Upland Rice Cultivation practices

Prof. Waghmode B.R. Assistant Professor (Agronomy), K.K. Wagh College of Agril, Nashik

M.Sc. (Agri.), Agronomy (UAS, Dharwad), Karnataka, ARS-NET (2010), Agronomy, A.S.R.B,

New Delhi,

Upland Rice Cultivation practices

B.N :- Oryza Sativa L.

Family :- Gramineae

Origin:- South-East Asia or India and Burma

Area and Distribution:-

a. The rice is widely cultivated in India, China, Thailand, USA, Egypt and Indonesia.

b. Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area followed by China and

Indonesia.

c. In respect of production, India ranks second next to China.

d. In regards to average yield per ha. Egypt ranks first followed by USA.

e. In India rice is grown in almost all the states viz., A.P., Bihar, U.P., M.P., M.H., W.B. and

Punjab.

f. Among the states W.B. and U.P. have the highest rice production.

g. Average yield per ha. Is highest in Punjab.

Economic importance or Uses:-

i. Rice is the staple food crop next to Wheat, Sorghum and Maize.

ii. It is the staple food of most of the people of South-East Asia.

iii. In India, rice is the most important and extensively grown as food crop.

iv. Rice occupies a pivotal place in Indian Agriculture and is the staple food for more than

70% of population.

v. Rice is primarily a high energy crop or high calorie food.

vi. It contains less protein than wheat.

vii. The protein content of milled rice is usually 6-7%.

viii. Rice grain contains as much ‘B’ group vitamins as wheat.

ix. Rice bran is used as cattle and poultry feed.



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x. Rice hulls can be used in manufacturing of insulation materials, cement, carboard and as

a litter in poultry keeping.

xi. Rice straw can be used as cattle feed as well as litter during winter.

Ecology (Soil and Climate):-

Soil:-

i. Soils having good water retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic

matter are ideal for upland rice cultivation.

ii. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are most suited for upland rice cultivation.

iii. Soil should high water holding capacity.

iv. Water logging soils are not suitable for upland rice.

v. Soil should be rich in organic matter and other nutrients.

vi. pH range should be 5.5-6.5.

Climate:-

i. It is best suited to regions which have high humidity, prolonged and an assured supply

of water.

ii. Av. Temp. required throughout life period of the crop ranges from 21-370C.

iii. It is a tropical crop.

iv. It requires hot and humid climate.

v. Also requires warm weather.

vi. At tillering the crop requires a higher temp. than for growth.

vii. Temp. required for blooming is in the range of 26.5-29.50C.

viii. At the time of ripening the temp. should be between 20-250C.

ix. Photo periodically, rice is a short day plant.

x. However, there are varieties which are non-sensitive to photo periodic conditions.



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Varieties:- APHR-1, APHR-2, Pusa Basmati, TN-1, IR-8, IR-22, Ambemohar, Karjat-184,

Ratnagiri-24, Indrayani, Palghar-1, Sahayadri, Punjab Basmati, ADT-37, ADT-38, ADT-39

etc.

Field preparation:-

After harvesting the rabi crops in April-May, the field should be ploughed with soil turning

plough.

Followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are carried out to make soil porous.

This is helpful in weed eradication as well as improvement in the water holding capacity of

the soils.

Then after bunds should be made around the field just after the first shower of monsoon.

Seeds and sowing:-

a) Seed rate :- For Broadcasting – 100 kg/ha

For Drilling – 60 kg/ha

b) Spacing :- 20 x 20 cm , 20 x 15 cm

c) Sowing time – June to July

d) Sowing depth – 3-4 cm

e) Sowing methods: - Broadcasting, Drilling etc.

f) Seed treatment :-

1. Before sowing seed treated with fungicides like Bavistin, Thirum or Captan @ 3

g/kg of seeds, helps to control the control blast, brown leaf spot, sheath blight

disease.

2. Seed are soaked with 3 % Brine solution (300 g CaSO4 + 10 litr. of water) for 12-

24 hrs, helps to control the Blast disease of rice.

3. Seeds are treated with Emisan @ 5 g/10 kg seeds in 10 lit. of water for control of

bacterial blight and sheath blight diseases.



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4. Seeds are also treated with biofertilizers like Azotobacter or Azospirillum @ 25

g/kg of seeds helps to increases the atmospheric N fixation by non-symbiotically.

Manures and Fertilizer management/Nutrient Management:-

About 10-15 tonnes of FYM or compost per ha should be applied 2-13 weeks before

sowing and mix thoroughly into soil.

The crop should be fertilized with 60 : 30 : 30 OR 80 : 40 : 40 kg NPK/ha. 25% nitrogen

and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of land preparation.

Remaining 50% and 25% nitrogen should be given at tillering and panicle initiation stage

respectively.

Application of zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha found to be beneficial. In spraying of o.5 % zinc

sulphate can correct the zinc deficiency.

Iron deficiency can be controlled by foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4.

Water management:-

If rains are received properly, then there no need of irrigation.

If rains are delayed or not received properly then should apply the irrigations at critical

growth stages are

1. Seedling stage

2. Tillering stage

3. Panicle initiation stage

4. Flowering stage

5. Grain filling stage

6. Milking stage

7. Dough stage



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The most sensitive stages for irrigation in upland rice are Tillering, panicle initiation, grain

filling and milking stage.

The upland rice crop requires 5-6 irrigations for completion of life cycle.

Weed management:-

Most problematic weeds found in upland rice are cyperus rotundus, cyanodon dactylon

etc.

Weed competition is more in upland rice. It is more severe in direct seeded rice. A period

of 30 to 40 days from sowing is considered as most critical for weed competition. If the

weeds are not controlled at right time then there is reduction in yield upto 50% or even

more.

Weeds are effectively controlled by mechanical as well as chemical method. Two hoeing

with blade or wheel hoe at 15-20 and 30-40 days after sowing, followed by hand weeding

will control the weed effectively.

Pre-emergence herbicide pendimethalin (Stomp) @ 1-1.5 kg/ha proves effective in

controlling the weeds.

Also spray herbicides like Nitrofen, Butachlor, Propanil or Benthiocarb @ 1 kg a.i. per ha

helps to control the crop-weed competition.



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Plant Protection :-

Pests:-

Rice Yellow Stem Borer

Gall midge

Rice hispa

Leaf roller

Army worm

Gundhi bug

Green leaf hopper

Brown plant hopper etc.

Control measures:-

Grow resistant varieties.

Use Carbaryl 5 % dust @ 20 kg/ha

Spray the crop with Malathion @ 1.25 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spray the crop with Monocrotophos 36 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

Diseases:-

Rice blast

Brown spot

Stem rot

False smut

Sheath blight

Bacterial leaf blight – ‘Kresek’ occurs in early stage of crop.

Bacterial leaf streak

Tungro virus – Transmitted by virus

Khaira – Due to Zn deficiency



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Control measures:-

1. Treat the seeds with Emisan @ 5 g/10 kg of seeds in 10 lit. of water.

2. Give 3-4 sprays with 0.2 % Zineb or Mancozed 75 WP at an interval of

10-12 days.

3. Use treated seed only

4. Spray the crop with 1 kg Bavistin per ha in 1000 lit. of water.

Harvesting and yield:-

Signs of maturity:-

1. Yellowing of leaves

2. Stem becomes greenish to yellow or golden in colour.

3. Panicles turns green to yellow in colour

4. Grain becomes hard and tough

5. Metallic sound comes, when grains are kept or placed under teeth.

6. Harvest the crop as soon as it matures. If delayed, grain may lost due to

damage of rats, birds, insects, shattering and lodging.

7. Timely harvesting ensures good grain quality.

8. The right stage for harvesting is when about 80 % panicles have about 80

% ripened spikelets.

9. At the time of harvest the upper portion of the spikelets should be straw

coloured.

10. The grain will contain 20 % moisture.

11. The crop is generally cut with serrate edged sickles (i.e. Vaibhav sickle

having serrate margins) by hand.

12. The plants should be cut quite close to the ground and left in the field for a

few days to dry.

13. Later on they should be collected in bundles and stacked for threshing.



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14. Threshing should be done by means beating with the help of sticks or

threshing machine or with the help of bullock trampler etc.

15. Threshed material should be cleaned properly and dried under sun.

Yield :-

1) Short duration varieties :- 45-55 quintals/ha

2) Mid duration varieties :- 60-70 quintals/ha

3) Hybrids :- 60-70 quintals/ha.



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Lowland Rice Cultivation Practices

B.N :- Oryza Sativa L.

Family :- Gramineae

Origin:- South-East Asia or India and Burma


h. The rice is widely cultivated in India, China, Thailand, USA, Egypt and Indonesia.

i. Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area followed by China and

Indonesia.

j. In respect of production, India ranks second next to China.

k. In regards to average yield per ha. Egypt ranks first followed by USA.

l. In India rice is grown in almost all the states viz., A.P., Bihar, U.P., M.P., M.H., W.B. and

Punjab.

m. Among the states W.B. and U.P. have the highest rice production.

n. Average yield per ha. Is highest in Punjab.


xii. Rice is the staple food crop next to Wheat, Sorghum and Maize.

xiii. It is the staple food of most of the people of South-East Asia.

xiv. In India, rice is the most important and extensively grown as food crop.

xv. Rice occupies a pivotal place in Indian Agriculture and is the staple food for more than

70% of population.

xvi. Rice is primarily a high energy crop or high calorie food.

xvii. It contains less protein than wheat.

xviii. The protein content of milled rice is usually 6-7%.

xix. Rice grain contains as much ‘B’ group vitamins as wheat.

xx. Rice bran is used as cattle and poultry feed.



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xxi. Rice hulls can be used in manufacturing of insulation materials, cement, carboard and as

a litter in poultry keeping.

xxii. Rice straw can be used as cattle feed as well as litter during winter.

Classification:-

Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima are cultivated species of rice.

All the varieties found in Asia, America and Europe belongs to Oryza sativa.

The varieties found in West America and Europe belongs to Oryza glaberrima.

Oryza sativa is a diploid species having 24 chromosome no.

The sativa rice varieties is grouped into three species namely-

i. Indica :- Rice grown in India.

ii. Japonica :- Rice grown in Japan.

iii. Javanica :- Rice grown in Indonesia.


Soil:-

vii. Soils having good water retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic

matter are ideal for rice cultivation.

viii. Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation.

ix. Such soils are capable of holding water for long and sustain crop.

x. Rice being a semi-aquatic crop grows best under submerged condition.

xi. Rice plant is able to tolerate a wide range of soil reaction, but it does have a preference

for acidic soils.

xii. pH range should be 5.5-6.5.

Climate:-

xi. It is best suited to regions which have high humidity, prolonged and an assured supply

of water.

xii. Av. Temp. required throughout life period of the crop ranges from 21-370C.



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xiii. It is a tropical crop.

xiv. It requires hot and humid climate.

xv. Also requires warm weather.

xvi. At tillering the crop requires a higher temp. than for growth.

xvii. Temp. required for blooming is in the range of 26.5-29.50C.

xviii. At the time of ripening the temp. should be between 20-250C.

xix. Photo periodically, rice is a short day plant.

xx. However, there are varieties which are non-sensitive to photo periodic conditions.

Varieties:- APHR-1, APHR-2, Pusa Basmati, TN-1, IR-8, IR-22, Ambemohar, Karjat-184,

Ratnagiri-24, Indrayani, Palghar-1, Sahayadri, Punjab Basmati, ADT-37, ADT-38, ADT-39

etc.

Preparation of Field:-

Plough the field 20-25 cm deep by mould board plough in summer to expose the eggs

of harmful insects, pests and rhizomes of weeds.

Keep it flooded or saturated with water for about one fortnight before transplanting.

This helps in decomposition of chaff and straw of previous crops.

Puddling should begin about two weeks ahead of transplanting.

Before puddling, earthen bunds, about 30 cm height should be made around the field.

The equipment which puddles the field is called as puddler.

Recently, different types of bullock and tractor drawn puddlers are being used for this

purpose.

Puddling is a very important operation in transplanted rice.

It helps to kill the weeds and buried them in puddled layer.

The rate of germination of weeds is also reduced in subsequent growing period of crop.

It helps to create beneficial physical, biological and chemical conditions for rice plant

growth.



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Puddle the field by 3-4 runs of puddler in standing water.

Apply uniformly half of nitrogen and total quantities of P and K on drained surface at

the time of last puddling and incorporate in the top 10-15 cm deep soil.

Raising seedlings in Nursery:-

Select a fertile, well drained upland field near to the source of irrigation.

For transplanting one ha area about 500 m2 area is sufficient for nursery raising.

In case of late sowing area of nursery should be increased to 750-1000 m2.

For 1 ha area of nursery is sufficient to transplant 20-25 ha of main field.

Seeds should always be true to the variety, healthy, viable, clean and of high

germination percentage.

In case of bold grain varieties, about 40-50 kg seed would be required to raise

seedlings enough for one ha, whereas for fine grain varieties 30-35 kg seed is

enough.

Rice seeds required to raise seedlings should be soaked in water and pre germinated.

Seeds that are germinated before sowing will start to grow quickly in the field or seed

bed.

Transplanting:-

i. Transplanting shall be done when seedlings are ready for transplanting.

ii. The seedlings are uprooted from nursery at the optimum age (3-4 weeks for short

duration and 4-5 weeks for medium and long duration varieties).

iii. Transplanting of the healthy seedlings may be done at the 4-5 leaf stage or when

they are about 15-20 cm height.

iv. Delayed transplanting leads to poor tillering, early flowering of the main tillers and

reduction in yield.

v. Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill at 20 x 10 cm distance under normal conditions.

vi. Increase the no. of seedlings per hill if old seedlings are used.



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vii. For 45 days old seedlings the no. of seedlings per hill should be 5-6.

viii. In alkaline soils old seedlings establish better than young seedlings of 25 days age.

ix. In each seedlings should be transplanted at 2-3 cm depth.

x. Seedlings should not be planted deeper than 2-3 cm as deeper planting delays and

inhibits tillering.

xi. Planting in lines may not be necessary if adequate population is assured.

xii. There should be on an average 50 hills per m2 to assure adequate population in rice

field.

xiii. In wet/lowland situation or cultivation of rice transplanting is advantageous for

followings-

a) It enables the cultivator to have optimum plant population at desired spacing in the

field.

b) It enables the cultivator to have an opportunity to give a thorough cultivation.

Manures and Fertilizers/Nutrient Management:-

Manures:- 10-15 tonnes of FYM or Compost/ha should be applied at the time of final

land preparation i.e before puddling operation.

Incorpotation of Glyricidia leaf green manure @ 3-4 ton/ha during puddling operation.

R.D.F:- 120:60:60 kg NPK/ha OR 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha OR 100:60:40 kg/ha

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of transplanting

the seedlings.

Remaining half dose of N should be applied at the time of panicle initiation or

flowering or tillering stage of crop.



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Method and schedule of fertilizer application/Techniques for avoiding the losses of N

OR Improving NUE in Lowland Rice Field:-

Method of application of nitrogenous fertilizer is crucial in paddy, in view of the fact

that hardly 30-40% of the applied nitrogen is actually used by the rice crop.

The unused portion also does not stay in the soil, rather it is lost mainly through

leaching and denitrification.

Till now there is no practical and economic way to completely check this loss but

recently some techniques have been developed which can minimizes the losses.

1. Use of Pre-incubated Urea:-

Mix urea with moist soil at the rate of 1 kg Urea with about 5 kg of soil.

Allow this mixture to stand in shade for 36-48 hrs before applying in the field.

2. Split application:-

Split application of N for increasing Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) is well

established.

When large amounts of N are applied at a time, say all basal, N efficiency is the

lowest.

Application of N should match the crop needs for N.

Two split doses are recommended for short and medium duration varieties.

3 splits doses are recommended for long duration varieties.

More splits are recommended for sandy soils.

3. Use of Mud Balls:-

Prepare small balls of moist soil and put urea or any other fertilizer in the centre of

the ball.

Close the opening and allow to dry a little if possible.

Use these balls in the paddy fields where it is not possible to drain out the water

from the field at the time of fertilizer application in standing crop.



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4. Deep placement:-

Deep placement has received considerable importance in the case of phosphate

fertilizer, but it is equally important in the case of N.

Ammonia volatilization can be almost prevented by deep placement of fertilizer

N.

Deep placement of N is specially important in rice, because placement in the

reduced zone can prevent or at least retard the formation of nitrates and reduces

the denitrification losses.

5. Use of Neem seed cake:-

Finely ground neem seed cake is mixed with urea at the rate of 15-20%.

Karanj or mahua cakes can also be used in a similar way.

These oil cakes delay nitrate formation from urea and thus reduce the possibility

of nitrate loss through denitrification or leaching.

6. Nitrification inhibitors:-

These chemicals can retard the nitrification process in soil and thereby reduce

the N loss by leaching and denitrification.

The chemicals most widely tested are-

i. N-serve (2-chloro-6-pyridine)

ii. AM (2-amino-4-chloro-6 methyl pyrimidine)

iii. DCD (Dicyandiamide)

iv. ST (Sulphathiazole) etc.

Increase rice yields and increased NUE in India has been reported for N-serve,

AM, DCD and ST.

Also reported nitrification inhibiting properties of neem seed extract and neem

cake was used for developing neem cake coated urea.



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7. Slow release N fertilizers:-

These are two kinds, namely 1) coated conventional fertilizers such as Sulphur

Coated Urea (SCU), Polymer Coated Urea (PCU) and Neem Coated Urea

(NCU).

Chemicals with inherent slow N release properties such as Isobutylidene

diurea (IBDU), Urea form and Crotylidene diurea (CDU) etc.

Slow release N fertilizers release N slowly and therefore allow its uptake

before it is lost.

8. Urea super granules :-

Urea supergranules (USG) are based on the principle of chinese mudball

technique.

Mud balls are then dried and stored for placement in rice field.

The USGs or large size urea pellets come in different shapes and sizes,

the most popular are 1g (1 cm dia.) granules.

9. Urea Briquettes:-

This is also used as a slow release fertilizer, developed by Dr. B.S.K.K.V,

Dapoli.

In this case the Urea and SSP fertilizers are mixed in equal proportions

and made a capsules of 5 cm dia. with 25 g in each capsule.

This urea briquettes capsules are placed in or at the centre of 4 plants.

It helps to equally distribution of N and P to the plants.

Also helps for increase the Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE).



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Water management:-

Since the water requirement of rice is higher than that of any other crop.

For producing 1 kg rice requires 5000 litres of water.

In the life cycle of rice plant there are certain critical growth stages when water

requirement is high.

Tillering and flowering is most critical growth stages of rice for irrigation.

Ensure enough water from panicle initiation stage to flowering.

Flooding is not necessary, if weeds can be controlled economically through

means of chemicals.

Until the transplanted seedlings are well established water should be allowed to

stand in the field at a depth of two to five centimeter (2-5 cm).

Therefore, above 5 cm of water may be maintained up to the dough stage of the

crop.

Weed Management:-

The most commonly found weeds in transplanted rice field are Echinochloa

colonum, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa crusgalli and Typha (Typha latifolia)

etc.

Weeds can be controlled by means of herbicides like Propanil or Butachlor or

Nitrofen or Benthiocarb @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha.

If chemicals are not available, then should follow the removing of weeds by

manually after removal of water in field.



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Plant Protection :-

Pests:-

Rice Yellow Stem Borer

Gall midge

Rice hispa

Leaf roller

Army worm

Gundhi bug

Green leaf hopper

Brown plant hopper etc.

Control measures:-


Use Carbaryl 5 % dust @ 20 kg/ha

Spray the crop with Malathion @ 1.25 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spray the crop with Monocrotophos 36 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

Diseases:-

Rice blast

Brown spot

Stem rot

False smut

Sheath blight

Bacterial leaf blight – ‘Kresek’ occurs in early stage of crop.

Bacterial leaf streak

Tungro virus – Transmitted by virus

Khaira – Due to Zn deficiency



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Control measures:-

5. Treat the seeds with Emisan @ 5 g/10 kg of seeds in 10 lit. of water.

6. Give 3-4 sprays with 0.2 % Zineb or Mancozed 75 WP at an interval of 10-12

days.

7. Use treated seed only

8. Spray the crop with 1 kg Bavistin per ha in 1000 lit. of water.


Signs of maturity:-






21. Harvest the crop as soon as it matures. If delayed, grain may lost due to damage of

rats, birds, insects, shattering and lodging.


23. The right stage for harvesting is when about 80 % panicles have about 80 % ripened

spikelets.

24. At the time of harvest the upper portion of the spikelets should be straw coloured.


26. The crop is generally cut with serrate edged sickles (i.e. Vaibhav sickle having

serrate margins) by hand.

27. The plants should be cut quite close to the ground and left in the field for a few days

to dry.




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29. Threshing should be done by means beating with the help of sticks or threshing

machine or with the help of bullock trampler etc.


Yield :-

1) Short duration varieties :- 45-55 quintals/ha

2) Mid duration varieties :- 60-70 quintals/ha

3) Hybrids :- 60-70 quintals/ha.



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IMPORTANT SHORT NOTES ON RICE

1. Sawant’s Integrated Rice Agro-technology (SIRA)

SIRA has been developed for small –scale resource poor rice farmers.

It has following FOUR practices-

Practice-1:-

A) Application of Rice straw material as a source of K and Silicon:-

i) Recycling of Rice straw Ash on nursery beds as a source of Silicon:-

Apply/incorporate the rice straw ash on nursery beds @ ½ to 1 kg/m2.

Sow the seeds in rows on nursery beds.

Rice straw ash contains/supplies 30-35% silicon.

Silicon plays an important role to make seedlings more resistance against pests and

diseases, healthy growth of seedlings, make erectophile canopy helps to increases the

photosynthetic activity.

Also majorly control of Rice Yellow Stem borer pest and Bacterial leaf blight, Rice Blast

diseases.

ii) Incorporation/Recycling the Paddy straw as a source of K and Silicon:-

Recycling of rice crop residue/straw @ 2-3 ton/ha in puddle soil and then incorporated

into the soil through puddler.

Rice straw/residue provides/adds 20-30 kg and 60-110 kg Silicon.

K nutrient plays an important role to increase the rice seedling more resistant against

pests and diseases, make healthy growth of crop as well as improves the grain quality.

Also adds the organic matter in to the soil, it helps to increases the soil physical,

chemical and biological properties.

Also saves the use of chemical fertilizers, helps to prevent the environmental quality.

Also plants make resistant to Rice yellow stem borer pest.



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Practice -2:-

Application of Glyricidia as a green leaf manure (Using Agro-Forestry Approach):-

Incorporate/apply Glyricidia green manuring @ 3-4 ton/ha at the time of puddling

operation.

It helps to supply 12-15 kg N/ha and also some of nutrients.

It helps to maintain organic matter in soil and helps in initial growth of rice seedlings for

2-3 weeks after transplanting.

It adds 8-10 kg O.M. and 10-15 kg N/ha.

Due to supply of N to rice it helps to increase the yield of crop.

It also helps to improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.

Better development of aggregates and its stability and increases the soil productivity.

It helps to reduces the emission of gases like Methane and N2O from rice field to prevent

the environmental quality.

Practice- 3:-

Using high yielding, dwarf, high tillering ability and pests and disease resistant varieties of

Rice:-

Phule Radha Indrayani

Ratnagiri-24 Bhogavati

Phule Samrudhi

For getting high rice yield and requires less labour for transplanting with easily

application of Urea-Briquettes should fallow the spacing recommended for rice are 15x15

, 25x25 cm.

For that plastic thread makes 15 x 25 cm, 25 x 25 cm spacing, with using of bamboo

sticks and with small wooden sticks are fixed on it.

Using this technology of rice cultivation helps to get save seed i.e. only 30 kg/ha instead

of 40-45 kg/ha.



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Save labour

Easy intercultivation operation

Easy application of urea briquettes i.e. 15x15 cm, 25 x 25 cm spacing

Better aeration.

Reduce incidence of pests and diseases.

Better growth of crop.

Save money and labour expenses

Controlled transplanting @ 25 hills/m2.

Practice-4 :-

Deep placement of Urea-DAP briquettes:-

Urea-DAP briquettes are prepared by mixing the Urea (60 kg) and DAP (40 kg) (60:40

ratio) with standard proportion.

Urea-DAP briquettes are prepared by means of Briquetting machine.

Each Urea-DAP briquette weighs 2.7 gm.

Each Urea-DAP briquette is applied at the centre of four plants/sqaure.

Apply urea-Briquettes at 5 cm deep. Application of urea-Briquettes more than 5 cm

should be avoided.

Apply 625 urea-Briquettes per gunta.

The requirement of urea-Briquettes per ha are 175 kg.

It helps to reduces losses of N.

Increases the NUE (Nitrogen Use Efficiency)

Saving of N fertilizers.

It saves not only the input cost, but also there is an increase in the yield of rice grain and

straws.



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2. Methods of Raising seedlings OR Different types of Rice Nurseries:-

1. Wet bed method:-

Wet nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition.

The soil is puddled by two to three runs of puddler or 3-4 ploughings with the help of

local plough.

After one or two days of puddling, divide the nursery area into narrow beds.

This facilitates sowing, weeding, spraying of chemicals and irrigation operations.

Construct the drainage channels of 30 cm wide in between beds.

Apply 225 g urea and 500 g SSP per 10 m2.

Uniformly broadcast about 2-3 handfuls of seed on a 1 m2 of seed bed.

Keep the seed beds saturated with water for first five days and then increase gradually

the level of water up to 5 cm as the seedlings grow.

Adopt suitable disease and pest control measures.

An application of 50 g of Urea per m2 may be made by top dressing in case of N

deficiency symptoms.

In Zinc deficient soils, give two sprays of Zinc sulphate, on 10 days after sowing and

another 20 days after sowing.

2. Dry Bed method:-

This method is practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet

nurseries.

Plough the field 3-4 times till the soil is thoroughly pulverised.

Prepare beds of the same size as in wet nurseries but 15 cm high channels between

them.

Sow the seed in rows 10 cm apart in dry or moist condition of soil.



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Use the same seed rate and fertilizer as in wet nurseries.

The sown seeds should be covered immediately with a layer of soil.

Special care should be taken for water management in these beds.

Allow the water to run in channel first and then raise the level of water slowly to

saturate the soil of beds.

Do not flood water in beds.

Keep the seed bed saturated with water.

Maintain a thin film of water if possible after 5 days of sowing.

Follow all the operations as described for wet nurseries.

3. Dapog method:-

This method of raising nursery has been introduced in India from Philippines.

It has been adopted by some farmers in Andhra Pradesh for raising seedlings.

It saves almost half of the time in seedlings raising.

The main merit of this method is that-

a) Less area is needed to raise seedlings.

b) 25-30 m2 area is enough to raise seedlings for planting one ha area.

The seedlings are raised faster in this method.

The seedlings raised by this method are however, very delicate and survive only about

2 weeks.

Besides, the seedlings are thin, slender and short in height.

The seedlings when allowed to remain in the bed, may dry after two weeks.

In this method, beds could be prepared on an even but slightly raised surface in an

open field or on even cement floor.

About 1 m2 of seed bed should be required for every 3 kg of seed.



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A width of 1.5 m has been found easily manageable.

Cover the soil surface of the seed bed evenly and completely with banana leaves with

the protruding midribs removed or preferably with plastic sheets.

Carefully lay strips of banana bracts along the edge of the seed bed.

Push thin bamboo pegs through the bracts into the soil to keep bracts upright and firm.

About 36-48 hours pre-germinated seed should be broadcast uniformly over plastic or

banana leaves at the rate of 3 kg per m2.

Pack the seeds to make a uniform layer of 3 seeds thick.

Do not press too hard on seeds. Follow this by sprinkling water gently.

Sprinkle water 3-4 times a day up to 4 days to keep the seed bed wet.

Thereafter cover it with one to two centimeters of water till end.

Also press the seeds lightly once a day till fourth day and protect them from birds.

Dapog seedlings would be ready for planting within 11-14 days of sowing.

The seedlings thus raised can be rolled like carpet with roots facing outside and carried

to the transplanting site.

Loosen the interlocked roots carefully before transplanting.

3-4 seedlings should be transplanted per hill instead of two.



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System of Rice Intensification (SRI)

i. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar in 1980’s.

ii. This system is widely used in Andhra Pradesh.

iii. SRI is a “less water” method of produce of rice.

iv. It has been tested in China, Indonesia, Combodia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and

Thailand.

v. The average yield obtained in this method is around 80-100 times more over

conventional method of rice cultivation i.e. 7 tons/ha over 4-5 tons/ha in conventional

method.

vi. The method produces more tillers (30-50 commonly, around 80-100 tillers for individual

plants).

vii. With a positive correlation between tillering and grain filling.

viii. The plant has deeper and more effective root system.

ix. This system is also called as resource conservation technology.

x. SRI system saves labour, water, seed, fertilizers and pesticides.

xi. This system gives 10-15 times more yield of rice over conventional method i.e. 4-5

times.

xii. In SRI method only field is moisturned or wet without flooding, helps to reduces the

formation of N2O and methane gases that are responsible for global warming.

xiii. Also SRI system consists of planting of only one seedlings per hill over conventional

method was planted a 2-3 seedlings/hill.

xiv. SRI method does not requires puddling operation i.e. it means to reduces the

cultivation/tillage practices and ultimately increases the farmers rice crop yield.

Advantages or merits of SRI system over Conventional method:-

Half of water requirement compared to conventional method.



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Seed required is 5 kg/ha which reduces the cost of seed and other expenditure over

conventional method.

No. of tillers per plant are more (10-50) over conventional method was only 10-25

tillers/plant because of mechanizations results in compaction and affects the growth of

plants.

More no. of grains per panicle than conventional method.

Weight of grains is more because of healthy plant.

Early harvesting of crop (10-15 days earlier) than conventional method.

Yield is 10-15 times more than conventional method.

SRI Method for Rice Cultivation

a. Nursery Management:-

i) Selection of seed and seedrate:-

In this method 5 kg seed is required to raise seedlings for 1 ha.

Seeds are true to type, healthy, viable and have germination percentage.

ii) Seed treatment :-

Seeds are treated with thirum/captan/carbendazim @ 3g/kg of seeds for control of

Bacterial diseases.

Seeds are soaked with 3% brine solution (300 g common salt in 10 lit. of water) for

control of Blast disease.

Floating seeds on the surface of water should be removed.

Seeds settled in the bottom should be washed 2-3 times with clean water and dried in

shade for 20 hours.

Seed is then soaked in clean water for 24 hours.

Seeds are also treated with Emisan @ 5g/10 kg seed in 10 lit. of water.

Also treated with Azotobacter/Azospirillum/PSB biofertilizer @ 25 g/kg of seeds.



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iii) Preparation of Nursery:-

Wide nursery beds are prepared and covered with plastic sheet.

20 m2 area of nursery is required to prepare seedlings for one ha area.

Make the holes on plastic sheet for better drainage of water.

Place the wooden frame or iron frame on nursery beds.

Adds sieved or fine powder form FYM: Sand: Soil with a ratio of 1:1:1.

Then is incubated in a warm, moist place for sprouting for about 36- 48 hours.

Pre-germinated seeds are uniformly broadcast on beds and then seeds are covered with

soil or fine powder form of FYM.

Then gently sprinkler the water on beds.

Covered the beds with paddy straw material for 4-5 days to prevent the seed damage by

birds and also from ants.

After 4-5 days paddy straw are removed from beds and the apply regular water as per

growth of seedlings.

In this method seedlings are ready for transplanting within a 8-12 days.

b) Preparation of field:-

1 to 2 deep ploughings for exposing the rhizomes and suckers of weeds as well as

control of insect pest.

Fallowed by 2-3 harrowing operations are carried out as well as clod crushing

operations to make soil free from clods.

Incorporate the FYM/Compost/crop residues @ 10-15 ton/ha for enrichment of Organic

matter and balanced supply of nutrients.

Saturate the field before transplanting without flooding.

Field is kept moistened or wet condition without flooding.



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c) Transplanting:-

Transplanting should be done when seedlings are ready for transplanting.

Seedlings are uprooted carefully on nursery beds without damaging the roots.

Banana leaf sheaths may be use for lifting the seedlings below the root system and carry

to the main field.

In this method seedlings are transplant after 8-12 days after raising of seeds on nursery.

Seedlings are transplant per hill are only 1.

Seedlings are transplant at depth of 2-3 cm, avoid to transplant seedling more than 2-3

cm, otherwise seedling establishment is delayed or mortality as well as reduces the

tillering habit.

Each seedling have 2-3 leaves and 15 inch height are ideal for transplanting.

Seedlings are transplanted with a spacing of 25 x 25 cm, 30 x 30 cm.

Immediately after transplanting light irrigation should be applied as to make soil

saturated without flooding.

d) Fertilizer management/Nutrient Management:-

Incorporate FYM or compost @ 10-15 tonnes/ha or green leaf manure @ 3-4 ton/ha in

the soil at time of land preparation.

Application of Glyricidia leaf green manure @ 3-4 tonnes/ha at time of field preparation.

3-4 days after transplanting two urea DAP briquettes should be planted 5 cm in the

centre of alternate square.

If necessary second dose of N should be given after 15-20 days after transplanting.

e) Water Management:-

Regular water application is necessary to keep the moist in this method.

Stagnation of flooding of water in the field should be avoided.



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During vegetative phase field should not be flooded condition.

Intermittent wetting and drying for adequate aeration is essential during this stage.

However, during grain filling 1-3 cm water may be maintained in the field.

f) Weed management:-

Hoeing with rotary weeder is effective in controlling the weeds.

First hoeing should be done 10 days after transplanting.

4 hoeing operations are necessary till panicle initiation stage.

After weeding, weeds should be buried in the soil.

This adds organic matter in the soil.

g) Insect pest management:-

i. Yellow stem borer

ii. Brown plant hopper

iii. Green leaf hopper

iv. Leaf folder

v. Gandhi bug

Control measures:-

i. Application of Neem seed kernel Extract (NSKE) @ 10-15 kg/ha.

ii. Also Phorate @ 12-15 kg/ha.

h) Disease Management:-

1. Blast

2. Brown leaf spot

3. Sheath blight

4. Stem rot



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5. Bacterial leaf blight

6. Tungro virus

7. Khaira – due to ‘Zn’ deficiency

Control measures:-

Spraying with Carbendazim @ 1.0 kg/ha in 1000 lit. of water.

Seeds are treated with Mancozeb @ 3 g/kg.

Spraying of 5 kg ZnSO4.

Seeds are soaking in Cereson followed by hot water treatment.

Harvesting, threshing and yield:-

Signs of maturity:-






36. Harvest the crop as soon as it matures. If delayed, grain may lost due to

damage of rats, birds, insects, shattering and lodging.


38. The right stage for harvesting is when about 80 % panicles have about 80

% ripened spikelets.

39. At the time of harvest the upper portion of the spikelets should be straw

coloured.


41. The crop is generally cut with serrate edged sickles (i.e. Vaibhav sickle

having serrate margins) by hand.



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42. The plants should be cut quite close to the ground and left in the field for a

few days to dry.


44. Threshing should be done by means beating with the help of sticks or

threshing machine or with the help of bullock trampler etc.


Yield :- 35-40 quintals/ha



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Kharif Sorghum/Jowar/Great millet/Grain sorghum/Camel crop

B.N.:- Sorghum bicolor L.

Family:- Gramineae

Origin:- Ethiopia or Central Africa

Area and distribution:-

The important sorghum growing countries are India, China, Niger, Sudan and Argentina

etc.

The sorghum growing states are M.H., A.P., KTK, M.P., Gujarat, T.N., Rajasthan and U.P.

Economic Importance or Uses:-

I. Sorghum is one of the four most major food grain crop in the world.

II. Sorghum being major source of staple food for humans.

III. It is also serves as an important source of cattle feed and fodder.

IV. Sorghum crop at seedling stage cant fed directly to cattle because it contains

HCN/Prussic acid, which is poisonous to animal/cattle.

V. Sorghum has greater capacity to withstand under drought.

VI. Its performance is better than under moisture stress or excessive moisture conditions,

that’s why ii is called as camel crop or drought resistant crop.

VII. Sorghum grains is eaten by human beings in India either by flour making and preparing

the ‘Bhakari’, ‘Papad’ or ‘Roti’.

VIII. Sorghum grains also used as a feed for poultry and cattle.

IX. Sorghum grains contains about 10-12 % protein, 3 % fat and 70 % CHO.

X. Sorghum grains are very popularly used in feeding programme for dairy cattle and

poultry, because sorghum grains are rich source of protein 10-12 %, 3 % fat and 70 %

CHO is considered as valuable feed for milch/dairy cattle and poultry.



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Soil:-

a. Sorghum is grown in wide range or variety of soils.

b. Soil should be sandy loam to clay loam soils are ideal for sorghum cultivation.

c. Soil should be well drained and fertile.

d. Soil should have high water holding capacity.

e. Soil should be free from waterlogging condition.

f. pH range should be 6.5-7.5

Climate:-

a. It is a tropical crop.

b. It requires hot and humid climate.

c. Also requires warm weather.

d. Low temperature at flowering or grain filling tends to results in sterility in flowers or flower

rot or grain rot symptoms.

e. Cloudy weather and high temperature tends to results in increase the attack of shoot fly.

f. Optimum temperature required is 26-300C.

Varieties and hybrids- CSH-1, CSH-2, CSH-5, CSH-9, CSH-10, CSH-11, CSV-1, CSV-2,

CSV-3, CSV-4, CSV-5, CSV-6, SPV-1, SPV-2, SPV-3, SPV-4, SPV-5, SPV-6, Maldandi

(M-35-1) (Fodder purpose variety)

Cropping systems:-

Crop rotation:-

Sorghum – Wheat

Sorghum – Safflower

Sorghum – Maize

Sorghum – Sunflower



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Sorghum – Chick pea

Sorghum – Tobacco

Intercropping systems:-

Sorghum + Pigeon pea

Sorghum + Soybean

Sorghum + Green gram

Sorghum + Sesamum

Sorghum + Cow pea etc.

Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed bed

i.e. Friable or well pulvarised seed bed.

Seeds and sowing:-

I. Seed rate:- 12-15 kg/ha

II. Spacing :- 45 X 12 cm

III. Sowing time:- June-July

IV. Sowing depth:- 3-4 cm

V. Sowing methods:- Broadcasting, Drilling and sowing seeds behind the plough

VI. Seed treatment:-

Sorghum seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds to control head smut

disease.

Sorghum seeds are treated with 300 mesh fine sulphur powder @ 4 g/kg of seed to control

grain and loose smut disease.

Seeds are treated with Brine solution 30% (300 g NaCl + 1 lit. of water) to control Ergot

disease.



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Seeds are treated with 50% Carbofuron @ 100 g/kg of seed for control of shoot fly in

delayed sowing.

Seeds are treated with azotobacter or azospirillum @ 25g/kg of seeds, helps to increases

the atm. N fixation by non-symbiotically and also improves the germination of crop.

Nutrient management or Manures and fertilizers:-

Manures:- 15-20 tonnes of FYM or Compost per ha should be applied at the time of final

land preparation.

R.D.F :- 100:50:40 kg NPK/ha or 120:60:40 kg NPK/ha

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of sowing and

remaining half dose of N should be applied at the time of panicle initiation stage.

Intercultural operation or Inter-cultivation or Inter-tillage operation:-

1. Thinning operation:-

Thinning is very important operation in sorghum cultivation.

Thinning means removal of diseases infected or weak or irregular height plants instead of

healthy one is called as thinning operation.

Thinning operation should be done 10-15 DAS or emergence or germination.

All disease and insect infected plants should be removed.

Main objective of thinning operation is to maintain optimum plant population.

Water requirement or Water management or Irrigation requirement:-

It is drought resistant crop and also kharif season crop. If rains are received properly or

timely then there is no need of irrigation.

If rains are delayed or late then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages such as –

a) Seedling stage

b) Flag leaf stage- very sensitive stage for irrigation.

c) Panicle initiation stage



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d) Flowering stage

e) Grain filling stage

f) Milking stage

g) Dough stage etc.

Weed management:-

Sorghum crop infested with Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli, Eleusine indica, Cyperus

rotundus, Cynodon dactylon and Striga etc.

The partial root parasitic weed found in sorghum is Striga.

Striga weed can be control by means of Crop rotation or by means of Strigol or Ethylene

spray.

Sorghum crops requires one hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required to

control weeds.

If hand weeding is not possible then should spray the herbicides like Atrazine @ 1.0 kg

a.i./ha.

Plant protection (Pests and diseases):-

Pests:-

1. Shoot fly

2. Stem borer

3. Pink borer

4. Leaf roller

5. Hairy caterpillar etc.

Control measures:-

Spraying of Endosulfan 35 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

Application of Phorate @ 15 kg/ha helps to control shoot fly.

Collect and destroy the pest infected plant parts.

Spray the crop with Carbaryl @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.



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Diseases:-

1. Seedling blight

2. Downy mildew

3. Leaf rust

4. Anthracnose

5. Leaf blight

Control measures:-

Seeds are treated with Thirum or vitavax @ 3 g/kg of seeds.

Spraying of Rodomil @ 0.1 % solution.

Burning of crop residues.

Growing of resistant varieties like CSV-3, 4, 5 etc.


Sorghum crop should be harvested immediately after it is mature.

The right stage for harvet is when grains becomes hard having less than 25%

moisture.

Signs of maturity:-

i. Leaves becomes yellowish

ii. Stem becomes greenish to yellowish in colour

iii. Grain becomes hard and tough

iv. Metallic sound comes when grains are kept under teeth

v. Yellowish colour appears at the base of panicle

vi. Black spot observed at the head of grains

Harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and cutting

down the plants later on.

Threshing is done with the help of thresher or by beating the earheads with sticks or by

trampling bullocks.



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Yield:- 25-30 quintals/ha- Rainfed condition

40-50 quintals/ha- Irrigated condition.



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Pearl millet/Bajra

B.N.:- Pennisetum typhoides

Family:- Gramineae

Origin:- Africa


1. Pearl millet is an important cereal crop in the world.

2. The pearl millet growing countries are India, Nigeria, Africa, Sudan etc.

3. In India, pearl millet growing Rajasthan, M.H, Gujarat, U.P. and Haryana etc.

4. Rajasthan occupies highest area and production of Bajra followed by M.H. and Gujarat.


i. Pearl millet or Bajra it is an important staple food crop.

ii. It can provides more food for poor people’s within a short period in a relatively dry tract

areas, that’s why it is called as Poor man’s food.

iii. Pearl millet grain is rich in minerals and fat content.

iv. Pearl millet grains possess a higher protein content (10-14%) with higher levels of

essential amino acids.

v. It is an important food crop followed by Rice and Wheat.

vi. Pearl millet grains are commonly used for making Bhakari or roti.

vii. It is drought tolerant among cereals and millets.

viii. Grains are cooked like rice are prepared from flour used as a food for dairy animals.

ix. Grains of pearl millet (broken grains) are used as a feed for poultry.

x. It can also provides green fodder for animals.



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Soil and Climate:-

Soil:-

1. Pearl millet can be grown on all types of soils.

2. Soil should be well drained and fertile.

3. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are ideal for pearl millet.

4. Soil should have high water holding capacity.

5. Waterlogging soils are not suitable for Pearl millet cultivation.

6. pH range should 6.5-7.5.

Climate:-

1. It is a tropical crop or kharif season crop.

2. It requires hot and humid climate.

3. Also requires warm weather.

4. Low temperature at flowering causes sterility of pollen grains and reduces the crop

yield.

5. High humidity and low temperature at flowering increases the chances of flower rot

and mortality of pollen tubes.

6. Optimum temperature required is 27-300C.

Field or Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal

seed bed i.e. fine seed bed.

Seeds and Sowing:-

1. Seed rate:- 4-5 kg/ha

2. Sowing time:- June-July

3. Spacing:- 45 X 10 or 15 cm

4. Sowing depth:- 2-3 cm

5. Sowing methods:- Transplanting, Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.



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6. Seed treatments:-

Before sowing pearl millet seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds,

helps to prevent seed as well as soil borne diseases.

Seeds are soaked with 3 % brine solution (300 g of common salt in 10 lit. of water) for

1-2 hours, helps to prevent Ergot disease infection.

Seeds are also treated with biofertilizers like azotobacter or azospirillum @ 25 g/kg of

seeds, it helps to increases the atmospheric N fixation and also improve plant growth.

Varieties and Hybrids:- HB-1, HB-2, HB-3, HB-4, HB-5, GBH-32, CoH- 12, Shradha,

Saburi, Shanti, Co-6, Pusa safed, ICMV-221, RCB-2 etc.

Manures and Fertilizers or Nutrient management:-


land preparation or before one month of sowing.

R.D.F:- 100:60:40 kg N,P, K/ha or 120:60:40 kg N,P,K/ha or 100:50:40 kg N,P,K/ha.

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of sowing.

Remaining half dose of N should be applied at vegetative or tillering or flowering

stage.

Irrigation management or water management or Water requirement:-

i. Pearl millet crop is commonly grown in kharif season, therefore it does not requires

any irrigation if rains are received timely.

ii. If rains are not received timely or properly or delayed then there is need to apply

irrigation at critical growth stages such as-

a) Seedling stage

b) Tillering stage

c) At panicle initiation stage

d) At flowering stage

e) Grain filling stage etc.



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Weed management:-

The important weeds that grown in pearl millet are Cynodon dactylon, Cypers

rotundus, Parthenium, Amarathus etc.

The most problematic weed found in pearl millet is Striga are partial root parasitic

weed.

One hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required to make a weed free

crop environment.

Also by means of herbicides like Atrazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha in 1000 lit. of water/ha

Striga weed can be controlled by means of strigol and ethylene chemicals.

Also control by means of crop rotation.

Pest and Diseases or Plant protection:-

Pests:-

1. White grub

2. Shoot fly

3. Stem borer

4. Grass hopper

5. Aphids

6. Jassids etc

Control Measures:-

Dusting of malathion or spraying of Endosulphan @ 2 ml per 1 lit. of water.

Dusting with 5% Carbaryl or Malathion dust @ 25 kg/ha.

Diseases:-

1. Downey mildew

2. Anthracnose

3. Ergot

4. Smut



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5. Rust etc.

Control measures:-

Seeds treat with 2 g Thirum/kg of seeds.

Grow resistant varieties

Spraying with 1.5 g Vitavax in 1000 lit. of water.


Signs of maturity:-


2. Stripping of leaves

3. Stem becomes greenish to yellowish or brown in colour

4. Colour of peduncle turns greenish to yellow or whitish

5. Seed becomes hard and tough

6. Metallic sound comes when grains are kept under teeth.

Harvesting is done either by cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and

cutting down the plant later.

After harvesting, earheads are dried under sun.

Threshing is done either by threshing machine.

The threshed material should clean properly and dried under sun.

Yield:- 12-15 quintal/ha or 15-20 quintal/ha or 20-25 quintal/ha



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Pigeon pea/Arhar/Red gram/Tur/Congo pea/Gungo pea/no eye pea

B.N. Cajanus cajan

Family:- Leguminoseae

Origin:- India


The most important P. pea growing countries are India, China and Africa.

India ranks Ist in terms of area and production

In India major P. pea growing states are M.H, U.P, M.P, KTK and Gujarat.

U.P. ranks Ist in terms of area and production, followed by M.H, M.P and KTK.

Economic Importance:-

P. pea is second most important pulse crop after chickpea.

It is a rich source of protein (21.7%)

It is mainly eaten in the form of split pulse as ‘dal’.

Seeds of arhar are also rich in iron and iodine.

They are rich in essential Amino acids like Lycine, Cystine and Arginine.

Kernel provides a valuable feed for milch cattle.

The husk of pods and leaves obtained during threshing constitute a valuable cattle feed.

Woody parts i.e. stem of plant are used for fue.

It is a legume crop and possesses valuable properties as restorer of nitrogen to the soil

etc.

Classification:-

1) Cajanus indicus var. bicolor – Late maturing

2) Cajanus indicus var. flavus – Early maturing

Soil and Climate:-

Soil:-

1) Soil should be well drained, fertile

2) It requires wide range of soils varying from sandy loam to clay loams

3) The saline, alkaline and waterlogged soils are unfit for its cultivation, as they

adversely affect the nodulation



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4) Well drained, alluvial and loamy soils are good for its cultivation

5) pH range should be 6.5 to 7.5

Climate:-

It is a tropical crop

It requires warm weather

It requires hot and humid climate

During the flowering and ripening stages of its growth, it requires bright sunny

weather for the setting of pods

Cloudy weather and excessive rainfall at flowering time damage the crop to a

great extent.

Optimum temp. required is 27-32oC

Seeds and Sowing:-

1) Seedrate:- 12-15 kg/ha

2) Spacing:- 40 X 10 cm or 60 X 15 cm

3) Sowing time:- First fortnight of June to last week of June

4) Sowing depth:- 3-4 cm

5) Sowing methods:-

a) Broadcasting

b) Drilling

C) Dibbling

6) Seed treatment:-

a) Treat the seeds with Bavistin or Thirum @ 3 g/kg of seeds helps to prevent the

seed borne diseases.



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b) Seeds are also treated with Rhizobium @ 25 g/kg of seeds helps to increase the

Atm. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotically.

Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing operations is required to make a good and well

pulverized seed bed.

Varieties:- ICPL-87, ICPH-8, Pusa-9, Bahar, BDN-2, UPAS-120, Paras, Manak,

Narendra Arhar-1, Durga, Vipula, BSMR-853, BSMR-736, Prabhat, BDN-1, Asha.

Cropping systems:-

A ) Crop rotation:-

P. pea – Wheat

P. pea – Lentil

P. pea – S.cane

P. pea – Maize

B) Intercropping:-

P. pea + Maize

P. pea + Sorghum

P. pea + G. nut

P. pea + Soybean

P. pea + Bajra

P. pea + Sesamum

Manurea and Fertilizers:-

A) Manures:- 10-15 tonnes of FYM/Compost/ha should be applied at the time of final

land preparation.

B) R.D.F :- 20:80:40 kg NPK/ha or 30:60:30 kg NPK/ha

Full dose of N, P, K should be applied at the time of sowing.

Water management:-

It is a Kharif season crop, if rains are received timely or properly then there is no need

of irrigation.

If rains are not received, then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages-



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1) Seedling stage

2) Branching stage

3) Flowering stage

4) Pod development stage

5) Seed formation stage etc.

Weed management:-

One hoeing and 3-4 hand weeding operations are required to control of weeds.

At initial period weeding should be done. P. pea is very sensitive to early growth stages

for weed competition.

If weeding operation is not possible, then should apply herbicides like Alachlor @ 3 lit.

per ha to control of weeds.

Pest and Diseases:-

a) Pests:-

Pod borer

Tur pod fly

Plume moth

Hairy caterpillar

Leaf roller

Control measures:-

Spray the crop with Endosulfan 35 EC @ 1.5 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spray the crop with Monocrotophos @ 1.5 lit./ha in 1000 lit. of water.

Spray the crop with Chlorpyriphos @ 1 lit./ha in 1000 lit. of water.

Application of NASK (Neem Seed Kernel Extract) @ 30-50 kg/ha.

Timely sowing.

Collect and destroy pest infected plant parts.


Clean cultivation.



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b) Diseases:-

Wilt

Stem rot

Sterility mosaic

Control measures:-

Seeds are treated with Bavistin or Thirum @ 3 g/kg of seeds helps to control of seed

borne diseases.

Collect and destroy disease infected plant parts.

Spray the crop with Mancozeb or Zineb @ 1 lit. in 800 lit. of water.

Grow resistant varieties like BSMR-853 and BSMR-736 against sterility mosaic virus.

Clean cultivation.

Harvesting and Yield:-

The best time to harvest the crop is when a large % tage of the pods is mature,

probably 2/3rd to 3/4th of pods turn brown.

Signs of maturity:-

Yellowing of leaves

Dropping of leaves

Pods turns green to yellowish in colour

Seeds becomes green to red in colour

Seed becomes hard and tough

Stems becomes dried and hard

The plants are usually cut with the help of sickle at close to the ground level

The harvested material are dried under sun for 2-3 days

Threshing should be done by means of beating with the help of sticks

The threshed material are cleaned by winnowing operation

The seeds are clean and dried properly under sun

Yield:- 20-25 quintals/ha



New Delhi,

Green gram/Moong/Mung bean

B.N. :- Vigna radiata L.

Family :- Leguminoseae

Origin :- India and Central Asia


i. Mung bean is cultivated in India, Burma, China, Pakistan and Africa etc.

ii. The important mung bean growing states are Orissa, M.H., A.P., M.P., T.N., Rajasthan

and Bihar.


1. Green gram is an excellent source of high quality protein.

2. It contains about 25% protein.

3. Moong is consumed as “whole seeds” as well as “dal”.

4. Sprouted whole moong is used in preparation of “curry”.

5. It is used mostly as “dal” in northern India.

6. It is supposed to be easily digestible and hence is preferred by patients.

7. “Moong halwa” is said to be very nutritious.

8. “Moong dal” it goes very well with tea.

9. Moong bean is also used as leguminous green manuring crop.

10. Being a leguminous crop, it has capacity to fix the atmospheric N.

11. It is also helps in preventing soil erosion.

12. Moong can be used as a feed for cattle.

13. The husks of the seed can be soaked in water and used as cattle feed.

Classification:-

According to seed colour:-

a) Green b) Brown c) Yellow



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According to seed surface:-

a) Dull b) Shine

According to flower colour:-

a) Light yellow b) Olive yellow

According to pod colour:-

a) Iron grey b) Olive grey c) Snuff brown

Ecology or Soil and Climate:-

Soil:-

i. It is grown on variety of soils from red laterite soils to black cotton soils.

ii. Soil should be well drained and fertile one.

iii. Sandy loam soil is best suited for moong cultivation.

iv. Saline and alkaline soils are not suitable for moong cultivation.

v. pH range should be 6.5-7.5.

Climate:-

i. It is a tropical crop.

ii. It requires hot and humid climate.

iii. It also requires warm weather.

iv. Cloudy weather and high temperature at flowering, tends to results in poor seed set.

v. Bright sunshine at the time of pod filling stage, helps to increase the pod yield per plant.

vi. Optimum temperature required for growth and development is 27-320C.

Varieties:- Varsha, Narendra Moong-1, PDM-11, PDM-54, Pusa Vishal, Pant Moong-1,

Pant Moong-3, Pant Moong-4, Gujarat Moong-3, Pusa Vaishakhi, Phule M-2, Vaibhav,

BPMR-145, Jalgaon-781.



New Delhi,

Cropping system:-

Crop rotation:-

Green gram – Maize

Green gram – Safflower

Green gram – Wheat

Green gram – Potato

Green gram – Sugarcane

Intercropping system:-

Green gram + Sorghum

Green gram + Pigeon pea

Green gram + Maize

Green gram + Pearl millet

Green gram + Sesamum etc.

Field preparation:-

One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a

ideal seed bed i.e. coarse seed bed.

Seeds and sowing:-

I. Seed rate:- 12-15 kg/ha

II. Spacing :- 30 X 10 cm

III. Sowing time :- June-July

IV. Sowing depth :- 3-4 cm

V. Sowing methods:- Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.



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VI. Seed treatment:-

Before sowing green gram seeds are treated with Thirum or Captan @ 3 g/kg of

seeds, helps to prevent the seed as well as soil borne diseases.

Seeds are also trea\ted with Rhizobium @ 25 g/kg of seeds, helps to enhance the

atmospheric N fixation by symbiotically and improves the germination of crop.

Manures and Fertilizers or Nutrient management:-



R.D.F. :- 30:60:30 kg NPK/ha or 20:40:20 kg/ha

Full dose of N, P and K should be applied at the time of sowing.

Water management:-

It is a kharif season crop. If rains are received properly or timely, then there is no need of

irrigation.

If rains are not received or delay, then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages-

1. Pre-flowering stage

2. Flowering stage

3. Pod filling stage

4. Seed development stage etc.

Weed management:-


If weeding operations is not possible, due to heavy rains, then should apply herbicides

like Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i./ha.



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Pests:-

i. Hairy caterpillar

ii. Leaf hoppers

iii. Jassids

iv. Pod borer etc.

Control measures:-

Spray the crop with Monocrotophos 36 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.


Spray the crop with Malathion 30 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spray crop with Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1 lit. in 800-1000 li. of water per ha.

Diseases:-

i. Yellow mosaic virus

ii. Leaf curl

iii. Seedling rot

iv. Cercospora leaf spot

v. Anthracnose

vi. Charcoal rot etc.

Control measures:-


Spray the crop with Mancozeb or Zineb @ 800 lit. of water per ha are more effective.



New Delhi,


Shattering of pods is a great problem with pulses.

Signs of maturity:-

i. Yellowing of leaves

ii. Dropping of leaves

iii. Pods become greenish to yellowish in colour

iv. Seed becomes hard and tough

v. Colour of seed becomes light green to dark green in colour.

Picking of pods should be done as soon as the pods mature.

Plants are cut close to the ground level with the help of sickle.

The harvested material should be dried in threshing floor under sun for 2-3 days.

Threshing should be done by means of beating with the help of sticks or bullock trampler.

The threshed material should be cleaned properly by means of winnowing operation.

The cleaned seeds are dried under sun for 2-3 days.

Yield:- 12 to 15 kg/ha.



New Delhi,

Black gram/Udid/Urd bean

B.N. :- Vigna mungo L.

Family:- Leguminosease

Origin:- India


i. It is grown in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Burma etc.

ii. The extensively grown black gram states are M.P., M.H., A.P., T.N. and U.P.


1. Black gram is one of the important pulse crops grown throught out India.

2. It is consumed in the form of ‘dal’, ‘whole seeds’, ‘split pulse’, ‘husked’ and ‘unhusked’.

3. It is the chief constituent of ‘papad’ and also of ‘bari’ which makes a ‘delicious curry’.

4. Also used for preparation of ‘dosa’ and ‘idli’.

5. Black gram or udid dal is also use in the preparation of ‘halwa’ and ‘imarti’.

6. It is used as a nutritive fodder specially for milch cattle.

7. It is also used as a green manuring crop.

8. Udid plant possess deep root system which binds soil particles and thus prevent soil

erosion.

9. Udid seeds contains about 24% protein, 60% CHO, 1.3 % fat and is the richest among the

various pulses in phosphoric acid, being five to ten times richer than in others.

Classification:-

Vigna mungo var. niger – Black colour – Early maturing

Vigna mungo var. viridis – Green colour – Late maturing



New Delhi,


Soil:-

i. Black gram does well on heavier soils such as black cotton soils.

ii. It can be grown on all types of soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay.

iii. Loam or slightly heavy soils are best suited for udid cultivation.

iv. pH range should be 6.5 – 7.5.

Climate:-

i. It is a tropical crop.



iv. Cloudy weather and high temperature at flowering tends to results in poor seed set.

v. Optimum temp. required for growth and development is 27-320C.

Varieties:- Pant U-30, Pant U-19, Narendra U-1, PDU-1, Pant U-35, Mash 414, Mash-338,

PDM-1, Shindkheda-1-1, TPU-1, TPU-4, TAU-1, TAU-4.

Field preparation:-

One deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed

bed i.e. coarse seed bed or well pulvarised seed bed.

Seeds and sowing:-

Seed rate:- 12-15 kg/ha

Spacing:- 45 X 20 cm

Sowing time:- June-July

Sowing depth:- 3-4 cm

Sowing methods:- Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.



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Seed treatment:-

i. Before sowing black gram seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of

seeds helps to prevent seed as well as soil borne diseases.

ii. Seeds are also treated with Rhizobium @ 25 g/kg of seeds, it helps to enhance the

atmospheric N fixation by symbiotically and also improves germination of crop.

Nutrient management or Manures and Fertilizers:-



R.D.F:- 20:40:20 kg NPK/ha or 20:60:40 kg NPK/ha.


Water management or Irrigation management or Water requirement:-

It is a kharif season crop. If rains are received properly or timely then there is no need to

apply irrigation.

If rains are delayed or late then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages such as

–

i. Pre-flowering stage

ii. Flowering stage

iii. Pod development stage

iv. Seed formation stage etc.

Weed management:-

One hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required to make a crop-weed free

environment.

If weeding operation is not possible, then should apply herbicides like Fluchloralin @ 1

kg a.i./HA IN 1000 lit. of water as pre-planting spray.



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Plant protection ( Pests and Diseases):-

Pests:-

1. Hairy caterpillar

2. Leaf hoppers

3. Jassids

4. Pod borer etc.

Control measures:-

Spray the crop with Monocrotophos 36 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.


Spray the crop with Malathion 30 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spray crop with Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1 lit. in 800-1000 li. of water per ha.

Diseases:-

vii. Yellow mosaic virus

viii. Leaf curl

ix. Seedling rot

x. Cercospora leaf spot

xi. Anthracnose

xii. Charcoal rot etc.

Control measures:-


Spray the crop with Mancozeb or Zineb @ 800 lit. of water per ha are more effective.



New Delhi,


Shattering of pods is a great problem with pulses.

Signs of maturity:-

vi. Yellowing of leaves

vii. Dropping of leaves

viii. Pods become greenish to black in colour

ix. Seed becomes hard and tough

x. Colour of seed becomes light black to dark black in colour.

Picking of pods should be done as soon as the pods mature.

Plants are cut close to the ground level with the help of sickle.

The harvested material should be dried in threshing floor under sun for 2-3 days.

Threshing should be done by means of beating with the help of sticks or bullock trampler.

The threshed material should be cleaned properly by means of winnowing operation.

The cleaned seeds are dried under sun for 2-3 days.

Yield:- 15-20 kg/ha.



New Delhi,

COWPEA OR LOBIA (Grain, Fodder and Green manure Purpose)

Botanical name: - Vigna sinensis or Vigna unguiculata

Family:- Leguminosease/Paplionaceae

Origin:- Central Africa


1. Cowpea is mainly grown in Africa.

2. Major cowpea growing countries are India, China, Africa and Europe.

3. Major cowpea growing states are U.P., Punjab, Delhi and Haryana.


1. Cowpea is commonly known as “Lobia” is used as a Pulse, a fodder and a green manure

crop.

2. Being rich in protein (23.4%), 1.8 % Fat and 60.3 % CHO and containing many other

nutrients, hence it is known as “Vegetable meat.”

3. It is also rich source of calcium and iron.

4. It is used for both human consumption and as a concentrate feed for cattle.

5. The cowpea crop forms excellent forage for milch cattle.

6. The feeding value of cowpea forage is high and quite comparable to lucerene.

7. Cowpea is often grown as a green manure for soil improvement.

8. Cowpea being a legume crop, it has capacity to fix atm. N2 and it helps to improve soil

fertility.

9. Cowpea is an erosion resisting crop or cover crop.



New Delhi,

Classification:-

1) Vigna sinensis- Cowpea

2) Vigna sinensis sub spp. Catjang – Indian cowpea

3) Vigna sinensis sub spp. Sesquipedalis- Green cowpea


Soil:-

1. It can be grown on a variety of soils.

2. Soils should be well drained and fertile.

3. Waterlogging soils are not ideal for cowpea cultivation.

4. Saline or alkaline soils are not suited to cowpea cultivation.

5. pH range should be 6.5-7.5

Climate:-

1. It is a tropical crop.

2. It requires hot and humid climate.

3. It requires warm weather.

4. The minimum temp. required for germination is 12-15oC.

5. Crop thrives best between 27-35oC temperature.



New Delhi,

Varieties:-

For Grain and Vegetable Purpose For Fodder Purpose

Pusa Phalguni Phule Pandhri (PCP-9708) Sweta

Pusa Dofasli Konkan Sadabahar EC-4216

Pusa Barsati No. 21 Bundel Lobia

Pusa Rituraj C-152 UPC-5286

CO-1 V-16

N-5-19-4-1

Cropping systems:-

A. Crop rotation :- B. Intercropping system:-

Cowpea-Maize Cowpea + Maize

Cowpea-Wheat Cowpea + Pigeon pea

Cowpea-Sorghum Cowpea + Sorghum

Cowpea-Safflower Cowpea + Pearl millet

Cowpea-Sunflower Cowpea + Sesamum

Field or Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed bed

i.e clean and smooth or coarse seed bed.



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Seeds and sowing :-

1. Seed rate :- a) For Grain/Vegetable :- 20-25 kh/ha

b) For Fodder purpose :- 35-45 kg/ha

c) For Green manure purpose :- 35-40 kg/ha

2. Spacing :- 45 x 10 cm or 0 x 15 cm

3. Sowing time :- June – July

4. Sowing depth :- 4-5 cm

5. Sowing methods :- Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.

6. Seed treatment:-

a) Seeds are treated with thirum or Bavistin @ 3 g/kg of seeds helps to prevent seed borne as well as

soil borne diseases.

b) Also seeds are treated with Rhizobium @ 25 g/kg of seed helps to improve atm. N2 fixation.

Manures and fertilizers:-

Manures :- Add 8-10 tonnes of FYM/Compost per ha at the time of final land preparation.

RDF :- 20:60:40 kg NPK/ha

Full dose of NPK should be applied at the time of sowing.

Additional 30 kg P should be applied at the time of flowering stage.

Water management :-

a) It is a kharif season crop, if rains are received properly or timely, then there is no need of irrigation.

b) If rains are not received then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages-



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1) Early vegetative growth stage

2) Pre-flowering stage

3) Flowering stage

4) Pod filling stage

5) Seed formation stage

Weed management:-

a) One hoeing and 2-3 weeding operations are required to make a crop-weed free environment.

b) Cowpea acts as a smother crop, it can grows quickly, early canopy development and rapid/quick

ground cover, helps to control weeds.

c) If weeding operation is not possible due to heavy rains, then should apply herbicides like

Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i./ha in 1000 lit. of water as a pre-plant incorporation (PPI) spray.

Pests and diseases:-

Pests:-

a) Hairy caterpillar

b) Leaf hopper

c) Jassids

d) Aphids

Control Measures:-

1) collect and destroy pest infected plant parts.

2) Spray crop with Endosulpan @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.



New Delhi,

3) Spray crop with Quinolphos @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

4) Spray the crop with Malathion @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

Diseases:-

a) Bacterial blight

b) Cow pea mosaic virus

c) Powdery mildew

d) Rust

Control measures:-

1) Collect and destroy disease infected plant parts.

2) Grow resistant varieties.

3) Treat the seeds with Thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds to control the seed as well as soil borne

diseases.

4) Spray the crop with fungicides like Mancozed @ 1 lit. in 800 li. of water.

5) Spray the crop with Zineb @ 1 lit. in 800-1000 lit. of water.


A) For seed purpose:-

Signs of maturity :-

a) Yellowing of leaves

b) Dropping of leaves



New Delhi,

c) Pods becomes greenish to yellow or brown in colour

d) Seed becomes hard and tough

e) Metallic sound comes when shaking of pods

1. Cowpea crop is harvested, when colour of pods become greenish to yellow in colour.

2. Delay harvesting tends to results shattering of pods.

3. Crop should be harvested at correct maturity stage to avoid losses of seed yield. i.e when pods are

yellow in colour and stalk of pods are slightly green.

4. Cow pea crop is harvested either by means of picking of pods separately or whole plants are

uprooted.

5. The harvested material should be transferred on threshing floor mill and dried it again for 2-3 days.

6. Threshing should be done by means of threshing machine or beating with the help of sticks.

7. The threshed material should be clean properly and dried under sun for 2-3 days.

B) For Fodder purpose:-

1. Cowpea crop grown as a fodder purpose should be harvested at flowering stage or when crops

have tender pods.

2. At this stage crops provides good green biomass and rich in nutrients are helpful for cattle.

3. Crop should be harvested either by uprooting of whole plant or cutting with the help of sharp sickle.

C) For Vegetable purpose:-

1. When cowpea crop grown as a vegetable purpose should be harvested at when pods are tender,

dark green in colour and succulent.

2. Harvesting is done by means of picking of green pods.



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3. Harvested pods are packed in gunny bags and sale to the market after grading of pods, removal of

leaves, stem and soil etc.

Yield:-

a) Seed yield - 12-15 quintals/ha

b) Vegetable/Green pod yield – 1000-2000 quintals/ha

c) Straw/dried biomass yield – 50-60 quintals/ha

d) Green fodder yield – 250-350 quintals/ha



New Delhi,

GROUND NUT/PEA NUT/EARTH NUT/MONKEY NUT/MOON FALI

Botanical name: - Arachis hypogea

Family:- Leguminosease/Paplionaceae

Origin:- Brazil

Hypogea - means the types of germination of ground nut is hypogeal. During

germination the cotyledons are present in below ground.

Below ground referring the formation of pods in the soil.


1. G. nut is grown on large scale almost in all tropical and sub-tropical conditions.

2. The most important G. nut growing countries are India, Nigeria, China, USA and

Sudan.

3. It is cultivated over an area of 24.7 mha with a total production of 33 mt. and av.

productivity of 1336 kg/ha in the world.

4. India ranks first in the area (8.0 mha) and china in the production (12.07 mt).

5. In India G.nut is grown in Gujarat, A.P., Karnataka, T.N., M.H., M.P., Rajasthan, U.P,

and Punjab.

6. The highest area under cultivation of G.nut is in Gujarat followed by A.P. and KTK.

7. Howeverer, av. productivity is more in T.N. (1659 kg/ha).


a. G. nut is known as the pea nut, monkey nut, earth nut or moong fali.

b. It is one of the important oilseed crop and ranks first amongst other oilseed crop.

c. It is an importance source of food, feed, nutrition and fodder.

d. G. nut kernels contains about 25% protein which is about 1.3 times higher than meat

(soybean), 2.5 times higher than eggs and 8 times higher than fruits.

e. The oil content in kernels ranges from 40-50% and is used for cooking purpose and

also for making vanaspati ghee.

f. G. nut haulms make a very palatable fodder to cattle.

g. It can also fed with farm hay as well as after converting into silage.

h. The haulms are rich in nutrients contains about 8-11% protein.



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i. G. nut kernels are used in the roasted form, fried and salted.

j. G. nut milk, curd, butter and chatni is prepared from raw G. nut kernels.

k. G. nut is a rich source of thiamine, riboflavin and vit. E.

l. It is also a good source of all B vitamins except B12.

m. Oil cakes obtained after extraction of oil serves as good source of organic matter and

contains 7-8 % nitrogen, 1.5% P and 1.5% K.

n. It is a good rotation crop and fixes atm. N through the root nodules.

o. It also acts as a good cover crop.

p. G. nut acts as a erosion resisting crop.

q. Oil is used in beauty aids, shaving cream and cold cream etc.

r. Bitter in taste in ground nut kernels due to presence of fungus “Aspergillus flavus”.

s. Aspergillum flavus causes “Aflatoxin” in groundnut.

Aspergillum flavus fungus develops on groundnut kernels when moisture content > 4 %.

Classification:-

1. Errect and Bunch type:-

Seed dormancy absent

Early maturing type

2. Semi-spreading or spreading type:-

Seed dormancy present

Late maturing type

Soil and climate:-

Soil:-

1. G. nut thrives best on well drained and fertile soil.

2. Sandy loam soil are ideal for G. nut cultivation.

3. Light soils helps in easy penetration of pegs, their development and harvesting of

pods.

4. Clay or heavy soils are not suitable as they interfere in penetration of pegs,

development and harvesting of pods becomes difficult.

5. Soil should have high water holding capacity.

6. Waterlogging soils are not suitable.



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7. Saline soils are also not ideal for G. nut.

Climate:-

1. G. nut is a tropical crop.

2. It requires a hot and humid climate.

3. It also requires warm weather.

4. The optimum temp. required for vegetative growth is 27-30oC.

5. For reproductive growth is maximum at 30-34oC.

6. During ripening period G.nut requires warm and dry weather.

Land preparation:-

One ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed

bed i.e. loose and friable seedbed.

Ridges and furrows and raised beds are better than the flat beds in heavy rainfall

regions.

BBF (Broad Bed Furrow) system or method is better for G. nut cultivation.

Generally deep ploughing should be avoided as it encourages the development of

pods in deeper layers of soil and makes harvesting difficult.

Land should be leveled to avoid stagnation of water.

Seeds and sowing:-

1. Seed rate:- a) Bunch type:- 120 kg/ha

b) Spreading type:- 100 kg/ha

2. Spacing :- a) Bunch type:- 30 X 10 cm

b) Spreading type:- 30 X 15 cm

3. Sowing time:- June-July

4. Sowing depth:- In heavy soil- 4-5 cm

In light soil- 5-7 cm

5. Sowing methods:- Drilling, Dibbling, Broadcasting, Sowing behind the plough etc.



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6. Seed treatment:-

Seed treatment with 0.1% Ehtrel or combination with thirum it helps to improve

germination of seeds.

Thirum slurry treatment has been found beneficial in reducing the dormancy by 50%.

Foliar spray of 250-1000 PPM of malic hydrazide at 60 and 75 DAS induces seed

dormancy.

The seeds are treated with captan or thirum or Dithane M-45 @ 3-5 kg of seeds for

protecting the crop from seed-borne as well soil borne diseases.

Seeds are treated with Rhizobium culture i.e. Rhizobium Jeg-1 strain has been found

superior for increase the no. of root nodules and helps for increases the atmospheric N

fixation by symbiotically.

Varieties:- JL-24, TG-17, TG-24, Chandra, Kisan, Co-1, Konkan Tapora, Konkan

Gaurav, Kopergaon-1, Kopergaon-3, TMV-1, TMV-2, TMV-3, TMV-4, TMV-5, TMV-6,

TMV-7, TMV-8, TMV-9, TMV-10, Karad-4-11, GPBD-4, Girnar.

Improved techniques:-

1. Broad bed and Furrow (BBF) method:-

In areas where the soils are vertisol and rainfall is high, this method is adopted.

Drainage of excess water is problem under such condition.

Excess water is effectively drained through furrow as also the moisture is considered

for a longer time.

2. Paired row method:-

Two pairs of rows are spaced at 45 or 60 cm with a spacing of 22.5 or 30 cm within

the pair.

3. Criss- Cross pattern:-

Total seed lot is divided in two parts and sowing is done.

Half of seed is sown in one direction by adopting recommended spacing.



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Remaining half is sown in per-pendicular to the first direction at same row spacing.


G. nut being is a legume and oilseed crop, it requires Sulphur and P.

Calcium is another important mineral for G. nut production.

G. nut has unique characteristics of absorbing about 75% S and Ca through

gynophores and developing pods.



R.D.F :- 20-40 kg N : 50-60 kg P : 30-40 kg K per ha.


In additional application of Gypsum @ 10-15 kg/ha at the time of flowering and pod

formation stage respectively.

Gypsum provides Calcium and Sulphur to the plants.

Sulphur helps to increases the oil content of seeds.

Calcium helps for enhancing the pod yield of G.nut.

Due to calcium deficiency causes the popping in g.nut.

Popping in G. nut means pods are without seeds or empty or seed development does

not takes place in G. nut pods is called as popping.

Water management or irrigation requirement or Water requirement:-

It is a kharif season crop. If rains are received timely or properly then there is no need

of irrigation.

If rains are delayed or late then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages such

as-

1. Early vegetative stage

2. Flowering stage

3. Peg formation or pegging stage

4. Pod development stage

5. Seed formation stage etc.

Pegging or peg formation stage are the critical growth stage of G. nut for irrigation.



New Delhi,

Weed management:-

The critical period for crop weed competition reported to be between 28-45 DAS.

Weeds cause considerable reduction in the yield of G. nut.

One or two hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required to make a weed

free crop environment.

First hoeing should be done at 3 weeks after sowing.

Second hoeing should be done before flowering and peg formation.

The weeds can also be controlled by spraying of herbicides like Fluchloralin @ 1 kg

a.i./ha.

Inter-cultivation or Inter-tillage or Intercultural operations:-

1. Earthing up:-

Earthing up is a special type of operation carried out in this crop.

The earthing up should be done by tying string with the tines of the hoe.

Earthing up promotes easy penetration of pegs into the soil and provide more area

to spread.

To provides support to plant and control of weeds.

To helps for better aeration or exchange of gases.

To maintain optimum soil temperature.

Earthing up operation should be done before peg formation.

2. Drum rolling:-

Rolling an empty iron drum or a plastic drum with some stones over the crop at

50 or 50 and 70 days after sowing bunch type groundnut cultivars increased the pod

yield by increasing the spread of branches on the ground which enabled the pegs

located on the upper part of branches to enter into the moist soil. While rolling the

drum take the precaution that it should not damage groundnut crop.

Pegging in Ground nut:-

The most striking characteristics of ground nut is its manner of flowering and seed

formation.

The flowers are borne at the axils of the leaves.

The flowers are self pollinated after pollination, the perianth withers.



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After flowering pegs are formation takes place.

At the base of the ovary a meristematic region grows and become a stalk like structure

i.e. gynophore that bends downward and forces the ovary into the soil.

The gynophore is commonly called or referred as the peg.

The peg carrying the ovary pushes itself into the soil.

It is only after entering the soil that the ovary begins to develop and takes up a

horizontal position.

Factors affecting pegging:-

The no. of pegs are higher in bunch type than spreading and semi-spreading types.

The cultivars of sub. Species Valencia has thicker pegs than sub. Species hypogea.

1. If soil moisture drops or reduced the process of pegging may stop and the formed

pegs may die.

2. High light intensity affects the pegging.

3. Daily min. mean temperature is positively correlated with peg formation.

Maximum temperature has negative effects of pegging.

4. Early formed flowers may inhibits the development of other flowers into peg.

Cropping systems:-

1. Crop rotation:-

G. nut – Wheat

G. nut – Field pea

G. nut – Lentil

G. nut – Chickpea

G. nut – Maize

2. Intercropping systems:-

G. nut + Maize

G. nut + Peral millet



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G. nut + Sorghum

G. nut + Pigeon pea


Pests:-

1. Leaf minor

2. Aphids

3. Thrips

4. White grub

5. Bihar hairy caterpillar

Control measures:-

Spraying of Dimethoate @ 200-300 ml/ha.

Application of Phorate @ 10 % granules.

Collect and destroy the pest infected plant parts.

Spraying of Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water.

Diseases:-

1. Tikka

2. Collar rot

3. Sclerotium rot

4. Rust

Control measures:-

Seeds are treat with Thirum or Captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds.

Grow tolerant varieties like JL-24, K-3

Spraying of Zineb @ 2 kg in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

Spraying of Mancozeb @ 1 lit. in 1000 li. of water per ha.

Collect and destroy disease affected plant parts.


Bunch type varieties are harvested within 90-110 days and spreading type varieties

are harvested within 140-160 days.



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Signs of maturity:-


2. Dropping of leaves

3. Color of pod becomes whitish to brown in colour

4. Colour of seed becomes whitish to grey or red in colour

5. Pod becomes hard and tough

6. Metallic sound comes when shaking and breaking of pods

7. Dark tannin discolouration inside the shell

Bunch and semi-spreading type of G. nut are harvested by uprooting either by hand,

blade harrow and diggers.

Spreading type of G. nut is harvested by digging out the plants by khurpi or spade or

diggers.

The harvested material should be transferred on threshing floor mill and spread

uniformly for drying under sun for 2-3 days.

After drying of G. nut plants, the pods are separated from the plant.

The pods are clean properly i.e. leaves, soil should be removed and dried under sun

for 2-3 days.

After drying of pods, the seeds are separated from pods and stored in gunny bags.

Yield:- Bunch type- 15-20 quintals/ha, Spreading type-25-30 quintals/ha.



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Sesame/Sesamum/Til

B.N.- Sesamum indicum

Family :- Pedaliaceae

Origin:- Brazil


1. The major sesamum growing countries are India, China, Sudan, Nigeria, Burma etc.

2. India occupies first place as regards area and production of sesamum.

3. Major sesamum growing states are Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P., U.P., T.N., M.H, A.P.,

W.B. and KTK etc.


1. The sesame is appropriately known as “Queen of oilseeds”, due to High Quality

Polyunsaturated Stable Fatty Acid (HQPSFA), which restrain oxidative rancidity.

2. Sesame mainly planted for its seed, its high level of oil and protein.

3. Sesame content rich in oil (50-52 %) and protein (20-25 %).

4. About 78% of sesame produced in the country is used for oil extraction, 28% edible

purpose and 2% seed purpose.

5. Nearly 73% of the soil is used for edible purposes.

6. Sesame soil is used in perfumed industries.

7. Sesame oil have high ‘Antioxidant property’, hence its shelf life is several years.

8. Sesame seed colour which varies from white, black and yellow.

9. Sesame white and yellow seeded are mainly used for eating purpose and oil

extraction and black seeded are used only for oil extraction.

10. Sesame seeds are rich in calcium and ‘P’.

11. Sesame seeds content low amount of Lysine, however, it is still rich in other amino

acids like Cystine, Methionine, Leucine and Arginine.

12. Both balck and white sesame have a higher Phenolic content its helps to

“Antioxidant property.”



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13. Sesame seeds are used for preparation of products like halwa, bakery and sweet

confections.

14. Whole seed of sesame are used in preparation of salad and baked snacks.

15. Sesame oil content high PUFA (Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids) and having semi-

drying in nature.

16. Sesamum oil content Linoleic acid (48%).

17. The potent of the ‘Antioxidant properties” of the sesame seed oil are attributed to

mainly to the presence of “lignans” such as “Sesamin” and “Sesamolin”.

18. Sesame oil is mainly used for cooking, it is well used for salad, also used for

making of meat and vegetables, paints, soaps and fragrance like perfumes.

19. Refined sesame oil is used in the “Pharmaceuticals” and also cosmetic products.

20. After oil extraction the sesame seed cake is a well obtained, this is used for

concentrate feed for cattle.

21. Sesame seeds are eaten in form of mixing with sugar or gur.

22. Sesamum oil is used for anointing the hairs and body.

23. Sesamum oil is used in perfumed oil and for medicinal purpose.

24. Sesame oil contains Vit. A, B and E.

25. It is most ancient oilseed crop of India next to ground nut and brassica oilseeds.

26. Sesame Oil is a poor man’s substitute for ghee.

Classification:-

1. According to maturity period:-

a) Early b) Late

2. According to colour of seed:-

a) White b) Black

3. According to no. of carpels in the capsule:-

a) Bi carpellatum b) Quadri carpellatum

4. According to Chromosome No.:-

a) 2n = 16 b) 2n = 32 c) 2n = 64

5. According to Growth stages:-

a) Establishment stage



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b) Vegetative stage

c) Reproductive stage

d) Ripening stage etc.

Soil and Climate:-

Soil:-

i. Sesame is highly susceptible to water logging codition.

ii. Saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for cultivation.

iii. It can be grown on wide range of soils with good drainage.

iv. It can also grown on loams and heavy clay loams which are well drained and fertile

one.

v. pH range should be 6.5 to 8.0

Climate:-

i. Sesame is a tropical crop.



iv. Low temperature at flowering can result in the production of sterile pollen.

v. It is a short day plant and requires a min. of 10 hrs light per day.

vi. Optimum temperature is 30-330C.

vii. It is susceptible to hail damage.

Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal

seed bed i.e fine seed bed.

Seeds and sowing:-

I. Seed rate:- 4-7 kg/ha – Broadcasting

3-4 kg/ha – Drilling

II. Sowing time:- June-July

III. Spacing :- 45 X 15 cm

IV. Sowing depth :- 3-4 cm

V. Sowing methods:- Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.



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VI. Seed treatments:-

Before sowing sesame seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds, it

helps to prevents the seed as well as soil borne diseases.

Also seed are treated with Azospirillum or Azotobacter @ 25 g/kg of seeds, it helps to

enhance the atm. N fixation by non-sybiotically and also improves the germination of

crop.

Varieties:- Gauri, Madhavi, Haryana Til-1, Phule Til-1, Gujarat Til-1, Tapi, Kanak, TMV-

3, TMV-4, TMV-5, TMV-6




R.D.F :- 30:60:30 kg NPK/ha.

Half dose of N and Full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of sowing.

Remaining half dose of N should be applied at the time of flowering stage or capsule

formation stage.

Cropping systems:-

Crop rotation:-

Sesame – Safflower

Sesame – Cotton

Sesame – Wheat

Sesame – Potato

Intercropping systems:-

Sesame + Green gram

Sesame + Soybean

Sesame + Sorghum

Sesame + Pigeon pea

Sesame + Pearl millet



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Water requirement or Water management or Irrigation management:-

It is a kharif season crop. If rains are received timely or properly then there is no need

of irrigation.

If rains are delayed or late then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages such as

–

a. Pre-flowering stage

b. Flowering stage

c. Capsule setting or formation stage

d. Seed development stage etc.

Weed management:-

Sesame is sensitive to weed competition during initial period.

2 hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required to make the crop weed free

condition.

Herbicides like Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i./ha in 800-1000 lit. of water at pre-planting.

Also spray the Alachlor @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha also found effective.


Pests:-

1. Leaf roller

2. Gall fly

3. Capsule borer

4. Bud fly


Control measures:-

i. Use tolerant varieties.

ii. Spraying of Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1.25 lit. in 1000 li. of water per ha.

iii. Collect and destroy infected plant parts.

iv. Spraying of Malathion 30 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.



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Diseases:-

1. Phyllody

2. Seedling blight

3. Bacterial blight

4. Powdery mildew etc.

Control measures:-

i. Soil application of Phorate 10 % granules @ 10 kg per ha.

ii. Collect and destroy the affected plant parts.

iii. 3-4 spraying of Zineb @ 2 kg in 1000 lit. of water per ha.


Signs of maturity:-



iii. Colour of stem becomes greenish to brown or whitish in colour

iv. Colour of capsule turns greenish to brown or yellow in colour

v. Colour of seed turns light white to yellow or dark white in colour

vi. Metallic sound comes when shaking of capsule or plant.

The capsules at the base of the plants mature first and the start maturing upwards.

Plants should be harvested as and when they are yellowish to brown in colour

They should not be allowed to stand dead ripe in the field.

Otherwise there would be considerable loss due to shattering.

After harvest, harvested materials should be transferred on threshing floor.

Threshing should be by means of threshing machine.

The threshed material should clean properly and dried under sun.

Yield:- 8-10 quintals/ha.



New Delhi,

Soybean

B.N. :- Glycine max L.

Family:- Leguminoseae

Origin:- China


Soybean is one of the important pulse as well as oilseed crop in the world.

The important soybean growing countries are USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and Russian

Ferderation.

USA ranks first in terms of area and production of soybean.

In India major soybean growing states are M.P., U.P, M.H, A.P, Karnataka, Gujarat and

Rajasthan etc.


Soybean can be used as a both Pulse as well as Oilseed crop.

Soybean possesses a very high nutritional value and high yield potential.

It contains about 20% oil and 40% protein.

Soybean protein is rich in the valuable amino acids i.e. Lycine in which most of the

cereals are deficient.

In addition, it contains a good amount of minerals, salts, fats and vitamins.

Sprouting seeds contain a considerable amount of Vit. C.

Soybean oil is used for manufacturing of vanaspati ghee.

Soybean oil also used for cooking purpose.

Soybean is used for making high protein food for children.

It is widely used in the industrial production of different antibiotics.

Soybean build up the soil fertility by fixing large amount of atmospheric N through the

root nodules and also leaf fall on the ground at maturity.



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It can be used as fodder and forage for cattle.

Soybean is called as “Golden Bean” because it can be used as pulse, oilseed, green

manure, fodder, cover crop as well as raw material for agrobased industries.

Soybean being the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best quality proteins and

fats and having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products, that’s why

soybean is called as “wonder crop”.

Soybean also called as “poor man’s meat”.

Classification:-

A) According to colour of seed:-

1. Green 2. Black 3. Yellow

B) According to shape and size of seed:-

1. Soja elliptica

2. Soja spherica

3. Soja compressa

C) According to shape of pods:-

1. Soja platy carpa

2. Soja tumida

Soil and Climate:-

Soil:-

i. It can be grown on all types of soils.

ii. Soil should be well drained and fertile.

iii. Soil should have high water holding capacity.

iv. Waterlogging soils are not suitable for soybean cultivation.

v. Saline soils are also not ideal for soybean.

vi. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are ideal for soybean.

vii. pH range should be 6.5 to 7.5.



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Climate:-

i. It is a tropical crop or it is a kharif season crop.



iv. Low temperature at flowering tends to results poor seed set.

v. Optimum temp. required is 26-300C.

Varieties:- Bragg, Lee, Soya-2, Pusa-16, Pusa-20, Ankur, Gaurav, Gujarat Soy-1,

Monetta, Co-1, Co-2, MACS-124, JS-335, Phule Kalyani etc.

Cropping systems:-

Crop Rotation:-

1. Soybean-Wheat

2. Soybean-Chickpea

3. Soybean-Maize

4. Soybean-Safflower

Intercropping system:-

1. Soybean + Maize

2. Soybean + Sorghum

3. Soybean + Pearl millet

4. Soybean + Pigeon pea

5. Soybean + Green gram etc.

Land preparation:-

One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a

ideal seed bed i.e coarse seed bed.

Seeds and Sowing:-

1. Seed rate:- 70-80 kg/ ha – Timely sowing

100-120 kg/ha – Late sowing



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2. Spacing:- 60 X 30 cm 0r 45 X 15 cm

3. Sowing time- June-July

4. Sowing depth:- 3-4 cm

5. Sowing methods:- Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling etc.

6. Seed treatments:-

Before sowing soybean seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds,

helps to prevent seed as well as soil borne diseases.

Also seeds are treated with Rhizobium japonicum @ 25 g/kg of seeds, helps to

increases the atmospheric N fixation by symbiotically.

Manures and Fertilizers or Nutrient Management:-

Manures:- Add 15-20 tonnes of FYM or Compost/ha should be applied at the time of

final land preparation or before one month of sowing.

R.D.F:- 20-30 kg N: 70-80 kg P: 50-60 kg K/ha


In addition to apply Gypsum @ 400 kg/ha, helps to provides sulphur and calcium to

the plant.

200 kg Gypsum should be applied at the time of sowing and remaining 200 kg gypsum

should be applied at flowering stage.

Due to sulphur helps to increase the oil content in soybean seeds.

Water management or Irrigation management:-

i. It is a kharif season crop. If rains are received timely or properly, then there is a no

need of irrigation.

ii. If rains are not received then should apply water or irrigation at critical growth stages

such as,

a) Seedling stage

b) Branching stage



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c) Flowering stage

d) Pod filling stage

e) Seed formation stage etc.

Weed management:-

Soybean is a considered as smother crop, it helps to control of weeds.

But, at initial period soybean is very sensitive to weed-crop competition.

If weeding is not done, then reduces the crop yield.

Application of Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i./ha in 800-1000 lit. of water helps to control

weeds.


Pests and Diseases:-

Pests:-

1. Stem fly

2. Girdle beetle


4. Tobacco caterpillar

5. Semi looper etc.

Control measures:-

1) Apply phorate @ 10 kg/ha in soil before sowing.

2) Spraying of Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1.0 lit. in 1000 lit. of water/ha.

3) Collect and destroy pest infected plant parts.


5) Clean cultivation.

6) Timely sowing.



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Diseases:-

1) Seedling rot

2) Leaf spot

3) Anthracnose

4) Rust

5) Yellow vein mosaic etc.

Control Measures:-

1) Seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds will control the diseases

effectively.

2) Spray the crop with Mancozeb @ 2.5 kg/ha in 1000 lit. of water/ha.

3) Collect and destroy infected plant parts.

4) Clean cultivation.



Sings of maturity:-

1) Yellowing of leaves

2) Dropping of leaves

3) Pods becomes greenish to yellowish in colour

4) Seed becomes hard and golden yellow in colour.

5) Metallic sound comes when shaking of pods or whole plant.

6) Seed becomes hard and tough.

Soybean should be harvested timely, if harvesting is delayed, then shattering and

shedding of pods as well as seeds takes place.

Harvesting is done either by uprooting the whole plants, cutting the whole plants close

to the ground level by means of sharp sickle.



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Harvested plant material should be transfer or carry in threshing floor and dried it under

sun for 2-3 days.

Threshing should be done with the help of threshing machine or bullock trampler or

beating with the help of sticks.

Threshed seed material should clean properly and dried under sun.

Yield:- 30-35 quintals/ha.



New Delhi,

Niger / Karla

B.N. :- Guizotia abyssinica L.

Family:- Compositeae

Origin :- Ethiopia

Area and Distribution :-

Most important Niger growing countries are Sudan, Pakistan, Nepal, India and

Bangladesh.

In India the major Niger growing states are M.P., M.H., Orissa, A.P., Bihar,

Karnataka and W.B.

Economic Importance/Uses:-

1. Niger seeds is principally (75%) used for extraction of oil in India.

2. Niger seed is used as a human food.

3. The seeds contains 35-40 % oil, which is pale yellow with nutty taste and a pleasant

odour.

4. The keeping quality of oil is poor due to high content of unsaturated fatty acids

(Oleic acid 38% and Linoleic acid 51.6 %).

5. The oil is used for culinary purposes, for anointing the body, for manufacturing

paints and soft soaps, for lighting and lubrication and for manufacturing of

cosmetics.

6. The Niger oil is good absorbent of fragrance of flowers, due to which it is used as a

base oil by perfume industry.

7. Niger seed cake is a valuable cattle feed particularly for milch cattle.

8. Niger is also used as a green manure.

9. It is also used as a manure.

Soil and Climate :-

Soil :-

i. It can be grown on wide range of soils varies from sandy loam to clay loam soils.

ii. Soil should be well drained and fertile one.

iii. Waterlogging soils are unfit for niger cultivation.



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iv. Saline and alkaline soils are not ideal for niger cultivation.

v. pH range should be 6.5-7.5.

Climate :-

i. It is tropical crop.



iv. Bright sunshine hours at vegetative growth stage helps to increase the

photosynthesis and finally seed yield.

v. Optimum temp. required is 27-32oC.

Varieties :-

GA-10, GA-5, RCR-17, IGP-76, Gaudaguda local, Sahyadri, Phule karala, N-12-3, N-5,

Ootacamund

Land preparation/Requirement :-

On deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed

bed i.e. fine seed bed.

Seeds and Sowing :-

i. Seed rate :- 5-8 kg/ha

ii. Spacing :- 30 X 10 cm or 20 x 10 cm

iii. Sowing time :- Middle of June to early August

iv. Sowing depth :- 3-4 cm

v. Sowing methods :-

Broadcasting

Drilling

Dibbling

vi) Seed treatments: - Seeds are treated with thirum @ 3 g/kg of seeds helps to prevent the




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Manures and Fertilizers:-

Manures:-

10-15 tonnes of FYM or Compost/ha should be applied at the time of final land

preparation.

R.D.F :- 20:40:20 kg NPK + 10 kg S (Gyspum)/ha

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should applied at the time of sowing.

Remaining half dose of N should be applied at the time of flowering stage.

Also application of 10 kg Gypsum as a source of sulphur, helps to increase the oil

content in seed.

Water management :-

It is a kharif season crop, if rains are received timely or properly then there is no

need of irrigation.

If rains are not received then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages-

1) Seedling stage

2) Flowering stage

3) Capitula formation stage

4) Seed formation stage

Weed management :-

One hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding operations are required for control of Dodder

(Cuscuta) a partial stem parasitic weed found in niger crop.

If weeding operations are not possible due to heavy rains then should apply

herbicides like Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha as a PPI spray.


Pests:-

i. Niger caterpillar

ii. Hairy caterpillar

iii. Semilooper

iv. Cut worm

Control measures:- Spraying of Quinolphos or Malathion @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water

per ha.



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Diseases:-

i. Alternaria leaf spot

ii. Powdery Mildew

iii. Root rot

iv. Seed rot

Control measures:- Before sowing seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3g/kg of

seeds helps to prevent the seed borne diseases.


Harvesting of niger should be done at correct maturity stage for preventing the

shattering losses of seeds.

Signs of maturity :-



iii. Stem becomes green to brown or black in colour

iv. Seed becomes white to black in colour.

Cutting the plants close to ground level with the help of sharp sickle.

The harvested material should be kept for 2-3 days on the field for drying.

If crop are completely dried then should be transfer the harvested material

immediately on threshing floor.

Crops should be harvested when capitula are slightly green in colour, for avoiding

the shattering losses.

Threshing operation should be done by means of threshing machine.

The threshed material should be clean properly and dried under sun.

Yield :- 400-500 kg/ha – Pure crop, 150-500 kg/ha – Inter crop.



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COTTON (King of Fibre)

Gossypol present in cotton seed which is poisonous to the cattle.

Botanical name- Gossypium spp.

Family- Malvaceae

Origin- India

Geographical distribution:

Russia, UAS, China, India, Brazil, Pakistan, Turkey, Egypt, Mexico and Sudan are

major cotton growing countries.

India is the third largest cotton producer followed by USA and China

Av. Productivity of cotton in India is lower than Russia

In India cotton is cultivated in M.H., Gujarat, A.P., Rajasthan, Haryana, Karnataka,

Punjab, T.N., Orissa and U.P.

M.H. ranks first in area and production followed by Gujarat, A.P. and Rajasthan.


1) Cotton is also called as white Gold is one of the most important commercial crop.

2) It plays a prominent role in national and international economy.

3) Cotton is called as king of fibre crop in an industrial commodity.

4) It is one of the most important commercial crop playing key role in economic affairs of

the world.

5) It is chiefly grown for fibre, used in manufacture of cloth.

6) Oil content in the cotton seed ranges from 15 to 25 % depending on the varieties.

7) American cotton varieties contains more oil %.

8) Raw cotton is used for medical and surgical purposes.

9) It is used for manufacturing of high grade paper, films and explosives etc.

10) The stalk is used as fuel for making paper pulp, cultivation of mushrooms, waste

material etc.

11) Cotton seed cake serves good concentrate feed for cattle.

12) It is also used as a good manure and contains about 6 % N, 3 % P, 2% K.



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Classification:-

1) Desi cotton (Diploid ssp.) (Old world cotton) 2n= 13

a) Gossypium arboreum

b) Gossypium herbaceum

2) New world cotton- popularly known as American cotton, 2n= 26

a) Gossypium barbadense (Sea Island cotton) = Long staple cotton

b) Gossypium hirsutum (American cotton) = highest area under cultivation

India is only country can cultivate all types of cotton species.

Soil and Climate:-

Climate:-

It is a tropical crop.

It requires hot and humid climate.

It also requires warm weather.

The mini. temp. is 20-26o C required for germination and 21 – 27oC for proper

vegetative growth.

During fruiting temp. required i.e. 27- 32oC.

During fruiting period heavy showers of rains may results shedding of flower and young

bolls formation.

Cloudy weather and high humidity tends to result increase attack of sucking pests.

Soil:-

Cotton can be successfully grown on all soils except sandy, saline and waterlogged

soils.

It can grown in all types of soils

Cotton needs fertile soil with good moisture holding capacity.

Soil should be good aeration and drainage condition.

pH range should be 6.5 – 8.5.

Varieties:

Desi cotton/Irrigated cotton varieties:- AKH-4, AKH-5, AKA-84001, Jyoti.

Americun cotton/Rainfed cotton varieties:- MCU-4, MCU-5, MCU-7, Dhanlaxmi, PKV

Rajat, SRT-1, DHY-286.



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Bt. Cotton varieties:- MRC-7347 BG-II, MRC-7351 BG-II, MRC-7365 BG-II, MRC-7377

BG-II.

Hybrids: - DCH-32, MECH-1, Phule-388, PKV Hy-2, Varlaxami, H-4, H-6, H-8, H-10.

H-4 is the “World first Hybrid of Cotton developed by Dr. C.T. Patel”.

Father of Hydrid cotton – Dr. C.T. Patel.

Firstly developed the Bt. Cotton – Dr. C.D. Mayee

Father of Bt. Cotton - Dr. C.D. Mayee

Dr. C.D. Mayee was the “Former chairman of A.S.R.B., New Delhi.

In Bt. Cotton the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria is introduced for minimizing the

attack of boll worm.

In Bt. Cotton the Cry 1 AC gene is used for introducing in the cotton plant for

minimizing the attack of boll worm.

The Cry 1 AC gene is isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria introducing in the

cotton plant for minimizing the attack of boll worm.

Bacillus thuringiensis s a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium.

Bollworm resistance to first-generation Bt cotton was also identified in Australia, China, Spain, and the United States.

Cropping systems:-

1) Crop rotation:-

Cotton – Wheat

Cotton- Berseem

Cotton- Chickpea

Cotton-Linseed

2) Intercropping system:-

Cotton- Sesamum

Cotton- Ragi

Cotton-Ground nut

Cotton- Castor

Cotton-Pigeon Pea



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Field Preparation:-

Cotton being a deep rooted crop, requires 2-3 deep ploughing, 3-4 harrowing

operations to make a ideal seed bed.

Generally cotton can be grown in ridges and furrow method, paired-row method etc.

Seed and sowing:-

1) Seed rate:-

a) Rainfed/Americum cotton/Bt. Cotton: - 15 to 25 kg/ha

b) Irrigated/Desi cotton :– 10 to 18 kg/ha

c) Hybrids :– 5-6 kg/ha

2) Spacing:-

a) Rainfed/Americum cotton/Bt. cotton:- 60 X 45 cm

b) Irrigated/Desi cotton:- 60 X 30 cm

c) Hybrids :- 60 x 60 cm

3) Sowing time:-

a) Rainfed/Americum cotton/Bt. Cotton :- May – June

b) Irrigated/Desi cotton :- March-April

c) Hybrids :- June-July

4) Sowing methods:-

c) Dibbling

d) Drilling

5) Sowing depth:- 4-5 cm

6) Seed treatment:-

A) Concentrated H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) treatment:-

Before sowing cotton seeds are treated with concentrated H2SO4 (Sulphuric

acid) ranges from 70-100 cc per kg of fuzzy seed, it helps to remove fibre or

fuzz of cotton seed and also soften the seed coat helps to improve seed

germination.

The defuzzed or delinted seed is easy to sow, it germinates rapidly.

B) Cow dung paste:- If chemical is not available, then the seed should be rubbed with

paste made of cow dung, ash and water and dried in shade.



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C) Fungicide treatment:- Seeds are also treated with fungicides like thirum or captan

@ 3 g/kg of seeds, helps to prevent seed as well as soil borne diseases.

D) Bio-fertilizer treatment:- Before sowing cotton seeds are treated with azotobacter or

azospirillum @ 25 g/kg of seeds, helps to enhance the atmospheric N fixation by

non-symbiotically as well as to improve germination of crop.

Intercultural Operations:-

a) Gap filling and Thinning:-

Whatever, may be the method of sowing, still some gaps are always there.

Immediately after emergence of seedlings, go through the field and fill the gaps by

dibbling water-soaked seeds to have quick emergence.

In case of excess seedlings remove seedlings that are weak, diseased or

damaged.

Thinning and gap filling operations should be done 20-25 DAS.

Main objectives of thinning and gap filling are to maintain the optimum plant

population or desired plant population.

Manures and Fertilizers:-

Manures:-

Add 15 to 20 tonnes of FYM/Compost at the time of final land preparation.

R.D.F :- 100:40:60 kg NPK/ha

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time sowing

Remaining half dose of N should be applied at the time of flowering and square

formation stage.

Additional dose of 60 kg K should be applied at the time of flowering as well as boll

formation, helps to enhance the quality of fibre and fibre strength.

Water Management:-

Cotton being a kharif season crop, if rains are received sufficient, then there is no need

of irrigation.

If rains are not received then should apply irrigation at critical growth stages.



New Delhi,

CGS are as follows:-

a) Early vegetative stage

b) Flowering stage

c) Square formation stage

d) Boll development etc.

Cotton requires 5-6 irrigations to complete its growth and development.

Weed Management:-

Cotton is highly sensitive to weed competition especially in the initial stage of

growth.

Hence, weeds can be controlled either by manually or by herbicides.

2 hoeing and 4-5 weeding operations is necessary to control weeds.

Some herbicides like Fluchloralin or Diuron or Alachlor @ 1 kg a. i./ha in 1000 lit.

of water could be used as PPI sprays.

Use of Hormones:-

Plant modifiers like NAA and Cycocel helps in more bud retention, bring early

reproductive growth stage and better boll formation.

Spraying of NAA 125 cc/ha at flower appearance and second spray of 175 cc/ha

helps for better boll formation.

Spraying of Cycocel @ 32 ml/ha dissolved in 320 lit. of water at square formation

retain more bolls on the plant.

Pest and Diseases:

Pests:-

1) Pink boll worm

2) Spotted boll worm these pests are not occurred on Bt. Cotton.

3) American boll worm

4) Aphids

5) Thrips

6) Whire fly

7) Cotton leaf roller

8) Red cotton Bug- called as “Cotton Steiner”.



New Delhi,

Control measures:

a) Spraying of Dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

b) Spraying of Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1.50 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

c) Spraying of Malathion 30 EC @ 1 lit. in 1000 lit. of water per ha.

b) Grow early maturing varieties

c) Collect and destroy pest infected plant parts.

d) Growing of Bt. Cotton etc.

Diseases:-

1) Root rot

2) Fusarium wilt

3) Anthracnose

4) Bacterial Blight

5) Leaf spot

Control measures:

a) Treat the seeds with fungicides like Agrimycin @ 100 mg in lit. of water.

b) Treat the seeds with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg of seeds.

c) Spraying of mancozed @ 1 lit. in 800-1000 lit. of water per ha.

d) Grow resistant varieties. etc.


Cotton is harvested in 3-4 pickings by hand as the boll matures.

Cotton should be picked clean and dried to get a good price in the market

Cotton crop is ready for first picking by middle of Oct.

Cotton crop is ready for second picking in Nov.

Cotton crop is ready for third picking in last week of Nov.

Cotton crop is ready for fourth picking in Dec.

Picking should be done when bolls begin to fully brust and when kapas begins to hang-

down.

The collected kapas/cotton should be spread in the sun to dry.

Do not keep the picked cotton in wet water channels in the field.



New Delhi,

Remove all debris viz., leaves, stems/branches, soil etc. that are impairs the quality of

cotton.

Yield:- 15-20 quintal/ha- Desi cotton/Irrigated, 20-25 quintal/ha – American/Rainfed/Bt.

cotton, 25-30 quintal/ha- Hybrids



New Delhi,

JUTE

B.N. :- Corchorus spp.

Family :- Tiliaceae

Origin :- Africa and Indo- Burma

a) Corchorus olitorius – Africa

b) Corchorus capsularis – Indo-Burma

Area and Distribution :-

Major Jute growing countries are China, India, Thialand, Brazil, Peru, Burma and

Nepal.

In India major Jute growing states are W.B., Assam, Bihar, Orissa and U.P.

West Bengal has highest area under Jute cultivation in India.

Economic Importance/Uses:-

i. Jute is an important fibre crop next to cotton.

ii. It is one of the major foreign exachange earners.

iii. The jute fibre is used extensively in the manufacture of gunny cloth, gunny bags and

other packaging materials for storing and transporting grains, pulses, spices, cement,

sugar, cotton, fertilizers, wool etc. all over the world.

iv. Jute is also used in making ropes, carpets, rugs and twines.

v. Jute fibre is also known as “Golden Fibre”.

vi. Different cloth in different qualities are made out of fibre for the purpose of upholstery.

vii. The jute stalks stripped of fibre are used as fuel and also for making gunpowder

charcoal.

viii. Recently, the paper industry has been using it as a raw material for coarser paper.

Classification :-

A) Corchorus capsularis :-

i. Fibre is whitish in colour and is known as “White Jute”.

ii. Bitter in taste of leaves due to presence of “Corchorin” a bitter substance known as

“Titha Pat”.

iii. Can withstand or grown under Waterlogging condition.



New Delhi,

B) Corchorus olitorius :-

i. Fibre is yellow to grey or even reddish in colour and is known as “ Tossa jute”.

ii. Leaves are tasteless known as “Mitha pat”.

iii. Can’t grow under waterlogged condition.

iv. Can grow under upland condition.

Soil and Climate:-

Soil :-

White Jute :-

a. It can be grown in laterite to red soils.

b. Waterlogging soils are ideal for white jute cultivation.

c. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are unsuitable for white jute.

d. Soil should be rich in organic matter.

e. pH range should be 4.5-6.5

Tossa Jute :-

a. It can be grown in sandy loam to clay loam soils.

b. Soil should be well drained and fertile one.

c. Soil should have high water holding capacity.

d. Alkaline soils are well suited for tossa jute cultivation.

e. pH range should be 6.5-7.5

Climate :-

a. It is a tropical crop.

b. It requires warm weather.

c. Jute thrives best under a hot and humid climate.

d. Optimum temp. ranging from 27-34oC.

e. Bright sunshine at vegetative stage helps to increase the yield.

f. Low temp. and cloudy weather harms or affect the fibre quality and finally yield.



New Delhi,

Varieties:-

Jute Agricultural Research Institute (JARI) situated at Barrackpore (W.B.)

a) Corchorus Capsularis (White Jute):-

Baldev

Padma

Joydev

Rajendra sadapat-1

Sonali

Shyamali

b) Corchorus olitorius (Tossa Jute) :-

Baisakhi Tossa

Chaitali Tossa

Basudev

Navin

Mahadev

JRO-66 (Golden Jubilee Tossa variety)

Cropping systems:-

Crop Rotation:-

Jute-Rice

Jute-Wheat

Jute-Barley

Jute-Mustard

Jute-Chickpea

Inter cropping :-

White Jute + Rice

Tossa Jute + Ground nut

Tossa Jute + Green gram



New Delhi,

Land preparation:-

White jute requires puddling operations, 3-4 cross ploughing operations are required

to make a ideal soil condition i.e. puddle conditions it helps for easy transplanting

operation.

Tossa jute requires a clean, clod free field with fine tilth for successful establishment of

seedlings.

One deep ploughing and 5-6 harrowing operations are required to make a ideal seed

bed i.e fine seed bed.

Seeds and sowing:-

a. Seed rate :-

1. White jute :- 6-8 kg/ha

2. Tossa jute :- 4-5 kg/ha

b. Spacing :-

1. White jute :- 30 X 5 cm

2. Tossa jute :- 20 X 7 cm

c. Sowing time:-

1. White jute – April -May

2. Tossa jute - Middle of June

d. Sowing depth :- 2-3 cm

e. Sowing Methods :-

White jute – Transplanting

Tossa jute – Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling



New Delhi,

f. Seed treatment: -

Seeds are treated with thirum or captan @ 3g/kg of seeds against attack of


Seeds are also treated with biofertilizer like Azotobacter or Azospirillum @ 25

g/kg of seeds.

Manures and fertilizers:-


land preparation.

R.D.F :- 60:40:60 kg NPK/ha

Half dose of N and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of sowing and

remaining half dose of N should be applied at early vegetative or flowering stage.

Additional application of K @ 60 kg/ha helps for improving colour and quality of fibre.

Intercultural operations:-

1. Thinning :- Removal of extra plants/excess plant/weak plants/disease affected

plants/irregular height plants, instead of healthy one is called as thinning.

The main objectives of thinning operation are-

a) To maintain desired or optimum plant population.

b) To reduce competition between or among plants.

c) To increase crop yield.

Thinning operation should be done in 3-4 weeks after sowing.

Water management:-

Jute is generally grown under rainfed conditions.

If it is grown in kharif season, with excess or optimum rains are received, then there is

no need of irrigation.

If it is grown in summer condition or rains are not received timely or late under kharif

then irrigation should be apply at the critical growth stages –

a) Early vegetative growth stage

b) Flowering stage



New Delhi,

c) Pod filling stage

d) Seed formation stage etc.

Weed management :-

The weed infestation in jute is maximum upto sixth weeks crop age.

The first weeding usually done at 3-4 weeks after sowing.

One hoeing and 3-4 weeding operations are required to make a ideal crop

environment.

If weeding operation is not possible, then should apply herbicides like Fluchloralin @ 1

kg a.i./ha in 1000 lit. of water as a PPI spray.


Pests:-

Jute semi-looper

Jute stem weevil

Bihar hairy caterpillar

Tobacco caterpillar

Yellow mite

Jute girdle beetle

Red mite

Diseases:-

Seedling blight

Root rot

Stem rot

Collar rot

Anthracnose

Harvesting, Retting, Extraction and yield:-

A) Harvesting :-

Jute crop may be harvested for fibre purpose at any time before flowering.

Early harvesting gives finer fibre of good quality, whereas late harvesting gives a

larger yield but a coarser fibre.



New Delhi,

The ideal stage of harvest is when the plants are in small pod stage.

Harvesting is done by cutting the plants close to the ground level with the help of

sharp sickle.

The harvested plants are tied into separate bundles of 18-20 cm and left standing in

the field for two to three days for shedding of leaves.

The apical portion of the plants may be also severed and left in the field.

B) Retting:-

Retting is a process by which the fibres in the bark get loosened and separated

from the woody stalks.

It is a microbial process affected by various aerobic and anaerobic microflora.

Retting is best done in shallow canal with slow running clear water.

The harvested jute bundles should be kept standing in 30-60 cm deep water for 3-

4 days before the entire bundles steeped.

Later on bundles of jute should placed side by side usually in 2-3 layers and tied

together.

They are covered with aquatic weeds.

The float is that weighed down with seasoned logs or with concrete blocks are kept

submerged at least 10 cm below the surface of water.

Retting is best done at 34oC.

At the end of the eight day onwards, the stems are to be examined.

If fibre slips out easily from the wood on pressure from the thumb and finfers,

retting is consider complete.

Over retting results in “weak fibre”.

C) Extraction :-

Fibre should be extracted from the retted stalks gently, keeping the stalks in water.

Beating stalks of fibre with woodsticks should be avoided, as it spoils the fibre

quality.

Extraction should be done from each stem separately.



New Delhi,

Berk and Jack method is very suitable in jute for extraction of fibre.

It gives cleaner jute fibre.

The extracted fibre should be dried in mild sun over a bamboo frame or clear

surface of any sub-stratum for 2-3 days.

Yield :-

a) National Average fibre yield :– 13 quintals/ha

b) Improved varieties :- 20-25 quintals/ha

c) White jute :- 4-5 quintals/ha

d) Tossa jute :- 2.5-3 quintals/ha



New Delhi,

Upland Rice Cultivation practices

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