University of Split, University of Split, Faculty of Philosophy (www.ffst.hr)Faculty of Philosophy (www.ffst.hr)Radovanova 13, 21000 Split, CroatiaRadovanova 13, 21000 Split, CroatiaDANICA ŠKARA, PHDDANICA ŠKARA, PHDdskara@ffst.hrdskara@ffst.hr

LANGUAGE, METAPHOR AND LANGUAGE, METAPHOR AND HUMOUR: PATTERNS OF HUMOUR: PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE IN PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE IN PATTERNS OF LANGUAGELANGUAGE

IntroductionIntroductionIssues to be considered:Issues to be considered: TThe relationship between language, metaphor and humour in order to attain a he relationship between language, metaphor and humour in order to attain a

better understanding of the cognitive patterns of language. better understanding of the cognitive patterns of language. Cognitive theory is outlined (G. Lakoff, M. Turner, G.Fauconnier, K. Cognitive theory is outlined (G. Lakoff, M. Turner, G.Fauconnier, K.

Feyaerts, T. Veale, etc.) and used in humourFeyaerts, T. Veale, etc.) and used in humour and metaphor and metaphor interpretation. interpretation. A A limitedlimited sample of political metaphors was selected from public media and sample of political metaphors was selected from public media and

relevant databases. relevant databases. A number of properties which form the basis for various theories of humour A number of properties which form the basis for various theories of humour

were explored with special reference to the were explored with special reference to the incongruity theory incongruity theory andand language language patternspatterns: schemas, scripts, domains, frames, mental spaces..: schemas, scripts, domains, frames, mental spaces....

Our starting point is based on the following assumptionOur starting point is based on the following assumption:: ‘‘Metaphor appears Metaphor appears as the instinctive and necessary act of the mind exploring reality and ordering as the instinctive and necessary act of the mind exploring reality and ordering experience.experience.’’ ( (J.M. J.M. Murry, 1931: 1-2) Murry, 1931: 1-2) 

‘‘The mind is a connecting organThe mind is a connecting organ..’..’Everything we experience is reflected in the Everything we experience is reflected in the brain by neurons which communicate to form brain by neurons which communicate to form what are called what are called neural networks.neural networks.TThe brain creates knowledge /understanding he brain creates knowledge /understanding of the world.of the world.I.A. Richards, (The Philosophy of Rhetoric , Oxford University Press:

New York and London, 1936:125) claims that ‘The mind is a connecting organ, it works only by connecting and it can connect any two things in an indefinitely large number of different ways. ‘

ANALOGICAL ANALOGICAL REASONINGREASONING

We often use similarity/samenes in our thinking, We often use similarity/samenes in our thinking, where even distant fields may be used to help where even distant fields may be used to help understand a given frame or situation.understand a given frame or situation.

Dienhart (1999: 98) claims: Dienhart (1999: 98) claims: "Making comparisons is a "Making comparisons is a very human occupation. We spend our lives very human occupation. We spend our lives comparing one thing to another, and behaving comparing one thing to another, and behaving according to the categorizations we make. Patterns according to the categorizations we make. Patterns govern our lives, be they patterns of material culture, govern our lives, be they patterns of material culture, or patterns of language. Growing up in any society or patterns of language. Growing up in any society involves, in large measure, discovering what involves, in large measure, discovering what categories are relevant in the particular culture in categories are relevant in the particular culture in which we find ourselves.which we find ourselves. (...) (...) 'Things' are classified as 'Things' are classified as the the same, similar or differentsame, similar or different, and we construct , and we construct mental 'boxes' in which to put objects which 'match' mental 'boxes' in which to put objects which 'match' in some way.in some way.

A fundamental component of analogical A fundamental component of analogical reasoning and of metaphorical reasoning and of metaphorical conceptualization is undoubtedly the conceptualization is undoubtedly the partial mapping of a source to a target partial mapping of a source to a target and the transfer of inferences and and the transfer of inferences and structures that it creates.’ structures that it creates.’

The analogy is guided by a pressure to The analogy is guided by a pressure to identify consistent structural parallels identify consistent structural parallels between the roles in the source and between the roles in the source and target domain.’ (see Gentner, 1983). target domain.’ (see Gentner, 1983).

OppositenessOppositeness

According to Cruse, D.A. (1986:197) ‘According to Cruse, D.A. (1986:197) ‘Of Of all the relations of sense the semanticists all the relations of sense the semanticists propose, that of propose, that of oppositeness oppositeness is is probably the most readily apprehended probably the most readily apprehended by ordinary speakers. (…) Philosophers by ordinary speakers. (…) Philosophers and others from Heraclites to Jung have and others from Heraclites to Jung have noted the tendency of things to slip into noted the tendency of things to slip into their opposite states; and many have their opposite states; and many have remarked on the thin dividing line remarked on the thin dividing line between love and hate… ’between love and hate… ’

Language and mindLanguage and mindThe mind is never aimlessThe mind is never aimless!!

Images of the external world obtained Images of the external world obtained by our bodily capacities are framed by by our bodily capacities are framed by linguistic patterns/words. linguistic patterns/words. Language Language can can bebe seen as a repository of world seen as a repository of world knowledge, a structured set of knowledge, a structured set of meaningful categories that help us deal meaningful categories that help us deal with with new and old experiences.new and old experiences.

Literal and figurative Literal and figurative meaningmeaning

The most basic or fundamental level of The most basic or fundamental level of linguistic description of reality is that of linguistic description of reality is that of literal terms.literal terms. Literal concepts are those Literal concepts are those entities whose meanings specify truth entities whose meanings specify truth conditions for the objects and events that conditions for the objects and events that exist objectively in the world. exist objectively in the world.

In the traditional analyses, words in literal In the traditional analyses, words in literal expressions denote what they mean expressions denote what they mean according to dictionary usage. according to dictionary usage.

When figurative meanings are interpreted via When figurative meanings are interpreted via literal meanings, there is a confusion in our literal meanings, there is a confusion in our mind which results with humour. mind which results with humour.

kick somebody's ass/buttkick somebody's ass/butt = =to punish or defeat someone to punish or defeat someone

To rain cats and dogsTo rain cats and dogs(=it is (=it is

raining very hard)raining very hard)

to beat around the bushto beat around the bush= = to avoid or to avoid or delay talking about something delay talking about something

embarrassing or unpleasantembarrassing or unpleasant

FFigurative igurative meaningmeaning FFigurative speechigurative speech is a pervasive imaginative is a pervasive imaginative

structure in human understanding of the world structure in human understanding of the world (see Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). (see Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

Metaphors allow language to free itself from the Metaphors allow language to free itself from the function of direct description and to set up a an function of direct description and to set up a an indirect relationshipindirect relationship between words and reality. between words and reality.

Reasons: strategically used in order to avoid Reasons: strategically used in order to avoid responsability, to define complex reality, to responsability, to define complex reality, to manipulate with concepts (euphemisms), manipulate with concepts (euphemisms), political correctness (political correctness (vertically challenged, vertically challenged, pushing up daisiespushing up daisies, , economical with the trutheconomical with the truth, , financially embarrassedfinancially embarrassed (poor)), c (poor)), comfort omfort womenwomen, tottaly dependent, tottaly dependent (idiot)(idiot). .

The humorous euphemism can help the people The humorous euphemism can help the people facing the facing the harsh harsh reality with easereality with ease..

CONTRADICTIONS, CONTRADICTIONS, AMBIGUITIES AMBIGUITIES WE LIVE BYWE LIVE BY

Michael Mulkay (1988) Michael Mulkay (1988) claims that claims that people interact people interact with one another using two basic modes of with one another using two basic modes of communication: communication: serious serious and and humoroushumorous

In a serious mode, we attempt to be consistent In a serious mode, we attempt to be consistent and coherent, we seek to avoid ambiguity and and coherent, we seek to avoid ambiguity and contradiction contradiction (Grice’s maxims of communication)(Grice’s maxims of communication)

But, cBut, complex realities often produce omplex realities often produce contradictions, incongruity, which, the serious contradictions, incongruity, which, the serious mode of discourse is unable to handle easily. mode of discourse is unable to handle easily. Mulkay (1988) defines humour as a way for people Mulkay (1988) defines humour as a way for people to deal with this multiplicity and inherent to deal with this multiplicity and inherent contradictions in their communication. It enables contradictions in their communication. It enables people to negotiate difficult interpersonal people to negotiate difficult interpersonal situations. situations.

LANGUAGELANGUAGE ECONOMY ECONOMY

No language can have a separate word for each No language can have a separate word for each and every concept a speaker might wish to and every concept a speaker might wish to convey. It would be an enormous burden on our convey. It would be an enormous burden on our memory. In order to save our mental energy, we memory. In order to save our mental energy, we often use a word with an enlarged reference often use a word with an enlarged reference (polysemy). (polysemy).

Using metaphors becomes an efficient and Using metaphors becomes an efficient and economical means of explanation of reality. This economical means of explanation of reality. This is an example of language economy, or is an example of language economy, or ''economical percept'economical percept' (Gibbson, 1966). > we (Gibbson, 1966). > we memorize one word form for multiple meanings. memorize one word form for multiple meanings.

e.g. e.g. The art of taxation is to pluck the goose for The art of taxation is to pluck the goose for the largest amount of feathers with the smallest the largest amount of feathers with the smallest amount of hissing.amount of hissing.

PATTERNS OF PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE IN EXPERIENCE IN

PATTERNS OF LANGUAGEPATTERNS OF LANGUAGE Languages have a tendency to impose Languages have a tendency to impose

structure upon the real world by treating some structure upon the real world by treating some distintions as crucial, and ignoring others. distintions as crucial, and ignoring others. Sometimes the motivation is supplied by Sometimes the motivation is supplied by culturalcultural/social/social norms norms, rather than by , rather than by external reality external reality

SCHEMAS, FRAMES, SCHEMAS, FRAMES, CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS ......

Lakoff Lakoff (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) 1987) > > our worldviews are based largely on our worldviews are based largely on different patterns, different patterns, frames, schemas, frames, schemas, concepts, concepts, that provide us with structure for that provide us with structure for our thinking. our thinking.

Allport (1954)Allport (1954) notes that knowledge is said to notes that knowledge is said to be be clusteredclustered; we fit our new experiences ; we fit our new experiences into one of our existing categories. into one of our existing categories.

The task of this patterned behaviour is to The task of this patterned behaviour is to provide maximum information with the least provide maximum information with the least cognitive effortcognitive effort. .

A A schema schema is a dynamic mental framework is a dynamic mental framework centering around a specific theme, that helps centering around a specific theme, that helps us to organize social information (see R.A. us to organize social information (see R.A. Martin:2007). New information that falls Martin:2007). New information that falls within an individual's schema is easily within an individual's schema is easily rememberedremembered..

Frames Frames are not arbitray patterns of are not arbitray patterns of knowledge. They are knowledge units knowledge. They are knowledge units organized around a certain concept. organized around a certain concept.

FillmoreFillmore ( (1985: 224)1985: 224) notes that ‘ notes that ‘a a frameframe represents the particular organization of represents the particular organization of knowledge which stands as a prerequisite to knowledge which stands as a prerequisite to our ability to understand the meanings of the our ability to understand the meanings of the associated wordsassociated words.’.’

In the behaviorism approach, In the behaviorism approach, behavioral scriptsbehavioral scripts are a sequence are a sequence of of expected expected behaviorsbehaviors for a given for a given situation.situation.

Mental spacesMental spaces (Fauconnier, 1994) (Fauconnier, 1994) can be thought of as temporary can be thought of as temporary containers for relevant information containers for relevant information about a particular domain about a particular domain ..

These concepts can be used to explain the These concepts can be used to explain the nature of incongruity in humour. If nature of incongruity in humour. If something contradicts our schema, script it something contradicts our schema, script it may be encoded or interpreted as an may be encoded or interpreted as an exception or funny. exception or funny.

Though not all blends are humorous, Though not all blends are humorous, blending does seem to be an inherent blending does seem to be an inherent feature of humor. Koestler (1964: 51) writes:feature of humor. Koestler (1964: 51) writes: "The sudden bisociation of an idea or event "The sudden bisociation of an idea or event with two habitually incompatible matrices with two habitually incompatible matrices will produce a comic effect, provided that will produce a comic effect, provided that the narrative, the semantic pipeline, carries the narrative, the semantic pipeline, carries the right kind of emotional tension. the right kind of emotional tension. ‘‘

ASSOCIATIVE NETOWORKASSOCIATIVE NETOWORK Associative connections between Associative connections between

concepts have different density, concepts have different density, therefore the therefore the semantic distancesemantic distance between different scripts, frames can be between different scripts, frames can be conceived as closer or farther. conceived as closer or farther.

http://www.brown.edu/Research/Memlab/py47/diagrams/02-Collins-Loftus.jpg

RELEVANT STIMULIRELEVANT STIMULI

Schemas are generally thought to have a Schemas are generally thought to have a level of activation, which can spread level of activation, which can spread among related schemas. Which schema is among related schemas. Which schema is selected can depend on factors such as selected can depend on factors such as current current activationactivation, accessibility and , accessibility and relevance.relevance.

Those schemas and words that are more Those schemas and words that are more relevantrelevant (Sperber &Wilson, 1986) in the (Sperber &Wilson, 1986) in the current context remain activated; those current context remain activated; those that least relevant are suppressed or that least relevant are suppressed or reduced in activation. reduced in activation.

The relevance-theoretic account is based The relevance-theoretic account is based on Grice’s (Grice 1961, 1989: p. 368-72) on Grice’s (Grice 1961, 1989: p. 368-72) central claims that utterances central claims that utterances automatically create expectations which automatically create expectations which guide the hearer towards the speaker’s guide the hearer towards the speaker’s meaning. Grice described these meaning. Grice described these expectations in terms of a Co-operative expectations in terms of a Co-operative Principle and maxims of Quality Principle and maxims of Quality ((truthfulnesstruthfulness),), Quantity Quantity ((informativeness),), Relation ( Relation (relevancerelevance) ) and Manner and Manner ((clarityclarity)) which speakers are which speakers are expected to observe. expected to observe.

How Grice’s maxims are violated in political How Grice’s maxims are violated in political context -’innapropriate relationship with the context -’innapropriate relationship with the truth’ truth’

Politicians are the same all over. They promise to Politicians are the same all over. They promise to build a bridge even where there is no river.build a bridge even where there is no river. ( (Nikita Nikita KhrushchevKhrushchev))

He is the cutlery man of politics: born with a silver He is the cutlery man of politics: born with a silver spoon in his mouth, speaks with a fork tongue, and spoon in his mouth, speaks with a fork tongue, and knifes his colleagues in the back.knifes his colleagues in the back.

In Mexico, an air conditioner is called a 'politician' In Mexico, an air conditioner is called a 'politician' because it makes lots of noise but doesn't work well. because it makes lots of noise but doesn't work well.

Gordon Brown's budget speech sounded like a Gordon Brown's budget speech sounded like a blindfolded man riding a unicycle on the rim of a blindfolded man riding a unicycle on the rim of a volcano. volcano.

Margaret Thatcher has the mouth of Marilyn Monroe Margaret Thatcher has the mouth of Marilyn Monroe and the eyes of Caligula. and the eyes of Caligula. ((François MitterandFrançois Mitterand))

GRADED SALIENCE GRADED SALIENCE HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

The choice of activated wordThe choice of activated word frames frames can be explained in terms of the can be explained in terms of the graded salience hypothesisgraded salience hypothesis (Giora, (Giora, 2002). 2002). SalienceSalience includes senses that includes senses that are more are more frequent, conventional, or frequent, conventional, or prototypical.prototypical.

METAPHORSMETAPHORS

The successful use of metaphor is a matter of The successful use of metaphor is a matter of perceiving perceiving similaritiessimilarities. . (Aristotle)(Aristotle)

Within a framework of a cognitive Within a framework of a cognitive approach to metaphor, it has been approach to metaphor, it has been described in terms of transfer from one described in terms of transfer from one cognitive domain (cognitive domain (sourcesource) to another ) to another ((targettarget) domain: ) domain: Life is a battle. Life is a battle. People People tend to draw upon experiences in one tend to draw upon experiences in one area of life in order to give fresh area of life in order to give fresh insights and understanding to insights and understanding to experiences in another.experiences in another.

source target

Conceptual metaphors

Many scholars agree that metaphors do more Many scholars agree that metaphors do more than call our attention to some already existing than call our attention to some already existing similarities. According to Beck, B. (1987, 11) similarities. According to Beck, B. (1987, 11) 'They force the mind to construct a higher-order 'They force the mind to construct a higher-order linkage between the entities referred to'. linkage between the entities referred to'.

Metaphor is not simply the substitution of one Metaphor is not simply the substitution of one concept or image for another. Instead, it concept or image for another. Instead, it encompasses a complete transformation whereby encompasses a complete transformation whereby two originally distinct meanings are merged so two originally distinct meanings are merged so that a new meaning is effected. ( Edwards, 1997, that a new meaning is effected. ( Edwards, 1997, 29).29).

The The conceptual blendingconceptual blending supported by supported by Turner and Fauconnier (1995) Turner and Fauconnier (1995)

They claim that two domains blend into a They claim that two domains blend into a separate conceptual space which takes separate conceptual space which takes on aspects of both domains and has an on aspects of both domains and has an emergent structureemergent structure of its own. of its own. Conceptual integration—"blending"—is a Conceptual integration—"blending"—is a general cognitive operation on a par with general cognitive operation on a par with analogy, recursion, mental modeling, analogy, recursion, mental modeling, conceptual categorization, and framing.conceptual categorization, and framing.

Much of the power of metaphor stems Much of the power of metaphor stems from the fact that the source and target from the fact that the source and target mental spaces may belong to superficially mental spaces may belong to superficially very very different conceptualdifferent conceptual domains. domains.

HUMOURHUMOUR The secret source of humor itself is not joy but The secret source of humor itself is not joy but

sorrow. There is no humor in heaven" [Mark Twain]sorrow. There is no humor in heaven" [Mark Twain] So many tangles in life are ultimately hopeless that we have no So many tangles in life are ultimately hopeless that we have no

appropriate sword other than laughter.appropriate sword other than laughter.    ((Gordon W. AllportGordon W. Allport)) Dogs laugh, but they laugh with their tails.  What puts man in a higher state of Dogs laugh, but they laugh with their tails.  What puts man in a higher state of

evolution is that he has got his laugh on the right end.  evolution is that he has got his laugh on the right end.  ((Max EastmanMax Eastman)) Laughter is an orgasm triggered by the intercourse Laughter is an orgasm triggered by the intercourse

of sense and nonsense. of sense and nonsense. 

Humour is the tendency of particular cognitive Humour is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke experiences to provoke laughterlaughter and provide and provide amusementamusement. It is one of the methods that people . It is one of the methods that people use to influence each other in a complex variety of use to influence each other in a complex variety of ways. It can be used to push boundaries and rebel ways. It can be used to push boundaries and rebel against social norms and taboosagainst social norms and taboos, it proveds us with , it proveds us with relief relief

from our tensions that arise from restraint in from our tensions that arise from restraint in conforming to "social requirements. conforming to "social requirements.

Humor research deals with a wide variety of Humor research deals with a wide variety of issues but many of them can be categorized issues but many of them can be categorized according to the major types of humor theories.according to the major types of humor theories. Three essential themes are repeatedly Three essential themes are repeatedly observed in the majority of humour theories:observed in the majority of humour theories:

Theories of Theories of incongruity, inconsistency, incongruity, inconsistency, contradiction or bisociationcontradiction or bisociation

Theories of Theories of superiority, or criticism, or superiority, or criticism, or hostilityhostility (aggressiveness) (aggressiveness)

Theoris of Theoris of release, or relief, or relaxation.release, or relief, or relaxation.

In recent years a considerable amount of work has In recent years a considerable amount of work has been done in the development of formal theories of been done in the development of formal theories of humour (N. Norrick (1986), V. Raskin, (1985), S. humour (N. Norrick (1986), V. Raskin, (1985), S. Attardo (1994), A. Koestler (1964)).Attardo (1994), A. Koestler (1964)).

Many creativity researchers consider humour to be Many creativity researchers consider humour to be essentially a type of essentially a type of creativity.creativity. Both humour and Both humour and creativity involve a switch of perspective. A creativity involve a switch of perspective. A Koestler (1964Koestler (1964) ) said that creativity involves said that creativity involves bringing together elements of different domains. bringing together elements of different domains.

Creative thought is a mental process involving the Creative thought is a mental process involving the discovery of new discovery of new ideasideas or or conceptsconcepts, or new , or new associations of the existing ideas or concepts.associations of the existing ideas or concepts. In In order to be creative, you need to be able to view order to be creative, you need to be able to view things from a different perspective. things from a different perspective.

Arthur Koestler (1964) introduced the term Arthur Koestler (1964) introduced the term bisociation, i.e. the specific ‘two-planed’ nature of bisociation, i.e. the specific ‘two-planed’ nature of any creative act. A sudden bisociation of two any creative act. A sudden bisociation of two incompatible associative contexts, frame of incompatible associative contexts, frame of references causes ‘a sudden jump from one references causes ‘a sudden jump from one matrix to another’. matrix to another’.

T.C. Veatch (1998) utilizes the established idea T.C. Veatch (1998) utilizes the established idea that humour contains that humour contains two incongruous elementstwo incongruous elements; ; one element is socially normal while the other one element is socially normal while the other constitutes a violation of the ‘subjective moral constitutes a violation of the ‘subjective moral order’. If incongruity based humour theories are order’. If incongruity based humour theories are on the right track, the vast majority of humour on the right track, the vast majority of humour shared between people must involve, at shared between people must involve, at minimum, two conceps. (incongruous-congrous). minimum, two conceps. (incongruous-congrous).

Victor Raskin’s script-based semantic theory of Victor Raskin’s script-based semantic theory of humour identifies a semantic model capable of humour identifies a semantic model capable of expressing incongruities between semantic expressing incongruities between semantic scripts in verbal humor. scripts in verbal humor. Raskin (1985:99) stated the Raskin (1985:99) stated the following:following:

‘‘A text can be characterized as a single-joke carrying A text can be characterized as a single-joke carrying text if both of the following conditions are satisfied: (I) text if both of the following conditions are satisfied: (I) the text is compatible fully or in part, with two the text is compatible fully or in part, with two different scripts; and (II) ‘the two scripts with which different scripts; and (II) ‘the two scripts with which the text is compatible are opposite in a special sense..’the text is compatible are opposite in a special sense..’

R. A. Martin (2007: 90) ‘In order for the text to be R. A. Martin (2007: 90) ‘In order for the text to be viewed as humorous this second, overlapping script viewed as humorous this second, overlapping script must be opposite to the first.’must be opposite to the first.’

SScript oppositions may be manifested in terms of such cript oppositions may be manifested in terms of such pairs as good-bad, life-death, high-low, clean-dirty, pairs as good-bad, life-death, high-low, clean-dirty, real-unreal, desirable-undesirable, real-unreal, desirable-undesirable, etc. etc.

To induce a shift from one frame to another To induce a shift from one frame to another requires deliberate use of linguistic strategies requires deliberate use of linguistic strategies and increases the cognitive demands on and increases the cognitive demands on audiences. audiences.

Humor often turns on an abrupt and Humor often turns on an abrupt and unexpected shift from one frame to another. unexpected shift from one frame to another. (Coullson, 2001), e.g. (Coullson, 2001), e.g.

Tony BlairTony Blair does the work of two men — does the work of two men — Laurel and HardyLaurel and Hardy. .

LawsLaws are like are like sausagessausages. It's better not to see . It's better not to see how they are madehow they are made. (Otto Von Bismark . (Otto Von Bismark ))

Coulson (200Coulson (20011) has proposed a ) has proposed a theory in which two incongruous theory in which two incongruous mental spaces are activated at once, mental spaces are activated at once, and resolved in the and resolved in the blendblend..

A great many philosophers have A great many philosophers have tried to define humor in general as a tried to define humor in general as a "contrast," or "conflict," or "mixture" "contrast," or "conflict," or "mixture" of of desirabledesirable with with undesirableundesirable qualities.qualities.

It is quite evident that cognitively oriented It is quite evident that cognitively oriented researchers generally view some type of researchers generally view some type of incongruity as being a defining characteristic of incongruity as being a defining characteristic of humour. humour.

The The incongruity theoryincongruity theory states that humor is states that humor is perceived at the moment of realization of perceived at the moment of realization of incongruity between a concept involved in a incongruity between a concept involved in a certain situation and the real objects thought to certain situation and the real objects thought to be in some relation to the concept.be in some relation to the concept.

e.g. e.g. I only want your best – I only want your best –

your money.your money.

Humor arises when one of two Humor arises when one of two opposing scripts is activatedopposing scripts is activated..

real/unreal human real/unreal human being/animalbeing/animal

A politician is an animal that can sit A politician is an animal that can sit on the fence and yet keep both ears on the fence and yet keep both ears to the ground.to the ground.

man Animal

monkey

politician=animal/politician=animal/monkeymonkey

US president: G.Bush

perfection/imperfectionperfection/imperfection

classical/modernclassical/modern

Linguistic sign: Sound image associated with a Linguistic sign: Sound image associated with a ‘wrong’ concept due to the similarity of the ‘wrong’ concept due to the similarity of the

two conceptstwo concepts

blowing

sucking

In general, humour is perceived as an In general, humour is perceived as an interaction of interaction of cognitive, emotional, and cognitive, emotional, and social elementssocial elements. Words and concepts are . Words and concepts are used in ways that are surprising, unusual, used in ways that are surprising, unusual, and incongruous, activating concepts with and incongruous, activating concepts with which they are not normally associated. which they are not normally associated.

For a text to be a joke, its final constituent For a text to be a joke, its final constituent must be must be cognitively distantcognitively distant from the from the prototype , sharing the least amount of prototype , sharing the least amount of common features with the previouas common features with the previouas constituents. constituents.

ON THE SIMILARITY OF ON THE SIMILARITY OF HUMOUR AND HUMOUR AND

FIGURATIVE SPEECHFIGURATIVE SPEECH The deep cognitive similarity The deep cognitive similarity

between metaphor and humour is between metaphor and humour is easy to recognize, and this has easy to recognize, and this has actually long been noticed and actually long been noticed and discussed by numerous discussed by numerous scholars. scholars.

Both Both metaphor and humormetaphor and humor seem to seem to refer to refer to two different but related two different but related images or ideasimages or ideas..

11

METAPHOR:METAPHOR:

metaphor=mapping between domains (target and metaphor=mapping between domains (target and source) , cognitve spaces, framessource) , cognitve spaces, frames similarity, analogical reasoning, small distance between similarity, analogical reasoning, small distance between

framesframes Novelty, creativity, a switch of perspective , Novelty, creativity, a switch of perspective ,

incompatibility with literal meaning/conventional meaningincompatibility with literal meaning/conventional meaning Grice’s maxims and graded saliance are not applied in Grice’s maxims and graded saliance are not applied in

metaphorsmetaphors

+ +

HUMOURHUMOUR

HUMOURHUMOUR=mapping between two opposite, incongrous scripts, =mapping between two opposite, incongrous scripts, frames, schemas or mental spaces. frames, schemas or mental spaces. Two juxtaposed concepts Two juxtaposed concepts stem from disparate ontological domains, e.g. concrete vs. stem from disparate ontological domains, e.g. concrete vs. abstract, inanimate vs. animate, nonhuman vs. human, with abstract, inanimate vs. animate, nonhuman vs. human, with relevant attributes being transferred from one to the other.relevant attributes being transferred from one to the other.

contradiction, ambiguity, cognitively distant frames, cognitive effortcontradiction, ambiguity, cognitively distant frames, cognitive effort Violation of the subjective moral order, frames include desirable/undesirable Violation of the subjective moral order, frames include desirable/undesirable

qualities, real/unreal sitaution, evokes pleasure and laugh (qualities, real/unreal sitaution, evokes pleasure and laugh (cognitive cognitive satisfaction satisfaction ))

Words are used in ways that are surprising, unusual and incongrousWords are used in ways that are surprising, unusual and incongrous Non conventioanl meaning is activated (violation of Grice’s maxims and the Non conventioanl meaning is activated (violation of Grice’s maxims and the

graded salience theory), novelty and creativitygraded salience theory), novelty and creativity

The distance between the source domain and target domain may The distance between the source domain and target domain may be perceived as the basis of humour. Greater distance, greter be perceived as the basis of humour. Greater distance, greter incongruity.incongruity.

+ _

POLITICAL HUMOURPOLITICAL HUMOURThe man is by nature a political animal The man is by nature a political animal

(Aristotle)(Aristotle)

Metaphors play a central role in public discourse, as they Metaphors play a central role in public discourse, as they shape the structure of poltical categorization and shape the structure of poltical categorization and argumentation. argumentation.

The results of the analysis of the sample consisting of The results of the analysis of the sample consisting of 200 political jokes show the following:200 political jokes show the following:

The most frequent conceptual framework used to define The most frequent conceptual framework used to define politics and politicians is animal world (monkey, ass, politics and politicians is animal world (monkey, ass, dog, fox, lion, bull, owl, etc.),dog, fox, lion, bull, owl, etc.),

Symbolic meaning of animals is evoked. Symbolic meaning of animals is evoked. e.g. e.g. A politician is an animal that can sit on the fence and A politician is an animal that can sit on the fence and

yet keep both ears to the ground. yet keep both ears to the ground. I like pigs. Dogs look up to us. Cats look down on us. Pigs I like pigs. Dogs look up to us. Cats look down on us. Pigs treat us as equalstreat us as equals.. ((Winston ChurchillWinston Churchill))

In general, politicianas are considered to be lyers, In general, politicianas are considered to be lyers, irresponsible people, gamblers, whores, etc.irresponsible people, gamblers, whores, etc.

Note: to play politics=Note: to play politics=to use a situation or the relationships between people for your own advantageto use a situation or the relationships between people for your own advantage

Humor and politics have their own frame of Humor and politics have their own frame of referencereference

Input space 1Input space 1: Humour=that quality which : Humour=that quality which appeals to a sense of the ludicrous or appeals to a sense of the ludicrous or absurdly incongruousabsurdly incongruous

Input space 2Input space 2: Politics= ideas and : Politics= ideas and activities relating to gaining and using activities relating to gaining and using power in a country, city etc.power in a country, city etc.

BlendBlend: incongruous ideas and activities : incongruous ideas and activities relating to gaining powerrelating to gaining power

Generic spaceGeneric space: irresponsible : irresponsible politicspolitics/politicians/politicians

Politician=Politician=PPiano player in a iano player in a whorehousewhorehouse

My choice early in life was either My choice early in life was either to be a piano-player in a to be a piano-player in a whorehouse or a politician. And whorehouse or a politician. And to tell the truth, there's hardly to tell the truth, there's hardly any difference. any difference. (Harry Truman) (Harry Truman)

In Mexico, an air conditioner is called a In Mexico, an air conditioner is called a 'politician' because it makes lots of noise but 'politician' because it makes lots of noise but doesn't work well. doesn't work well.

A politician is an appendix: useless when inert A politician is an appendix: useless when inert but dangerous when active. but dangerous when active.

I regard the law court not as a cathedral, but as I regard the law court not as a cathedral, but as a casino. a casino.

A politician is an animal that can sit on the fence A politician is an animal that can sit on the fence and yet keep both ears to the ground. and yet keep both ears to the ground.

An election is coming. Universal peace had been An election is coming. Universal peace had been declared, and the foxes have a sincere interest in declared, and the foxes have a sincere interest in prolonging the lives of the poultry. prolonging the lives of the poultry. ( (George George Eliot Eliot ))

The ultra-modern politician is an ink-blot test in The ultra-modern politician is an ink-blot test in which the electors can read anything they want. which the electors can read anything they want.

His argument is as thin as the homeopathic soup His argument is as thin as the homeopathic soup that was made by boiling the shadow of a pigeon that was made by boiling the shadow of a pigeon that had been starved to death.that had been starved to death. ( (Abraham Abraham LincolnLincoln))

America:America:"We have Barack Obama, Stevie "We have Barack Obama, Stevie WonderWonder, Bob , Bob HopeHope and Johnny and Johnny CashCash."."

Croatia:Croatia:"We have Ivo Sanader, no wonder, "We have Ivo Sanader, no wonder, no hope and no cash.“no hope and no cash.“

You want a friend in Washington? You want a friend in Washington? Get a dog. Get a dog. ((H.S. TrumanH.S. Truman))

A official Gallup survey polled over A official Gallup survey polled over women with a question: Would you women with a question: Would you sleep with former US president Bill sleep with former US president Bill Clinton?Clinton?

1% said, ‘No’.1% said, ‘No’. 2% said, ‘Yes’2% said, ‘Yes’ 97% said, ‘Never again’97% said, ‘Never again’

ConclusionConclusion

It is not by chance that It is not by chance that political, social, ethnic and political, social, ethnic and obscene themes are statistically prevalent in obscene themes are statistically prevalent in contemporary jokescontemporary jokes. .

Political humour is based on the two incompatible Political humour is based on the two incompatible associative contexts, opposing, contradictory associative contexts, opposing, contradictory frames/scripts. Statistically, the most frequent source frames/scripts. Statistically, the most frequent source domain is the world of animals, moral order, games, etc.domain is the world of animals, moral order, games, etc.

Word play is often used, idioms and proverbs often served Word play is often used, idioms and proverbs often served as a source of humorous meaning. Different linguistic as a source of humorous meaning. Different linguistic means are used to evoke pleasurable concepts.means are used to evoke pleasurable concepts.

In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is often In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is often subjected to the goal of manipulation, which means that subjected to the goal of manipulation, which means that metaphors are often primarily selected for their metaphors are often primarily selected for their emotional and strategic effectemotional and strategic effect, e.g. , e.g. daizzy cutter, axes of daizzy cutter, axes of evil, friendly fireevil, friendly fire, etc., etc.

With the aid of metaphors and humour With the aid of metaphors and humour speakers render experience intelligible, speakers render experience intelligible, and by means of them they adjust to and by means of them they adjust to their environment. their environment.