sahaspura • 13 storied high rise housing

complex• 671 apartments in the range of 300

to 600 square feet• Pre-school and a day care centres• Rs. 25,000 deposit as the

maintenance fee for the apartment• A Management Board is responsible

for maintenance• A deed and the ownership of the

apartment at the stage of occupation

• Relocatees need to surrender the land previously occupied

Issues and problems

The size of the population resettled has serious implications for the management of the scheme, provision of public amenities, social organizations and intra community relationships.

Inadequate space and Garbage disposal.

Lack of public education on how to live in a multi-story apartment complex

Low rise housing complexes each comprising between hundred to two hundred units seems to be the most appropriate way to accommodate disadvantaged or underserved communities in the city (Hettige et.al. 2004).

Colombo Urban Renewal Project : Relocation of Underserved Settlements –Ministry of Defense and Urban Development (since 2011)

Planned to relocate 70,000 households within the next six years (first three years 30,000 and the rest in the next three years)

Ten relocation sites

Forcedly Relocated household will get 450 square feet apartment consist of two bed rooms, a living room and a kitchen with individual water and electricity facilities

Colombo Urban Renewal Project : Relocation of Underserved Settlements

• No active participation of relocatees into the construction process

• Relocatees will get the information on building contractors, basic features of a housing unit and other infrastructure facilities available to them

• Have constructed a social management plan

• Get an apartment close to their previous settlement

• No decision on self relocation (whether to give only a plot of land or house those who want to settle outside of the city of

Colombo

• Monitor the progress of relocatees at least five years after relocation

Implementation of People Centered Relocation Policy Guidelines to build resilient communities

Prior to Relocation -Vulnerability Reduction and Early Warning

• It is vital to minimize the number of families going to be relocated by avoiding or minimizing the adverse impacts of causes of displacement, through developing proper early warning systems to prevent natural hazard related displacement and relocation.

– Well-conceived evacuation plans and programs should be in place

– Efficient process should be evolved in pertaining to utilizing local resources to manage displacement and temporary internal migration.

Data and Information Base

• A resource database would facilitate efficient relocation process that results in minimum harm to the concerned people, natural resources and budgetary concerns.

• Socio-economic database: Affected people need to be relocated preferably close to the location of original settlement so that the affected people will continue to have access to social networks, access to services and common property resources which would minimize the adverse impacts on their lives and the way of life.

• Socio-economic database on native communities: It is important to have such information base on the native community in order to minimize conflicts, competition and to enhance compatibility.

• Public Information and Consultation The government should provide relevant information to the prospective relocatees and the general public about vulnerabilities, and opportunities for future development and have continuous consultation so that public concerns are lobbied at respective levels.

• Regular public information and consultations would complement the databases mentioned above.

Compensating Affected Communities • It is essential to assist the affected

people to submit their claims for compensation due to acquisition of their land, structures, perennial crops and their economic losses. This can be implemented by either by implementing agency or with the assistance of non-governmental organizations.

Standardization: Nationally accepted standards should be adopted when constructing temporary, transitional and permanent shelters.

Participation: Participation of the prospective relocates, both men and women should be a prerequisite as it is an essential provision for the prospective occupants of the house to make decisions on site selection, design, material, labor etc.

Infrastructure: If the affected persons are to be relocated into a donor built settlement, it is

important to obtain consent for housing structures, construction materials on one hand

and should inform common infrastructure facilities receive to irrespective of whether houses are built by donors or by affected

families using the monetary compensation that they get from the organization on the other

hand.

• Land titles: Land loss should be replaced by new land of comparable value. Deeds should be granted promptly provided for new land. In the absence of land, cash compensation should be paid for all affected persons.

• Information: Prospective relocates informed through a language that they can understand about the relocation process from the beginning would enhance the overall outcome of the projects.

• Funding: Proper financing for sound relocation is important. Under financed relocation process will adversely affect those relocates.

• Restoration of livelihoods: Any disruption to family and individual income on one hand and increased family expenses (transportation, electricity, gas etc.) that could occur due to relocation should be considered.

• Vulnerable groups: Attention should particularly be given to displaced women, children, elderly and people with special needs.

• Reviewing of socio-economic, demographic and other relevant data from each and every member of the relocated families are important and needs to be updated regularly (at least annually) until five years after relocation.

Recommendations Planning needs to embrace all three categories of rights –

livelihoods, housing and improved living conditions.

Urban Development induced relocation projects should include resettlement specialist including urban planners and social analysts

Planned urban development should be seen as an investment in the displaced and relocated, rather than as a transfer payment to them

Planning for urban development and relocation should be participatory (although this is uncommon)

Comprehensive urban planning is needed not only to address the needs of heterogeneous displaced populations but also to coordinate and take advantage of many organizations present

(2012) - Forced relocation after the Indian Ocean tsunami, 2004: Case study of vulnerable populations in three relocation settlements in Galle, Sri Lanka. Graduate Research Series PhD dissertation. Publication series of UNU-EHS Volume 6. Institute of Human Security and Environment, United Nations University, Bonn (ISBN 978-3-939923-72-5)

(2014)- Bridging the missing gap: people centered policy guidelines to minimize relocation failures: Case of Sri Lanka. Summer School Publication, Universtiy of Cologne, Germany.

(2013)- Dynamics of vulnerability: Relocation in the context of natural hazards and disasters. Joern Birkmann,Matthias Garschagen and Nishara Fernando. In Measuring vulnerability to Natural Hazards edited by Joern Birkmann. UNU Press publication, New York, Tokyo. ISBN-13: 978-92-808-1202-2.

(2010) - Migration and Natural Hazards: Is relocation a secondary disaster or an opportunity for vulnerability reduction. Nishara Fernando, Joern Birkmann and Koko Warner. In: Afifi, T & Jager, J (eds) “Environment, Forced migration and Vulnerability. Springer, Heidelberg.

(2006)- Measuring Vulnerability in Sri Lanka at the local level with Birkmann, Joern; Fernando, Nishara Hettige, Siri: in: Birkmann, Joern (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Hazards of Natural Origin - Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, UNU-Press publication, New York, Tokyo (ISBN 92-808-1135-5).

(2014)- Tsunami Risk Reduction- Are we better prepared today that in 2014 Finn Løvholt, Neysa J. Setiadi, Joern Birkmann, Carl B. Harbitz, Claudia Bach, Nishara Fernando and Farrokh Nadim. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 10(2014) 127-142.

(2010) - Extreme events and disasters: a window of opportunity for change? Analysis of organizational, institutional and political changes, formal and informal responses after mega-disasters. J. Birkmann ,P. Buckle, J. Jaeger , M. Pelling, N. Setiadi, M. Garschagen, N. Fernando and J. Kropp. Natural Hazards ODI 0.1007/s11069-008-9319-2. 55: 637-655. (online publication 13th December, 2008).

(2008) -Measuring Revealed and Emergent Vulnerabilities of Coastal Communities to Tsunami in Sri Lanka – A Prerequisite for Sustainable Reconstruction, Birkmann, Joern and Nishara Fernando. In: Disasters, Vol, 32, Issue, pp 82-105.

(2013)- Relocating the Displaced: Strategies for Sustainable Relocation. Nishara Fernando and Aistha Punchihewa. Published by Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Sri Lanka. (ISBN 978-955-1282-05-9).

(2011) - Lessons Learnt from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Nishara Fernando and Asitha Punchihewa. Published as a special case study under Migration and Environmental Change project by Government Office for Science, United Kingdom. (http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/bispartners/foresight/docs/migration/case-studies/11-1157-cs2-lessons-learnt-indian-ocean-tsunami.pdf)

Sri Lanka Daily Mirror English Newspaper Cartoon on 7th October, 2014

Day after the international day to celebrate international settlement day

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