University of Nigeria Research Publications

NWOSU, Sabina Eziamaka

Aut

hor

PG/Ph.D/96/23084

Title

Effects of Self-Evaluation with Video Tape Recorder and

Peer Evaluation Techniques of Micro-Teaching on Student-Teachers’ Acquisition of Verbal and Non-Verbal

Communication Skills

Facu

lty

Education

Dep

artm

ent

Educational Technology

Dat

e October, 2001

Sign

atur

e

EFFECTS OF SELF-EVALUATION WITH VIDEO TAPE RECORDER AND PEER EVALUATION

TECHNIQUES OF MICRO-TEACHING ON STUDENT-TEACHERS' ACQUISITION

OF VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS.

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF l't-il LOSOPI-IY

(P1i.D) IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

NWOSU SABINA EZIAMAKA PG/Ph.D/96/23084

OCTOBER, 2001

I ~ I S I S to certrli that NWOSII, Sabina Eziamaka, Postgt-aclwdc St~~clerlt 111 l l lu

1 )~\)illIliielit 01' Ixh~catiori with Registratiori Nun~ber 1% lP11 1 ) '001230S 1 1las

~ S ! ; I C ~ O I ~ ~ cori~pletetl the rxqlrlrenw~ts for tlic course arid t l~c I cvxrc l~ \ \ 0 1 I\

fiu the degree of' Doctor of' Pliilosopl~y in Educational Teclinoloy!~ Tli(, \ \ orh

cnlbodied in thrs thesis is origirial and has not beer1 sulmittecl 111 par-1 01 fill1

I a Diplonia or Degree of this IJr~iversit!! or any other IJr i l \ cl i;rty

APPROVAL

This Thcsis has bcen rcad and approvcd for thc Faculty of Education, IJnivcrsity of

Nigcria, Nsukkn

SIJPERVISO INTERNAL EmMINER I

DEDICATION

To the Sacred Heart of Christ, the abyss of all virtues.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher is very gratefid to her Supervisor, Sir, Prof. S.C.O.A. Ezeji who

through his inexhaustible patience read the work through, made constructive criticisms and

offered wealth of experiences and priceless pieces of advice that made this work an attainable

reality. Also, my sincere gratitude is exclusively reserved for Dr. F.A. Okwo who assisted my

supervisor by offering invaluable guidelines which enabled the researcher to organize this work

into a meaningful whole. I am also indebted to the team of experts namely: Dr. A. Ezeudu, Sir,

Prof T.A. Nwachukwu, Dr. R Okafor, Dr. G.C. Offorma, Dr. Q.J. Nwoji, Dr. O.M. Nwafor,

Dr. B.G. Nworgu and Dr. N. Ogbonnaya for their constructive criticisms.

I am particularly indebted to Professor J.U. Okorie, Prof. O.C. Nwana, Prof. A.Ali,

Prof. N.J. Ogbazi and Prof. A. Mkpa who equipped me with necessary print materials. I cannot

forget Professor Mrs. J.I.N. Okpala (model of womanhood par excellence) from whom I drew

my inspiration for academics and self-control. To Prof. (Mrs.) E.U. Anyakoha, Dr. (Mrs.)

W.J.Kalu, Dr. J.C.Okoye, Dr. Jerry Anyaegbu and Mr. Obiorah C. Okafor, I remain gratefd.

I owe continuing thanks to Most Rev. Dr. S.A. Okafor, Rev. Fr. Dr. J.P.C. Nzomiwu,

Rev. Canon Dr. Emma aod Dr. (Mrs.) Dora Ekpunobi. They are the moral giants that jointly

and severally made my University education possible. May God bless them abundantly.

My most cherished gratitude goes to the Provost, Prof. F.C. Okafor and student-teachers

of College of Education, Nsugbe, who constitute the vineyard of convictions that led to the

maturity of taught, observations and experimentation's for the research work. I remain grateful

to Eze Denco who equipped me with both visual and audio-visual materials for the work.

I owe glowing tribute to my family particularly, to my immediate brother, Arch. Ndubuisi and

to Juli who sent me some literary materials &om University of Grenoble, France.

I owe continuing thanks to all these people and numerous others for their co-operation

and stimulating atmosphere which made the completion of this research possible.

To God be the Glory.

Nwosu, Sabina E.

January, 200 1.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE CERTIFICATION APPROVAL PAGE DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Scope of the Study Research Quest ions Hypotheses

CHAPTER I1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Theoretical Review Micro-Teaching: Meaning, Nature and Process Nature and Process of VTR Evaluation Technique Nature and process of PEER Evaluation Technique Communication skills in Micro-Teaching Empirical Review Summary of Literature Review

CHAPTER I11 MEETHODOLOGY Research Design Area of the Study ~o~kla t ion of the Study Sample and Sampling Technique

. Instrument for Data Collections

i ii iii iv v vi vii viii

Validity of the Instrument Reliability of the Instrument Experimental Procedure Method of Data Analysis

CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Research Question 1 Research Question I1 Research Question I11 Research Question IV Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis I1 Summary of Findings

CHAPTER V DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Discussion of results Conclusions Implications of the Findings Recommendations Limitations of the Study Suggestions for Further Research Summary of the Work

RFERENCES

APPENDICES

A: Letter of Introduction to British Council 159

B: Rating Scale on Micro-Teaching Communication Skills(RAS0M'IECS) 160

C: Content Validity Index (CVI) 163

D. Calculation of Coefficient of Stability and Internal Consistency

(Reliability) of the Instrument 164

Model Lesson Plan on CRS

Model Micro-Lesson Format

Computer Summary Sheet of' Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

on Method Evaluation and Gender on Verbal Communication

(VC) and Non- Verbal Communication (NVC) Skills

Research (flied work) Video Tapes: 1-6

Lectures on nine micro-teaching skills with model lesson plan on

CRS for the VTR (Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups.

Demonstration Teaching on verbal and non-verbal communication Skills for the VTR

(Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups.

Demonstration Teaching on VTR evaluation techniques for the VTR (Control) group.

Demonstration Teaching on Peer evaluation techniques for the Peer (Experimental)

group

The VTR (Control) group in a practice session at the micro-teaching laboratory, College

of Education, Nsugbe.

Post-test of the Experimental subjects at GIPPS Secondary School, Onitsha.

. . . V l l l

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Linear model of communication in teaching-learning process

2. Cyclic model of cornrnunicatioil in teaching -learning process

3. Specific format no 1: VTR Evaluation Cyclic Process

4. Specific format no 2: Peer Evaluation Cyclic process

Abstract

Micro-Teaching is an innovation in teacher education which is employed in the preparation of'

pre-service teachers for the acquisition of specific teaching skills. The teaching skills include

set induction, verbal and non-verbal communications, stimulus variation, planned repetitions,

use of examples etc. Micro-teaching usually involves the use of video tape recorder (VTR)

which enhances video-play-back that enables the student-teacher to make a critique of hidher

performance and repeat of the operation to improve certain components of the micro-lesson.

The use of video-tape recorder to enhance class room instruction is among the modern

approaches that have come to involve educational technology components. However, despite

the relevance of VTR in teaching and evaluation of pre-service teachers' mastery of the

teaching skills, the method appears too expensive and delicate in operation. This study, is

therefore aimed at ascertaining the effects of Peer evaluation technique as an alternative to

VTR evaluation in micro-teaching. The sub-skills which are components of the verbal and non-

verbal communication skills under study were identified fiom micro-teaching text books and

journal articles. These sub-skills constitute the Rating Scale on Micro-Teaching

Communication Skills (RASOMTECS). The first section of the RASOMTECS consists of

fifteen itcnls on verbal communication while the second section was made up of fifteen items

on non-verbal communication skills. RASOMTECS was given out to micro-teaching content

specialists who determined the appropriateness and relevance of each item to the

communication skills (behaviours) it measures. Based on the recommendations of these

resource persons, some items were modified while some others were replaced. RASOMTECS

was face-validated in terms of clarity of words and plausibility of the items. The instrument

was trial-tested on 28 pre-service teachers in a College of Education. The results of the two

sessions of the trial-test were used in calculating the reliability index while the ratings of the

five expects on the instrument were used in calculating the Content Validity Index (CVI).

RASOMTECS was administered to 80 year I1 student-teachers of College of Education,

Nsugbe, in Anambra State. These students were stratified according to sex and randomly

assigned to Experimental (Peer) and Control (VTR) groups. The students underwent training

and practice sessions in their respective groups for a period of eight (8) weeks. After training,

they were rated independently on their mastery of VC and NVC skills by three experts. The

two hypotheses for this study were tested for significance (P<0.05) using the Analysis of

Variance ( ANOVA).

The major findings of this study are as follows:

1. Peer evaluation (Experimental) group performed better than VTR evaluation (Control)

group on the mastery of verbal communication skills of micro-teaching . . u. Peer evaluation (Experimental) group performed better than VTR evaluation (Control)

group on the mastery of non- verbal communication skills of micro-teaching ... la. Gender is a significant factor (P< 0.05) in student-teachers' mastery of verbal and non-

verbal communication skills of micro-teaching.

The major implication of these findings is that Peer Evaluation is a valid, reliable and effective

method of both formative and surnmative evaluation of student-teacher' mastery of micro-

teaching skills. In addition, it is inexpensive and therefore should be used in all teacher

education institutions.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Micro-teaching as an innovation in teacher education is often employed in

the preparation of pre-service teachers for the acquiaition of teaching skills and

for research involving the study of teaching and learning processes. The method

was designed by Dwight Allen with a team of teachers and researchers at

Stanford University, California in the 1960s. It was primarily carried out for

training of student-teachers to acquire a repertoire of teaching skills under a

controlled laboratory condition (Brown, 1975). This is to reduce the complexities

of actual classroom teaching (class size, content, time etc) and for practice of

skills separately for acquisition.

Micro-teaching commonly involves the use of video tape recorder (VTR), a

short lesson of 5-1 0 minutes duration, playing it back (video-play-back), making

a critique of rt and repeating the operation to improve certain components of the

micro lesson (Anikweze, 1998; and Ofoefuna, 1999).Micro-teaching implies

teaching on a small scale whereby the

various skills involved in micro-teaching or large scale teaching are analysed,

isolated and "only one or two teaching skills practise at a timen. (Farant, 1981:

186; Ohuche and Izuwah, 1985 ); and the student is assessed on the basis of his

ability to perform the skills at an acceptable level of competence. It is regarded

as a scaleddown teaching encounter which lays emphasis on the various

teaching skills such as verbal communication and non-verbal communication (VC

and NVC), set induction, use of examples, stimulus variation, pacing,

questioning, reinforcement, planned repetition and closure (Maduewesi, 1992;

and FRN, 1996).

Specifically, the verbal and non-verbal communication skills (VC and

NVC) are respectively aspects of conveying messages through the use of

spoken words; and actions of humans other than the use of words (Burgoon and

Saine, 1978). Communication is the process of information exchange between

two or more individuals in an attempt by one individual to persuade or change the

behaviour of the other individual (Ogunmilade, 1984). In education,

communication refers to the information transmitted from a teacher to the pupils

or even by audio-visual means (Adewoyin, 1991).

Verbal communication (VC) is adaptable to many uses and functions in

carrying on various types of activities that are essentially linguistic in nature. .

According to Bellack (1996:97), 'the verbal actions perform pedagogical s

functions in classroom discoursen. The pedagogical functions include structuring,

soliciting, responding and reacting. The teaching skills related to verbal

communication in the classroom have been identified. They are:

Class control, dramatizing, encouraging the flow of pupils' ideas, encouraging effort, explaining difficulties, helping to clarify pupils' ideas, reading

aloud, story telling and using pupils' ideas (Farant, 1981 :I 89).

Explaining ideas or difficulties seem to be the central idea and important skill of

verbal communication.

Conversely, non-verbal communication(NVC) is defined as natural body and

physical actions and responses which reinforce students' behaviour (Maduewesi,

1992). Examples of non-verbal cues are: a smile, a nod of the head, or friendly

eye contact, body postures and directed arm-hand-finger movement. Literature

indicates that societies and cultures have different characteristic non-verbal

postures, gestures, intonation and movements that have added meaning to

words or express ideas more vividly (Postlethwaite, 1985;Maduewesi, 1992; and

Eze, 1998). NVC is an important means of sending messages to people. The

teaching skills related to NVC skills in the classroom include: calling a pupil's

attention, encouraging greater effort; expressing approval and other feelings,

rebuking misbehaviour, and stopping a pupil's action (Farant, 1981). The skills to

be used by the teacher depends on the kind of message he intends to send

across to the pupils.

The skills in micro-teaching are the specific teacher behavi~urs that carry

the information better and quicker to the learner (Miltz, 1995). In other words,

they are teacher behaviours that are designed to make classroom interaction

more effective. The idea behind micro-teaching is that when the student-

teachers succeed in mastering each of those composite skills, then, they should

in the actual teaching situation be able to integrate what they have learnt in each

skill and so make teaching effective.

Micro-teaching sessions require the use of video tape recorder (VTR) to

ensure immediate feedback during which stage, the student participates in self-

evaluation (Butts, 1997; and Eze, 1998). The use of VTR and education

television to enhance classroom instruction is among the modern approaches

that have come to involve educational technology components (Onyejemezi,

1988; and Agun and Imogie, 1988).

Among the modern approaches to teaching and learning, radio and

television were particularly recongnised in the National Policv-+.on Education

(FRN, 1998) as products of technological age which are designed to improve

dcommunication. Information in the above document further showed that, radio

and television are also being used for the development and improvement of

education as well as for the expansion of instructional techniques. The video

tape recorder (VTR) plays significant roles in micro-teaching sessions. For b

instance, Husen and Postlethwaite (1985) observed that the VTR provide

opportunities for an individual's self-evaluation of his or her teaching behaviour.

The teaching behaviours comprise the specific teaching skills that enhance

teaching and learning in the classroom.

Research reports attest to the value of VTR in teaching. These reports

have shown that the VTR is of immense value in the improvement of teaching

among serving and pre-service teachers (Odusina, 1980; and Ali, 1985).

Unfortunately, this learning medium appears to be rather, expensive to acquire

and operate especially, in the present time of economic recession in Nigeria

during which many educational institutions lack funds for procurement,

installation and maintenance of the equipment (Dike, 1988; and Nwafor, 1994).

Hence, researchers and concerned educators constantly seek for cheaper

alternative techniques of evaluating pre-service teachers in the micro-teaching

sessions.

One of the alternatives and cheaper techniques that has been suggested

in other studies is peer evaluation (Nwana, 1992; Mkpa, 1985; and 1991). Peer

evaluation means group evaluation. It is 'peer appraisal method" (Mehrens and

Lehmann, 1978:370). It is also known as the 'monitorial systemn (Farant,

1981 :49); and "criticism lessonsn (Mkpa, 1985:33). It implies 'equals teaching

equalsn; 'teach me I teach you or 'teaching by barter" (Iheanacho, 1992:49). In .

peer evaluation of micro-teaching, a student demonstrates specific skills as he b

teaches the rest of the group who play the part of his pupils and who, at the end

of the class, criticize the lesson. According to Mkpa (1985:33) 'peer evaluation

requires no mechanical recording" instead, the student-teacher depends on the

observations and comments of his peers for feedback. He found that the peer

evaluation technique is effective in the acquisition of questioning skills by an

experimental group that used it. In another study conducted by Mkpa (1991), it

was reported that peer evaluation technique is effective in the pre-service

teachers' acquisition of stimulus variation skills. However, it appears that no

study has been conducted on efficacy of peer evaluation on verbal and non-

verbal communication skills.

The present study is being carried out to investigate the effect of peer evaluation

as an alternative technique to VTR in the acquisition of micro-teaching verbal and

non-verbal communication skills by pre-service teachers.

It is also carried out to investigate the influence of gender on students-

teachers' acquisition of verbal and non-verbal communication skills of micro-

teaching. According to Anikweze (1998), the gender factor has a way of intruding

. into peoples self-esteem, and self-esteem, no doubt, influence one's perception

of personal standards and assessment. Lovegrove (1975) conducted a study in

which he reported that, male student-teachers' mean (x) VTR (self-rating) scores

on teaching practice was higher than the female student-teacher's mean (X) self-

r a h g scores. Anikweze (1 998) involved 50 final year NCE students in VTR (self- ?

evaluation) of their teaching practice abilities. He also reported a higher mean

(x) score for the males than the females.

Statement of the Problem

Video tape recorder (VTR) has been found useful in the acquisition of

micro-teaching skills. However, this approach involving the use of equipment is

too expensive and so difficult to make available in sufficient numbers to teacher

education institutions that need them. In the present economic situation in

Nigeria, educational institutions find it increasingly difficult to procure, install and

maintain the VTR and its accessories. Meanwhile, the Federal Government

(FRN, 1998), recommended that concerned experts should embark on the

development and effective utilization of cheap alternative techniques for teaching

and evaluation. It is against this background that the researcher is interested in

ascertaining the effects of peer (group) evaluation technique by comparing the

effects of self- evaluation with VTR technique on the acquisition of verbal and

non-verbal communication skills of micro-teaching by pre-service teachers. Also,

the issue of gender effect on the acquisition of micro-teaching skills is a problem

to be investigated.

Prrrpose of the Study

'Ihc specific ot>.jectives of the study are to:

1 . determine the relative mean (2) rating scores of students

exposed to self-evaluation with VTR and Peer evaluation

tcchniqucs on verbal co~n~nunication skills.

2. determine the relative mean (3) rating scores of' students

exposed to self-evaluation with VTR and Peer cvalunlic~n

tcchniqi~cs on non-verbal communicaticw skills.

3. dctcrmine the rclativc mean (?) rating scores 01' malc and

lk~niile studcnts o n verbal communication skills.

4. determine the relative mean (2) rating scores of male and

I'cmale students on lion-verbal con~mimication skills.

Significance of the Study

'I'he \lalue of every research work depencts on its contribution to

knowlcdgc and dcvclopment. 'I'he quest ihr dcvclopmcnt i n education and

through cdiruation calls for the present research. 'l'he present research is

tllcrcforc significant for the Sollo\ving reasons:

l'liis study will be of ini~ncnse bcncfit to the govern~nent. tcachcr 6

cducation institutions, lccturcrs in Curriculum and edi~calio~l tecllnology.

micro-tcaching and teaching practice supervisors i n collcges of eclucation

a n d lilci~ltics

of education of various Universities, guidance counsellors, researchers and

research organisations as well as pre-service teachers. This is through

publication of this work as a text material for consultation in various libraries; for

conferences, seminars and workshops.

The finding that peer evaluation is an effective technique makes this work

a valuable asset. By implication, micro-teaching supervisors and student-

teachers will no longer be affected by incessant power failure form National

Electric Power Authority (NEPA) which usually interfere with and disrupt the use

of VTR technique in micro-teaching sessions. The VTR requires electricity to

work effectively in the micro-teaching laboratory. This is however. not the case

with Peer evaluation technique since the sophisticated machines are not

involved.

The determination of the effects of Peer evaluation technique make this

study very important as it calls for its subsequent adoption in teacher education

institutions. Invariably, it will save the government huge sums of money usually

spent on procurement, installation, replacement and servicing of the VTR and its

accessories. The money may be used for other educational services such as in-

service training of teachers, procurement of educational computers e.g.

Computer assisted institution (C.A.I.) and for educational researches to mention

but a few. b

The study is Important because it will serve as a frame of reference on

micro-teaching communication skills namely: verbal and non-verbal. Hence,

student-teachers, researchers and research organisations will benefit from this

study in their attempt to determine the effects of these methods on the

acquisition of micro-teaching skills such as set induction, use of examples;

stimulus variation, planned repetitions, reinforcement, questioning and closure.

The findings of this study, particularly in establishing the pedagogical

advantages of Peer evaluation in enhancing student-teachers' mastery of VC and

NVC skills will enable pre-service teachers to become proficient in

communication skills and techniques of oral evaluation in micro-teaching through

adoption and constant use of techniques of peer evaluation. Consequently, some

problems associated with micro-teaching such as fear, poor supervision,

interruption by power failure and unco-operative attitudes of media technicians

will be by-passed.

Finally, this study is important as it reports that gender is a significant

factor, in favour of the males in the acquisition of VC and NVC skill of micro-

teaching. Aptly, it holds the generally accepted view that men perform better than

women in tasks involving skill and dexterity. Essentially, this finding provides a

framework that will enable lecturers in curriculum and educational technology,

guidance counsellors and micro-teaching supervisors to advise and direct male

and female student -teachers during micro-teaching sessions.

S c o p e of the Study

The study covers various skills namely: set induction, stimulus variation,

use of examples, planned repetitions, questioning, verbal, non-verbal,

reinforcement and closure in teaching-learning process as identified in Farant

(1981); Cohen and Manion (1993); and Brown and Atkins (1993) but

concentrates on fifteen sub-skills each of verbal and non-verbal communications

in micro-teaching. The sub-skills of verbal communications includes: tone of

voice, clarity of words, voice projection, pronunciation, grammar in relation to

content, organisation of thought, logicality and sequence in skill presentation,

planned repetition of key words, verbal cues: elocution diction and comportment,

verbal cues in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains, verbal cue for

heuristic teaching, verbal cues for class control, control of verbal mannerisms,

and use of action verbs e.g define, list, outline, identify etc in stating and

evaluation of instructional objectives. The sub-skills of non-verbal communication

. includes: Body postures: head, shoulder, hands, trunk, hip, legs; gestures: arm-

hand-finger movement, head-nodding, head-tilting, facial smile, frowning,

laughing, eye contact and use of nose-mouth-throat for extra-verbal

communications. This study is also delimited to method of evaluation: VTR and

Peer; and gender (male and female).

12 licscarch Questions

'l'lic rcsearcli questions formulated to guide the conduct of this stud!! arc. :I.;

rollows:

1 . What arc the relativc nican (?) rating scores of studcnts cxposcd lo scll-

cvnluation with VTR and Pecr evaluation tcchniqucs on vcrhal

communicalio~i sliills?

2. What are the relative mean ( 5 ) rating scores of stuclents expoced lo

scll~cvaluation with V'I'R and Pccr cvaluation tecliniqucs on non-

verbal communication skills?

1 -7 . What arc tlic relative mean ( 2 ) rating scores of malt: and feninlc

studcnts on verbal communication skills?

4. What are the relative mean (2) rating scores of male and fcm:~lc

students on non-verbal communication skills'?

Based on the rcsearcli questio~is, the following l~!ptlieses werc form~~lnlccl

~ K I will be tested at 0.05 lcvcl ofsignificancc:

. . I licrc is no signilicant diffcrcnce in tlic mcnn (s) r;~iing scores of stutlcnrs

exposed to tlie VTR and Peer techniques of evaluation

on verbal conini~~nication skills (P<0.05)

'I'licrc is no signilic;unt dilTcrcncc i l l rhc ~iic:ui ( 2 ) rating sccwcs 01.

studcnts exposed to tlie VTR and Peer tecliniques of cvalu:~rion on n o w

verbal communication skills (W0.05)

I'lierc is n o signilicant dil'filrclice in tlic mean (s) rating scores ol'malc allti

k~i ia le students on verbal communication skills (PcO.05)

, . I here is no significant diffcrencc in tlie mcan (?) rating scorcs o f m;~lc

and li.nialc students on non-verbal communica~ion skills (1'.-0.05).

CHAPTER l l

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with review of related literature to the present study.

The review was carried out under the following sub-headings:

Theoretical Review

-Micro-teaching: meaning, nature and process

-Nature and process of VTR evaluation technique

-Nature and process of peer evaluation technique

-Communication skills in micro-teaching

Verbal communication skills

Non-verbal communication skills

Empirical Review

-Related empirical studies.

-Summary of literature review.

THEORETICAL REVIEW

Micro-Teaching: Meaning, Nature And Process

The Concepts of Micro-Teaching

Micro-teaching is a laboratory training system in teacher education. It is a

brain child of Dwight Allen with a team of teachers and researcher at Stanford

University, California in 1963. It is a scaleddown version of factual teaching in

which a student-teacher teaches a small group of 5-10 students within 5-10

minutes. His performance is recorded on video tape for immediate feedback in

which the student -teacher makes a critique of his performance. The

performance can be observed by his supervisor and his colleagues or peers from

the reer, 'visual display unit (VDU) or the monitor in a control room (Oliver;2000;

and Mcknight, 2000). Micro- teaching is scaled-down in terms of time. class size,

content, skills etc. It includes the use of simulation techniques to breakdown the

teaching process into smaller units for easy understanding and practice. Brown

and Armstrong (1985) postulate that, micro-teaching is designed to develop new

teaching skills and refine old one. It provides student-teachers with teaching

encounter before they go for teaching practice or normal classroom teaching.

Micro-teaching is done in a laboratory ( threat-free or low-risk

environment) to enable student-teachers acquire a repertoire of teaching skills. b

The teaching skills includes, set induction, stimulus variation, use of examples,

planned repetitions, verbal and non-'verbal cues, questioning, reinforcement and

closure. One or two skills can be practised at a time ,; (Farant, 1981; Ohuche and

Izuwah, 1985); and the student is assessed on the basis of his ability to perform

the skills at an acceptable level of competence. The micro-teaching laboratory

gives the student-teacher an opportunity for try-outs. He keeps on practising

without fear or worry about failure until acquisition occurs. It commonly involves

the use of use of video-tape recorder (VTR) , a short lesson of 5-10 minutes

duration, replay (video-play-back) , making a critique of it and repeat of the

operation to improve certain components of the micro-lesson (Ofoefuna,l999 ;

and Travers 2000) The combined feedback from the student-teacher through

video-playback and feedback form the supervisor enable the student- teacher to

acquire teaching skills .

In micro-teaching, the specific teacher behaviours as reported by Stanford

model are teaching skills that are designed to help classroom instruction become

more effective. Micro-lessons are used in practicum sessions. The objectives in

* the micro-lesson are stated in observable, terms. and measurable by

pedagogical criteria. Practicum sessions are basis for try-outs and for

acquisition. Experienced supervisors are not always a necessity but a distant

advantage, an essentiality for open and constructive criticisms (Copeland and

Doyle, 1997). In a nutshell, micro-teaching reduces complexities of actual

classroom teaching, enables the practice of specific skills, removes fear or worry

about failure, provides opportunity for immediate and delayed feedback,

enhances encounter with teaching from theory into practice. paves way for

teaching practice, provides opportunity' for preparation of lesson plans and helps

to eliminate mannerisms e.g ee-eem--; and charisma ( artificial or make-belief

behaviours) which are ceremonial appendages.

Nature of Micro-teaching

Micro-teaching as a course of study in made up of theories on teaching skills;

demonstration or practicum on teaching skills, and clinical supervisor or

diagnosis sessions on teaching skills. Prior to the introduction of micro-teaching

in 1963, teacher education consisted of imparting the theories. and principles of

education to the student-teachers. This was done through educational

Psychology, Philosophy of education and curriculum studies. After this

experience, the student go out to face complexities of school classroom teaching.

There was no practicum sessions for the student-teachers to practice the skills of

teaching like footballers who practice skills of foot-balling before going out for

football matches. This was based on the assumption that teaching involves only

the cognitive and effective skills. People were dissatisfied with the performance

of student teachers. Researches were conducted and results made it clear that

tekhing also involves psychomotor skills and as such, student-teachers will not

. be loaded with only the theories.

The finding that teaching involves psychomotor skills implies the

acquisition and mastering of teaching through actual practice of specific skills

that make for effective teaching. As part of innovative technique, in 1963, the

Stanford Teacher Education Programme (STEP) of the Stanford University under

the leadership of professor D.W. Allen launched a new laboratory experience in

the preparation cf their pre-service teachers. They worked in what was called

"Demonstration Teachingn. The laboratory teaching was highly structured and the

risk of failure was very low (Turney, 2000). The "Demonstration Teaching" led by

Dwight Allen (father of micro-teaching), Kim Romney, and Horace Aubertine (

then a doctoral student in the field of secondary education) therefore became the

pathfinder of micro-teaching. In the "demonstration teaching" High School

students were brought into the laboratory and were taught by pre- service

teachers each of whose teaching performance was recorded, analysed and

discussed to point out he merits and demerits. There was problem of clear-out

decisions since good teaching is in the eyes of the beholder while successful

teaching is in the performance of pupils. To overcome the fluidity, emphasis was

later placed on identifying particular behaviours that helped more effective

learning. The identified positive behaviours were called teaching skills. Miltz

(1975) in Qfoefuna (1999) points out that, teaching skills are specific teacher

behaviours designed to help classroom instruction become more effective. b

'Model and process of Micro-teaching

There are two major models of micro-teaching named after their

institutions of origin. They are Stanford and Stirling models. The Stanford model

of micro-teaching process is a cyclic one which emphasises the microness of

micro-teaching. This concerns five parts of major elements of teaching namely,

class size, content, time, objectives and skills. It requires a drastic cut in; (1)

class size: 5-10 pupils, (ii) content: one unit of activity, (iii) Time: 5-10 minutes,

(iv) teaching skill: one at a time, (v) objective: simple, clear and concise. The

Cycle involves (1) study the skill, (2) observe the skill (video-view on

demonstrators), (3) plan with the skill ,(4) teachlpractice the skill, (5) critique or

feedback by means of video-tape) (6) Replan. In the strict sense, after phase 5

which IS the critique, the cycle is deemed complete. A replan comes after a

restudy and re-observation of a particular skill. With regards to duration , the

Stanford model takes off with Teaching: 5-10 minutes, observation and rating:

5minutes, critique: 10 minutes, replaning: 10 minutes, and reteaching: 5-10

minutes. On the whole, a complete cycle takes a maximum of 45 minutes.

Another micro-lesson is repeated on the same skill after two days. Then follows a

clinical session where the experienced supervisor of micro-teaching discuss with

the students one after the other on areas of difficulties, strengths and b

weaknesses.

Stirling Model

The second model is the Stirling model. The first micro-teaching session in

the United Kingdom (U.K) began at Stirling University, Scotland in 1968.1t was at

Stirling that the British Council film "what is micro-teaching" was

recorded(Mcknig ht, 2000). The Stirling model developed the link-practice pattern.

This model emphasises completeness of communication through learner

behaviour or pupil gains. It believes that the ultimate goal of planning a lesson,

teaching, observation, critique and replanning is for successful teaching of a

learner. This model points that where the students have not learnt, that the

teacher has not taught. It stresses actions or behaviours that have succeeded in

ensuring that the learner gives evidence that the communication or interaction

he has with the teacher has enable d him acquire the required knowledge.

Comparison of Stanford and Stirling Models.

1. Oriqin: The Stanford model originated at Stanford University, California in

United States of America in 1963 while the Stirling model started in Stirling,

Scotland in the United Kingdom in 1968.

2. Proqenitors: The Stanford model has Dwight Allen as the leader, Kim

Romney and Horace Aubertine as research colleagues.

3. *skill identification: The-Stanford model identified these skills: set induction,

stimulus variation, closure, silence and noh-verbal cues, reinforcement,

explaining and explanations, clarity of words in speech lower order questions,

higher order questions, divergent questions, recognising attending

behaviours, illustrations and use of examples, lecturing, planned repetitions

and completeness of communication. It did not recognise middle order

question (M.O.Q.) The Stirling model recognised all the Stanford skills and

added middle order question (M.O.Q.).

4. Svstem of practice: The Stanford model developed tripartite system of

practice which includes: micro-lesson, micro-class and clinical supervision

sessions. The Stirling model also recognised the tripartite system

5. Skill acquisition: The Stanford model lays emphasis on the teacher and his

acquisition of teaching skills through one-by-one practice of skills. The Stirling

model emphasises skill acquisition attainable by combination of skills.

6. Professional Resr>onsibility: Stanford model points that the teacher should

acquire a repertoire of teaching skills for effective teaching. The Stirling model

holds the teacher responsible for failure of the learner: that when the learner

has not learnt, that the teacher has not taught hence, unuse of teaching skills.

7. Completeness of communication: The Stanford model emphasises '

completeness of communication as shown by the teacher's effective use of

skills. The Stirling model emphasises completeness of communication as

shown by the learner's acquisition of required knowledge. It stresses that

successful teaching is in the performance of the learner.

8. Links in teaching: Stanford model accepts that beyond micro-teaching is

macro-teaching. The Stirling model accepts the same thing in what it called

"link-practice."

9. Clinical Supervisor: Both Stanford and Stirling models provided for clinical

supervision in micro-teaching. This is a supervision cycle where the

supervisor and the student-teacher sit face-to-face to discuss the student's

performance (strengths and weakness) on the teaching skills. It has four

phases namely: the pre-observation conference, on-the-performance

observation, analysis and post- observation conference.

10.Practicum environment: Both the Stanford and Stirling models had their

demonstration and practice sessions in micro-teaching laboratory (low-risk or

threat-free environment).

OTHER MODELS INCLUDE:

Borq's Model: This is the model used by Borg at Far West Laboratory in . California (Perrot, 2000). The

model has five phases as follows:

1. Study skills: The student reads teacher's handbook about several related

teaching skills. b

3 L. Observe skills: A view of illustrations of the related skills on micro-lesson

in which a teacher used the skills.

3. Practice skills: Prepare a micro-lesson and conduct the micro-lesson to

apply skills.

4. Evaluate use of skills: View video-tape of micro-lesson and evaluate use

of skills by means of self-evaluation guides in the teacher's handbook.

5. Refine skills: Replan and conduct a reteach micro-teaching lesson and

evaluate the use of skills in the reteach.

Alvan Model: This is a model development at Alvan lkoku College of Education,

Owerri as reported by

Miltz (1 975) in Eze (1 997). The model has four phases as follows:

1. Lecture on the skills given to all the students.

2. Written materials on the skills are studied by the students.

3. The students attempt to practice the skills in a short micro-teaching

lesson.

4. The lesson is recorded on video-tape and immediately, the student

watches a replay on the lesson.

N.O.C.E.N. Model: This is a model in vogue at Nwafor Orizu College of

Education, Nsugbe, Anambra

nd Ofoefuna

1 Lectures on micro-teaching theory with emphasis on teaching skills

2 Preparing micro-lesson plans on specific skills for practicum sessions in

the micro-teaching Laboratory.

3 Students watch video-play-backs on their performance.

4 Analysis of students' strengths and weaknesses on specific skills by

experienced micro-teaching supervisors.

5 Clinical supervision: students' face-to-face consultation of the micro-

teachirig supervisor in the laboratory on areas of strengths and

weaknesses.

6 Reteach on specific skills

7 Macro-teaching.

All the models are in one way or the other, adaptation of the Stanford

model. They vary in phases but retain the basic elements of the Stanford model.

CLINICAL SUPERVISION IN MICRO-TEACHING

Process Of Clinical Supervision In Micro-Teaching Meaning:

4 n the context of micro-teaching , clinical supervision is a process-product

approach. It is a systematic and diagnostic approach to acquisition of micro-

teaching skills. It is clinical in that the supervisor and the (student-teacher)

supervisee operate In a laboratory (controlled, low-risk or threat-free

environment) ,environment free from worries, tension, anxieties, fear of failure

etc. It is systematic (step-by-step analysis of performanc~), thorough and help-

oriented. It could be likened to medical clinic where a patient opens up for his

doctor on his health problems and enable the patient regain his health.

Clinical supervision in micro-teaching is joint accountability between the

supervisor and the (student-teacher) supervisee in the sense that, the supervisor

observes and analyses the recorded performance of the supervisee, he replays

the performance for the student-teacher who instantly assesses the strengths

and weaknesses of his performance. Contextually, the supervisor is tagged the

"supervision" (Goldhammer, 1999) because he sees beyond the supervisee in

analysis of feedback. He creates mutual atmosphere and rapport with the

student-teacher to make for inner motivation that will enable him willingly accept

his weaknesses; and to reteach for improvement. The clinical supervisor of

micro-teaching is a motivator, facilitator, reinforcer, adviser, director, moderator

and evaluator. He has these qualities by virtue of his professional competences

namely: subject-matter and methodological competences.

There are two

Brawn's model

major models of clinical supervision in micro-teaching. They are

and Goldhammer's model.

1. Brown's Model

Brown (1995) has three stages model of : Planning, Performance

and Perception (3Ps). By this model, the supervisor works closely, not

independently with the student-teacher. From planning of the micro-lesson

through performance, observation, critique and analysis of feedback, the

supervisor works closely with the student-teacher.

Planninq The supervisor directs the student-teacher in micro-lesson

planning, skill to be emphasised, specification of objectives and selection

of materials to accomplish the objectives.

Performance: The supervisor directs the student-teacher as he practices

or demonstrates the skill. He gives intermittent directives in the course of

the student-teacher's performance.

Perception: At this stage, the supervisor observes the student-teacher's

actions and interactions and their effects in acquisition of the skill. He

guides the student-teacher in replanning and reteaching for effective

performance.

2. Gold hammer's Model

Goldhammer (1999) has four stages model commonly in use. They are:

(i) Pre-observation conference

(ii) Observation

(iii) Analysis and strategies

(iv) Post-observation conference.

Pre-observation conference: In this first stage, the supervisor creates a

relaxed atmosphere, establishes rapport to enable the student-teacher open up

for meaningful diagnosis before the micro-teaching practicum starts. He goes

through the micro-lesson plan prepared by the student-teacher. He looks at the

skill to be emphasised, the objectives of the lesson and the media for

accomplishing the objectives. He ensures that these basic elements have links

and linkages that will enhance acquisition.

Observation: At this second stage, the supervisor carries out on-the-

performance observation. He observes the student ,on -the - sport, teaching on a

particular skill while the video-tape recorder is at the same time recording. At the

end of practice, there is video replay. The student is given evaluation from to

avaluate his performance. The supervisor also evaluates him using the same

evaluation format.

Analysis and strateqies: At this 3* stage, the ratings on the evaluation

forms during the observation stage are analysed by the supervisor. This is to

remove all tentacles of subjective evaluation and criticisms. He makes analysis of

the performance on the student's areas of strengths and weaknesses and

formulates strategies for effective performance.

Post-Observation C.onference: In this fourth and final stage, the student-

teacher comes again face-to-face and eyeball-to eyeball with the supervisor. The

supervisor may start with a smile or praises on the student's performance. He

discusses his critique/comments with the student-teacher in a friendly, mutual

and respectable manner. This approach is adopted to create an inner motivation

that will make the student-teacher open up willingly to accept his strengths and

weaknesses.

Finally, the supervisor makes suggestions and guide that will enable the

student-teacher replan and reteach for acquisition of the skill.

. Nature and Process of VTR Evaluation Technique

Nature of VTR Technique: The VTR records verbatim; it could be --

rewound, forwarded, slow-motioned or kept still for any special focus purposes

(Eze, 1997). In micro-teaching self-evaluation with VTR means self-appraisal of s

micro-teaching skills (Emmer and Millet, 1980; Brown, 1975; Butts, 1997;

Odusina, 1980; Eze, 1998; and Ofoefuna and Eya, 1999). Self-appraisal has

been identified as one way in which the teacher gets to know the students'

weaknesses and strengths and so proceed to offer needed guidance or

remediation (Child, 1993). According to Anikweze (1998), the VTR (self-

evaluation) of practical teaching contributes to the formative judgments of the

teaching competence of pre-service teachers. In the same vein, Zeichner (1986)

maintained that VTR evaluation offers opportunity for student-teachers to reflect

on what happens during the teaching enterprise in particular situations.

Husen and postlethwaite (1985) pointed out that, VTR evaluation is the

informal or formal process by which a teacher makes judgment about his or her

own professional behaviour. The authors emphasized that, the self-directed

professional growth of a teacher is heavily dependent on the teacher's ability to

make realistic and systematic judgments about the efficacy of his or her work

(Husen and Postlethwaite, 1985: 4519). Self-evaluation is of important value

while working with students. The teacher forms impressions of how successfully

the teaching process is progressing. The teacher may be unaware of how the

impressions were formed but could provide opinions on the extent to which the

students were paying attention, the clarity of the communication being presented

by the teacher, the effectiveness of the teaching and the amount of problem

behaviour occurring in the classroom.

Mehrens and Lehman (1978) indicated that an aspect of evaluation that is

being emphasized more and more is the value of student self-evaluation. Self-

evaluation is important in self-directed learning; and self-directed learning is

essential both in school and after the student leaves school. The value of self-

evaluation lies on providing insights to teaching and learning. It is aimed at

subjecting the student or the teacher to examine himself critically so as to find

out whether or not he is delivering the goods; or doing his work successfully.

Carroll (1981) argued that self-evaluation provides insight into

explanations and interpretations of data from other sources as it also provides

extra useful information. According to Ogunmilade (1 981 : 121): through self-

critical evaluation, the teacher should be able to ask himself:

(i) Is my style stale? (ii) Am I rigid or inflexible? (iii) Am I indulged in mere pouring

in exercise or am I truly a facilitator of knowledge? (iv) Am I using effectively the

resources at my disposal or (v) Have I become

8 a.m. - 2p.m. routine machine?

The essence of the above questions was to focus attention not only on the

teacher's bright side but also on his dark corners so that he could correct his

mistakes at the same time as he maximizes his successes.

2 Process of VTR Evaluation Technique

The process of VTR evaluation involves a number of techniques or methods.

Carroll (1981) proposed different methods or ways to formalize and objectify self-

evaluation. These include:

(i) the use of self-rating forms, say a seven-point scale on such criteria

as objectives, organization of lessons, and encouragement of

students' involvement;

(ii) Open-ended self-reports where the teacher provides self-critical

responses to a variety of questions;

(iii) Observation of colleagues teaching and using the evidence so

obtained as a norm against which to judge one's own lecturing;

(v) Video or audio-taping of one's own teaching to allow after-the-heat-

of-the baffle appraisal to be made (Carroll, 1981: 241).

Carroll (1981) further indicated that among the four techniques of self-

evaluation, micro-teaching represents one kind of technique (iv) in the category

i.e. video-taping of one's own teaching. In micro-teaching, the VTR is often used

to record and play back to the class the student-teacher's performance and the

student-teacher participates in self-evaluation. Borich and Madden (1988) had

suggested that interaction analysis can be used in conjunction with video or

audio-taping so that the teacher can systematically assess wanted or unwanted

changes that might be occurring in the classroom. Sawin (1989) suggested that

feachers should help students learn what kinds of characteristics they can

evaluate and when it is wise to attempt self-evaluation. Sawin (1989: 198) made

the following suggestions:

Set a good example in the practice of evaluation and self-

evaluation.

Maintain a classroom atmosphere that encourages self-evaluation.

Conduct classroom activities in such a way that student efforts toward

self-evaluation result in satisfying experiences.

Encourage self-evaluation but do not try to enforce it.

Give the student opportunities to practice the evaluation skills you want

him to develop.

Work at joint evaluation with students.

Discourage the student from trying to evaluate too many things at a

tlme.

Have students maintain records or certain goods and their progress

toward them.

Have class discussion for clarifying unimportant goals and criteria for self-

evaluation.

Have programmed textbooks, teaching machines, and exercise with

answers for supplementary use.

Difficulties in the use of VTR Evaluation Technique

A number of difficulties in the use of VTR evaluation has been identified by

experts. Top on the list is the problem of self-delusion. Husen and Postlethwaite

(1,985) argued that at the informal level of self-evaluation, there is a definite

possibility that self-evaluation is related to self-delusion. The authors maintained

that some teachers may not have realistic impressions of the clarity of their

instructions or of the degree to which students learned from a specific lesson.

Self-delusion is a serious threat to the objectivity of self-evaluation.

Individuals tend to have false opinion or belief in themselves. Self -delusion is

deceptive, hence, Seldin (1975) indicated that self-evaluation by a teacher can

hardly be regarded as objective evidence on which to base decisions concerning

contract renewal, tenure or promotion. Self-evaluation may be fraught with

problems of reliability and especially validity (Borich and Madden, 1977).

Reliability is concerned with the degree of consistency in the measures of

attributes. Validity deals with !h~? degree to which a test is capable of achieving

certain aims, especially in making predictions about the individual tested or

evaluated (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978). The more subjectively a measure is

scored, the lower the reliability of the measure. Self-esteem introduces elements

of subjectivity, which tend to influence the reliability of self-evaluation techniques.

Anikweze(l988) observed that seif-esteem, no doubt, influence's one's

perception of personal standards and the gender factor has a way of intruding

into people's self-esteem. Mehrens and Lehmann (1978) cautioned that self-

evaluation should not be used as a replacement for the marking and reporting

done by the teachers. The authors reasoned that students are not always very

accurate in self-evaluations, and such a procedure could penalize the honest

student and reward the dishonest one. Husen and Postlethwaite (1985)

concluded that peer evaluation is an alternative to VTR evaluation which is

axiomatically unsuitable for certain kinds of decision-making for example, ,

promotion and tenure.

Nature and Process of Peer Evaluation Technique

(1) Nature of Peer Evaluation Technique

Peer evaluation technique has been described by experts using different

terms which however, convey the same meaning. Mehrens and Lehmann (1978)

referred to the technique as 'Peer appraisal methodn while Mkpa (1985)

described the peer evaluation technique as 'Criticism lessonn. Also, Farant

(1981: 49) described it as "the monitorial systemn where pupils or what Chinese

call little teachers supplement the work of the teacher by communicating to other

pupils those lessons they have been taught by the master teacher. Peer

appraisal methods were designed as supplements to the teacher's observation of

pupils' behaviours. The teacher observes the pupil n a special setting where the

student may well be behaving somewhat differently than he would in other

situations. The teacher is necessarily observing from a certain frame of reference

which may not be embracing. Mehrens and Lehmann (1978) maintained that

peer appraisal can be a very good supplement in evaluating such characteristics

a% popularity, leadership ability, power and concern for others. In the above

situations, f e k w students are often better judges than their teachers.

Peer evaluation technique was regarded as 'criticism lesson' which aims

at exposing student-teachers to the practice of the essential teaching skills,

evaluating their performance and providing them with immediate feedback so

that they learn from their errors (Mkpa, 1985). The author further observed that

the technique is a surer adaptation to micro-teaching. In peer evaluation or

criticism lesson of micro-teaching, a student demonstrates one skill as he

teaches the rest of the class members who play the part of his pupils and who, at

the end of the class, criticize the lesson.

According to Mkpa(l985), peer evaluation require no mechanical

recording, instead the student-teacher depends on the observations and

comments of his peers for feedback. He recommended that oral evaluation

involving the students' peers should be an important in-built future of any useful

teaching-learning programme. Husen and Postlethwaite (1 985) also reported that

peer evaluation of teaching refers to the use of professional colleagues for the

assessment of teacher competence and for the provision of feedback to the

* teacher in order to improve teacher performance. The authors opined that peer

evaluation technique is indispensable for such summative evaluation purposes

as promotion and tenure; and for formative evaluation in the improvement of

teaching skills.

Peer evaluatiol-r of teaching appears to be a recent development in the

field of evaluation. Until recent times, the formal evaluation of teaching was

primarily undertaken by supervisors, inspectors, superintendents and principals

in different countries (Abercrombie and Terry, 1978; and Elton, 1984). However,

with the increasing professionalisation of teachers and democratization of

schools came an increasing resentment of evaluation by supervisors and an

increase in peer evaluation (Husen and Postlethwaite, 1985). The argument was

that professional teachers like doctors and lawyers can best know the nature and

problem of their profession.

(2) Process of Peer Evaluation Technique

Peer evaluation of teaching may be carried out through a variety of

processes. Some of these include; reading the teacher's official dossier,

observing the teacher informally during the school year, visiting the teacher's

classroom formal observation and discussing issues and problems with the

teacher at a meeting arranged specifically for that purpose (Goldschmid, 1976;

and Husen and Postletwaite, 1985). The last two processes outlined above are

directly related to what Mkpa(l985) described as 'Criticism lesson" in micro-

teaching. In it, the student-teacher depends on the observations and subsequent

comments by his peers for feedback.

Scriven (1981), however, warns strongly against depending solely on

classroom visits by a peer group for the evaluation of a teacher. He argues that

'the visit alters the teaching and that the number of visits is necessarily too few to

allow a representative sample of a teacher's .behaviour to be observed. He 8

advised that those attempting to structure a system of peer evaluation of

teaching would ensure that the peer group obtains evidence in a variety of ways.

To source information in a variety of ways, the process of peer evaluation

requires that particular steps should be adhered to. For instance, French-Lazovik

(1981: 37) list five questions that should serve as a guide to peer review panels

when evaluating a teacher's work:

(a) What is the quality of the curriculum and materials used in

teaching?

(b) what kinds of tasks were set by the teacher?

(c) How knowledgeable is the teacher about the subjects taught about

professional educational issues?

(d) what extra-curricular school responsibilities has the teacher

successfully carried out? and

(e) Is the teacher attempting to improve his or her professional

knowledge and skill?

Depending on the maturity of the students being taught, many other questions

could be raised by the peer group. Such questions may include, those

concerning teacher rapport with students, classroom climate and systems of

motivation (French-Lazovick, 1981 ; and Jaques, 1984).

Difficulties in the Use of Peer Evaluation Technique

Two major problems have been identified to always confront those who

attempt peer evaluation of teaching. Husen and Postlethwite (1985) posited that

the reliability of almost all peer review assessments seems to be the suspect.

Marsh and Ball (1981) also pointed out that peer review of research reports has

low reliability but that this reliability can be built up by increasing the number of

reviewers. French-Lazovik (1981) suggests that a minimum of three peer

reviewers and a maximum of seven be used in teacher evaluation. This would

reduce the problem of reliability in the opinion of the author. Centra (1975)

indicated that even with three peer reviewers, reliability was attenuated due to

positive bias typically shown to teachers by their peers. These suggestion,

indicated that the reliability of peer evaluation of teaching could be affected by

both negative and positive bias of the peers about the teacher being evaluated.

Mehrens and Lehmann (1978) concurred with the above views when they

observed that there are sources of error associated with peer rating. Some of

these are the halo effect, severity effect, central tendency error, and logical error.

The authors suggested that personal bias must be controlled if we wish to obtain

reliable rating. The halo effect occurs when the raters general impressions of a

person influence how he rates him on individual characteristics. If we like a

person, think that she is good-looking and studious, we are apt to rank her high

on traits that are quite related to good looks and studiousness.

The secmd major problem apart from reliability of the evaluation is their

validty. Batista (1976) points at too close friendship between peer evaluator and

. teacher, peer evaluators not understanding the teaoher's educational view points

or subject specialization, and peer evaluators in competition with the teacher as

possible sources of bias and invalidity in the peer evaluation judgments.

Nonetheless, if peer evaluation is clearly structured, criteria and scales

adequately defined, and care taken to obtain a balanced panel of judges, then

the major problems of reliability and validity need not be overwhelming (Mehrens

and Lehmann, 1978; and Husen and Postlethwaite; 1985). The authors noted

that a reliable and valid peer evaluation system has much to recommend it as an

alternative to selfevaluation which is axiomatically unsuitable for taken decisions

on tenure and promotion.

Gronlund (1976) points to the fact that when a rater basis his ratings for an

individual on a general relationship he 'thinks" or 'knowsn exists in the

population, he has committed a logical error. Logical error is closely related to the

halo effect but is not due to personal bias. Rather, it occurs when two traits such

as intelligence and socio-economic status or achievement and aptitude are

closely related, and the rater is influenced in the rating of one by the presence (or

absence) of the other (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978).

Severity, leniency and central tendency errors are related to response set.

These errors arise because raters do not use uniform standards. Raters who

favours the high end of the rating scale (the desirable end) are committing

lehency or generosity error (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978). On other hand,

some people have the tendency to favour the low end of the continuum, that is,

to be overly harsh. This is called the severity error. Still another type of response

set is the person (rater) who avoids using the extremes and favours the middle

positions, that is, he rates everybody about 'average". This is called the central

tendency error.

Mehrens and Lehman (1 978) illustrated the above rating errors associated

with peer evaluation as follows:

Three raters may know a set of students equalty well and indeed perceive them about the same. Yet on a five-point scale, one rater may give the students a mean rating of 4.3; and another rater, a mean of 1.7; and the third, a mean of 3.0. The first rater is tikely too tenient and the second too severe. The third rater gives practicatly all 3s, only a few 2s and 4s, and no I s and 5s, he is probably committing the error of central tendency. That is, he is not differentiating among the students as much as he should (Mehrens and L.ehmann, 1978: 361 ).

Despite the above identified sources of error in peer ratings, there are still two

other factors that tend to affect the validity of peer rating. They are:

(1) the individual peer evaluator's attitude, and

(2) the evaluator's opportunity for adequately observing the person

(and traits) being rated. Jaeger and Freijo (1975) observed that

accurate observation is a very time consuming chore, especially if

large numbers of students are to be involved. The researchers

maintained that unless teachers truly believe that there is some

value to be derived from ratings, they may consider them only as

another administrative chore and not do a conscientious job.

Mehrens and Lehmann (1978) contended that, possibly more serious than

any of the errors already identified are the errors a rater makes because he does

not know weti enough the person he is rating. In the elementary grades, the

teacher gets to know his students fairly well even if his knowledge is confined to

the classroom setting. In junior and senior high school, the teachers see their

students less frequently. Teachers are more familiar with those students who are

at the extremes (very gregarious, very withdrawn, very unco-operative) Mehrens

and Lehmann, 1978).

In the present study, second year NCE students of the Department of

Religion, Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe will be involved in the peer

evaluation of each member in their micro-teaching group through systematic

observation and rating of themselves. On this account, the student will know well

enough the person helshe is rating. According to Cryer and Rider (1977) and

Nwagu (1992), in systematic observation, the observer is required to act as

objective as possible; observing, selecting and recording data like a mechanical

rabot. He does not attempt to interpret the behaviour immediately. He is only

interested ii: identifying and assessing the intensity of certain pre-defined

behaviour traits from pupils' behaviour complex.

b

Factors to be Considered (Method of data collection) in Peer Evaluation.

Factors to be considered in peer evaluation seem to depend on the

method used in the collection of data. The methods include: Participation charts,

check lists, rating scales, anecdotal records and socio-metric methods. Among

these methods, the rating scale methods appear more common in peer

evaluation. Mehrens and Lehmann (1978), however, advised that in obtaining

peer appraisal using the rating scale methods, it is usually desirable to simplify

the task, since students are doing the actual work. The authors maintained that

students are untrained and generally unmotivated raters. Hence, to expect a

student to fill out 30 different rating sheets without becoming quite careless or

bored is asking a lot. Besides the simplification of the tasks to be rated, two

major principles must be adhered to whenever peer ratings are desired (Mehrens

and Lehmann, 1978). In the first instance, the traits to be rated should be within

the students experiential background. The language used should also be simple.

In support of the above view, Husen and Postlethwaite (1985) maintained

that if peer evaluation tool is clearly structured, criteria and scales adequately

defined, and care taken to obtain a balanced panel of judges then the major

problems of reliability and validity need not be overwhelming. The second major

principle that must be adhered to and maintained is complete anonymity and

confidentiality of the ratings, so that, students who receive 'poor" ratings will be

protected from further embarrassment and possible harassment, as well as to b

ensure that we will obtain true responses from the students (Mehrens and

Lehmann, 1978).

The major considerations in the use of peer ratings in the evaluation of

individual's performance hinge on the rating scale, the raters and the actual

rating of the observed traits. The important considerations in the use of the rating

scale for peer evaluation are itemized as follows:

1. identify the domain of particular behaviours (traits) - be it a

psychomotor skill, or some performance task-that you wish to rate;

2. clearly define the traits to be rated and the scale points to be used;

3. sample carefully from the domain of traits to permit '

generalizability;

4. avoid technical jargons;

5. express the traits to be rated as questions rather than as

declarative statements;

5. deteimine how discriminating you want the ratings and divide the

continuum accordingly into three-to seven-point intervals (Mehrens and

Lehmann, 1978: 363).

Mullis (1976) recommended that thorough training session should be

conducted for the peer evaluators (raters) during which the value of accurate and

honest ratings will be pointed out. Also, the researcher should point out the kinds

of errors commonly committed by raters and how they may be avoided or at least

be minimized. Moreover, the raters are motivated to do as accurate a job as b

43

possible. Persons who can provide objective, unbiased ratings should also be

seiected (Muilrs, 1'376: 212).

Van Der Kemp and Mellenbergh (1976) presented theoretical discussion

on how to obtain reliable teacher ratings. They argued that the validity of

obtained ratings will be improved if care is taken in the construction of the scale

and the selection and training of the raters. In addition, the authors opined that

there are several factors that can help improve the validity of the rating. The

factors were identified as follows:

the raters should be encouraged to rate those traits or

persons for which they have sufficient knowledge to make a valid

rating;

combine (or average) judges' ratings. In general, the larger the

number of independent ratings and raters, the higher the reliability.

This is because individual errors and biases should cancel out each

other;

rate only one trait or characteristic at a time. For example, if

rating scale consists of 15 traits, and 30 pupils are to be

;ated on trait 1 before proceeding to trait 2. This will permit

the evaluators to give undivided attention to the trait and

should provide for more reliable measurement;

the numerical rating scale should be used to rate only those

characteristics that can be categorized into a small number

of subdivisions;

to reduce the influence of the halo effect and response set,

vary the directionality of the scale. hat is for some ratings,

have the first position, indicate a desirable trait, the last an

undesirable trait, and vice versa;

6. avoid making the extremes so atypical of behaviour that few

raters will use these points;

7. make the meaning of the inter-mediate levels closer to the

neutral or average level rather than the extreme points

(descriptions). This may induce raters to use the total

continuum rather than just the middle position;

8. control the effect of extraneous variables. Be on guard to

confine the rating to, and only to, the attributes being

measured (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978: 364).

In the present study, the above factors were taken into consideration. The

final rating will be conducted by three independent raters at the end of which the

average rating will be computed for each communication scale. Hargie (1975)

stated that, the ratings usmg sating scales/forms involve the definition of

classroom discourse into technical skills and rating of the degrees of presence of

the identified skills. Cohen (1979) in an overview of teacher evaluation in a

* school system where raters were given rating forms to use, reported that

principals involved recognized that circling numbers from 1-5 does not constitute

a true measure of teacher's ability though it can encourage uniform reporting.

Though explanations of the degrees were helpful, interpretations of say

'ekcellentn cannot be same for all raters. Cohen advised that the relevance and

accuracy of rating scales data should be while efforts should be

made to evolve a more objective alternative which could be used instead or in

conjunction with those employed new.

Mehrens and Lehmann (1978) presented a discussion on different types

of rating sa!es. These include: the numerical scale, the graphic, comparative,

paired comparisms and ranking scales. These types of rating scales have their

respective merits and demerits. However, the numerical type which will be

adopted in this study has been identified as the most popularly used and the

simplest type, especial!^ for unmotivated raters like the peers.

McNeil and Popham(1983) identified the qualities of teacher performance

assessment tools as follows:

1. instruments which require less inference from the observer

and have greater amount of agreement among users;

2. more reliable systems are those in which the dimensions are

clearly defined and the cues to be used by observers are

well specified;

3. reliability is also higher when:

(a) the observers have had training

(b) there is agreement on what is to be coded and when;

(c) there are fewer things for the observer to do during the

observation (Cohen, 1979: 136).

I. micrNeaching, there are evidences of the use of ratings from self

(VTR) supervisors, peers and pupils or students in providing feedback to the

train'ee (Brown, 1975; and 1978; Short and Tomlinson, 1979; Mkpa, 1985; Boud,

Dunn and Hegarty, 1986; and Maduewesi, 1998). Hence, the researcher adopts

self(VTR) and peer ratings in the present study to ascertain pre-service N.C.E

teachers mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication skills.

Comparison of VTR and Peer Evaluation Techniques

VTR evaluation in teacher training seem highly developed within the

process of micro-teaching. A similar approach is also used in the training of

medical staff including doctors and surgeons, priests, industrial executives and

sales personnel (Taylor, 1993). Self-evaluation through video-play-back thus

appear to have a wide acceptance for various professional training.

Teaching skills can be developed and improved through student-teachers'

observation of their own recorded performance together with analysis of their

peer group under the direction of an experienced tutor. Husen and Postlethwaite

(1978); and Lorac and Weiss (1980) maintained that in the education service, an

experienced teacher can often benefit from further regular consideration of

classroom performance through self-evaluation. This encourages evaluation of

established assumptions, teaching techniques or patterns of behaviour to ensure

that classroom method dees not become an unquestioned routine. Lorac and

Weiss (1980) argued that self-evaluation using video recording is a form of

responsive evaluation which is conducted with the assistance of an experienced

colleague. The video recording of the teachers performance is analysed with

each aspect being the subject of a neutral question from the evaluator.

In VTR evaluation, the teacher and the evaluator together isolate areas

which would benefit from modification to the teaching approach and perhaps

agree to a course of action involving particular targets (Fuller and Manning,

1993). In its strict sense, the above descriptions may not conform to self-

evaluation since the teacher does the evaluation with the kelp of an experienced

colleague or staff. A typical self-evaluation is obtained during self-directed

learning in which the individual evaluates hirnlherself solely on predetermined

traits (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978).

This method has obvious shortcomings among which are the reliability and

validity issues of self-evaluation. For this reason, Carroll (1981) proposed ways

to formalize and objectify self-evaluation. Part of this proposal was the

involvement of the individual in self-evaluation through video-play-back of the

teaching skills demonstrated.

Pcer evahation was considered by experts as a more acceptable, more

reliable and valid measure for evaluating performance on special tasks, traits or

behaviours. Proponents of pew evaluation method contend that, it is cheaper,

provides more information and very indispensable in promotion, appointment and

renewal of contract (Mkpa, 1985; Husen and Postlethwaite, 1985; and Mehrens

and Lehmann, 1978). Peer evaluation in micro-teaching is recent compared to

VTR evaiua.tion. Peer evaluation was designed originally to serve as a

supplement to the teacher's observation of pupils' behaviours. However, it has

improved over the years following the development of specific guidelines on its

method of approach as ouuined in French-Lazovik (1981).

However, it has been observed that while VTR evaluation result is

threatened by objectivity, reliability and validity issues, peer evaluation has the

problem of attitude of observes, opportunity for enough observation and halo

effect. These problems inherent in peer evaluation may, however, be controlled.

Peer evaluation is also cheaper since no mechanical recoding is required (Mkpa,

1985 and 1991).

Communication Skills in Micro-Teaching

Communication is a process of information exchange between two or

more individuals in an attempt by one individual to persuade or change the

behaviour of the other individuals (Thompson, 1978; Farace, Monge and Russel,

1977; Miller, 1978; and Ogunmilade, 1984). Communication occurs when the

people involved in the process share a common meaning by the act, be it verbal,

pictorial or symbolic (Ofoefuna, 199226). In every communication process, there

is always the sender (source), message, medium (channel) and receiver

(destination) (Roger, Everett and shoemaker, 1991; Hanneman, 1975; and

Bettinghaus, Erwin and Milkorich, 1978). In education, 'communication refers to

the information transmitted from a teacher to the pupils or even by audio-visual

meansn (Adewoyin, 1991 : 55).

Contextually, emphasis will be placed on communication skills in relation

to teaching and learning, and not on human inter-personal communication that

neglects evaluationlfeedback which is a critical component in effective

instruct~on. It is only the evaluation component that makes teaching

communication interactive (Agun and Imogie, 1988).

Communication in Teaching-Learning process

Figure 1: The Linear Model of Communication in Teaching-learning process.

Figure 2: The cyclic model of Communication in Teaching -Learning process

Message (content) -\X

Media (print .electronics and three dimensional)

Source (Teacher)

/ Source

Source : Agun and lrnogie (1988:68)

-+

(Teacher) 4

----,

Receiver (Students)

Message (content)

Channel -+ (lecture,pidures,etc.)

Evaluation (Feedback)

Receiver (Students)

Adapted from : Agun and lrnogie (1988 :69)

Communication skill is a subset of general social skills which are

concerned with the manipulation of symbols for the accomplishment of some

purpose (Husen and Postlethwaite, 1985). Communication skills are

distinguished from other sorts of skills in that they are acquired through training

and can be improved with practice. In addition, Wiemman and Backlund (1980)

opined that communication skills require conscious knowledge and strategic

judgment. The authors further maintained that communication has many

manifestations. These include oral language and its concomitant non-verbal

behaviour which together make up the primary materials of communication

skills. These authors (Burgoon and Ruffiner, 1978; Rubin, 1982; Hargie, 1986;

and Ofoefuna and Akude, 1990) were of the view that the concept underlying

both teaching and research in the area of communication is that people vary in

their ability to communicate (and relate) with others; and that by improving their

skills, they will have more effective, satisfying communication experiences. The

same concept appear to underly the purpose of this present study aimed at

improving the communication skills of trainee teachers in the micro-teaching

laboratory sessions through the peer evaluation procedure.

Wiemann and Backlund (1980); Husen and Postlethwaite (1985); and

Wiemann and Kelly (1981) identified separately the several important

chyacteristics common to communication skills as: (a) the relationship between

performance and cognition; (b) functionality; (c) emphasis on effectiveness; and

(d) the importance of contexts. It is generally accepted that both cognition and

performance are important in any consideration of communication skills. This

remains an outstanding point in spite of the distinction made by early workers

studying 'communicative competencen between 'cognitive competencies" (Know

that) and performance competencies (knowing How) (Husen and Postlethwaite,

1985: 831). Possession of a skill require both knowledge and performance

capabilities. The cognitive aspects of a skill are derived solely from observing

behaviour either our own or others. It is skill which connect behaviour and

knowledge (Wiemann and Backlund, 1980).

Much interest in communication skills has been focused on its application

in the provision of human services. Hargie, Saunders and Dicksons (1981)

discussion of communication skills in human service professions is illustrative of

this interest. They identified nine skills which are relevant to getting and giving

information to clients: (a) non-verbal communication; (b) reinforcement; (c)

questioning; (d) reflecting; (e) set induction; (9 closure; (g) explaining; (h)

listening; and (i) self-disclosure. The non-verbal communication appear to belong

to a group on its own while the remaining eight skills belong to a group that may

be referred to as, verbal communication skills. Perfect communication is almost

impossible to achieve because it depends on so many variables. Despite this

sh'ortcoming, communication is a vital process in teaching that pre-service

52

teachers should make every effort to develop skills in it (Sheffield, 1984; Olson,

1984; Farant, 1981 ; Tabberer, 1987; and Fajemirokun, 1988).

The success of communication process demands that the message be put

into suitable code such as language or gesture (verbal of non-verbal) and be

transmitted by the sender to the receiver using appropriate media such as

correspondence, broadcasting, films etc. However, the message must contend

with intereference from what technically is called noise (Milton, 1979; Farant,

1981; Gibbs, 1981; Cohen 2nd Manion, 1993). The authors suggested noise may

be made up of physical interference such as distance or extraneous noise, by

mental interference caused either by the receiver not knowing the code or being

distracted from attending to the message, or by emotional interference as when

there is a bad personal relationship between the sender and the receiver.

According to Farant (1981), the rules of good communication are as

follows:

1.

2.

3.

4. b

5.

choose a code that is known by everyone to whom the message is

to be sent;

avoid using a code that is ambiguous or might be

misunderstood;

avoid choosing a medium that any of your receivers might find

unpleasant;

choose a medium that is well suited to the conditions under which

the message is to he sent;

take whatever steps you can to reduce-noise and its effects.

53

Ogclnmilade (1 984:22) highlighted the following principles for effective

communication in teaching-learning process:

seek to clarify your ideas before communicating.

examine the purpose of each communication.

consider the total physical and human setting.

consult with others where appropriate in planning

communication.

b~ mindful of the overtones as well as the basic content of your

message.

take the oppwtunity when it arises to convey something of help or

value to the receiver.

follow up your communication.

communicate for tomorrow as well as for today.

be sure your action supports your communication.

do not seek to be understood but also to understand.

To ensure good communication in the classroom, one need to think in detail

about the message, the receiver, the code, the medium and the noise. To think

about these factors requires proper training and competence in communication

i.e. verbal and non-verbal communication skills (Mackenzie, Eraut and Jones,

1977; Joyce and Weil, 1977; Kozma, Belle and Williams, 1978; and Unwin and

McAleese, 1978).

Verbal communication Skills

Verbal (oral) communication is an aspect of conveying a message through the

use of spoken words or language. In the opinion of Wittgenstein (1989), the

meaning of a word is its use in the language. What teachers and students

communicate in the classroom may be analysed in terms of whether he was

structuring the class discussion by focusing attention on a topic or problem,

eliciting a response from a member of the class, answering a question posed by

a previous speaker or reacting to a comment previously made. These authors

(Bellack, 1989; Barnes, 1991 ; Baumgart, 1976; and Andrews, 1980) indicated

that researchers are usually concerned with both the explicit and implicit

emotional aspects of the speaker's vocal expression.

The speaking of language is part of an activity or a form of life. Verbal

language is adaptable to many uses and functions in carrying on various types of

activities that are essentially linguistic in nature. Wittgenstein (1989) referred to

these activities as "language gamesn which points to the fact that, linguistic

activities assume different forms and structures according to the functions they

come to serve in different contexts. Some verbal activities have been identified

as language games.

These include:

b giving orders and obeying them;

reporting an event;

forming and testing a hypothesis;

play acting ; making a joke and telling it;

making up a story and reading it

(Bellack, 1389).

The author further observed that verbal activities in various contexts follow

certain rules or conventions appropriate to the activities. They include structuring,

soliciting, responding and reacting. The above outlined verbal activities may also

be labelled verbal actions or pedagogical moves. Accordirlg to Bellack (1989:97),

the verbal actions perform pedagogical functions in classroom discourse as

follows:

1. Structurinq: Structuring moves serve the pedagogical functions of

focusing attention on subject matter or classroom procedures and

launching between students and teachers. They set the context for

subsequent behaviour or performance.

2. Solicitinq: Moves in this category are designed to elicit a verbal

response, encourage persons addressed to attend to something, or

elicit a physical response. All questions are solicitations, as are

commands, imperatives, and requests.

* 3 Kes~cnding- These moves bear a reciprocal relationship to

soliciting moves and occur only in relation to them. Their pedagogical

function is to fulfill the expectation of soliciting moves. Thus, students'

answer to teachers' questions are classified as responding moves.

4. Reacting: These moves in classroom communication patterns are

. occasioned by a structuring, soliciting, responding, or another

reacting move but are not directly elicited by- them. These moves

serve toshape or mold classroom discussion* by accepting,

rejecting, modifying or expanding what has been said previously.

Reacting moves differ from responding moves in that, while a responding

move is always directly elicited by a solicitation, preceding moves serve

only as occasion for reactions. Rating by a teacher of a student's

response, for example,is designated a reacting move (Bellack, l989:97).

The above identified and designated moves bring to limelight the complex

nature of the classroom verbal interactions between the teacher and the

students. Farant (1981) indicated that perfect communication is almost

impossible to achieve because it depends on so many variables. He further

observed that, verbal communication requires careful sequencing of ideas and a

choice of vocabulary that is well within the capacity of the children. According to

Farant (1981), it is surprising how many teachers feel they make a bigger

impression if they use big words and complicated explanations. Fluency of

speech helps to prevent interrupted thought in the receiver; but talking and

teaching are not the same, and a beautiful flow of excellent language may lull a

group of children into inattention unless used properly.

The teaching skills related to verbal communication in the classroom have

been identified. They are as follows:

class control; dramatizing;

encouraging the flow of pupils' ideas; %

encouraging effort; explaining difficulties;

helping to clarify pupils' ideas; reading

aloud; story telling; and using pupils' ideas (Farant, 1981 :189).

Explaining ideas or difficulties has been identified as an important skill of verbal

communica?ion. These authors (Foster 1981 ; Land, 1985; and Brown and

Atkins, 1993) obsewed that, the major skills of lecturing are explaining,

presenting information, generating interest and lecture preparation. Explaining

appear to have a carry over effect in enhancing the performance in other skills.

Explaining is giving understanding to another. Understanding is the creation of

new connections between facts, between ideas, and between facts and ideas

(Mills, 1975; Marland, 1975; Perrot, 1982; and Brown and Atkins, 1986). Hyman

(1984); and Brown and Hatton (1982) identified several ways of classifying

explanations but the most useful for practical purposes is the typology presented

in Brown and Atkins (1 993) as follows:

1. Interpretative: what are local anaesthetics?

what is optimality theory?

2. Descri~tive: how do local anaesthetics work?

how is optimality used by economists?

3. Reason-qivinq: why are local anaesthetics used?

why is optimality theory thought to be important?

Clear explanations are part of the important attributes of verbal

communication. It is dependent upon knowing precisely what we wish to explain

(Flanders, 1975; Chanan and Delamont, 1975; Edwards and Furlong, 1978; and @

Olaitan and Agusiobo, 1987). in doing this, one has to consider the structure of

the explanation. Four important structuring moves have been identified to be

related to high ratings of clarity and to better note-taking by students (Brown,

1982). The four structuring moves are: signposts, frames, foci and links.

According to Brown and Atkins (1993), signposts are statements which signal the

direction and structure of a lecture; Frames are statements which delineate the

beginning and ending of topics and sub-topics. On the other hand, foci are

statements which highlight and emphasize key points; while links are statements

that link the sections of the lecture together. They also link the lecture to the

experience, previously acquired knowledge and observations of the audience.

Clarity of words in speech is the hallmark of verbal communication. In the

opinion of Brown and Bakhtar (1983) lecturers' advice to colleagues who are new

to !ectusing had always included suggestions to improve clarity. In descending

rank order, these were:

1. speak clearly, use pauses, don't go too fast. 2. plan, prepare, and structure to give a clear,

simple view of topic. 3. make it understandable and clarify key points. 4. observe student reactions. 5. do not try to cover everything. 6. check your understanding of your own material

(Brown and Bakhtar, 1983:61). Moreover, repetition and paraphrasing of key points help students to grasp the

main points. The same information expressed in different forms can trigger ideas

and associations that aid understanding. Wittrock (1978) expressed the view

thht since students learn in different ways, the greater the number of ways a

teacher presents key points, the greater the chance that a higher proportion of

students w~ll understand. Hence, the need for the adoption of different forms of

verbal and non-verbal communication in the classroom.

Non-verbal Communication Skills

Burgoon and Saine (1978) considered non-verbal communication to be

those attributes or actions of humans, other than the use of words themselves

which have socially shared meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as

intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and have the potential

for feedback from the receiver. From the above definition, both signs and

symbols are included (in non-verbal communication) as well as unconscious or

unintentional messages that are interpreted as intentional, and unconsciously

received messages that are intentionally sent.

Non-verbal cues could also be defined as natural body and physical

actions and responses which reinforce student's behaviour (Maduewesi, 1992).

The author gave examples of non-verbal cues as: a smile, a nod of the head or

friendly eye contact, body postures and directed arm-finger movement. He

further pointed out that, studies indicate that each individual culture and society

have characteristic non-verbal posture, gestures, intonation and movement that

have added meaning to words or express ideas more vividly. On a similar note,

Ere (1998) observed and identified six general categories of non-verbal b

behaviours which the teacher can use to advantage. These include: the head,

the face, the eyes, mouth and throat, body posture and directed arm-finger

movement.

Husen and Postlethwaite (1985) broadly defined non-verbal

communication as the area of study which includes essentially non-linguistic

phenomena which impinge on and influence the process of human interaction.

Like the definition of Burgoon and Saine (1978), the above definition of non-

verbal communication assumes neither a conscious intent to communicate on

the part of the sender nor the intentional decoding of a message by the receiver.

Topics relating to non-verbal communication have been addressed since

the beginning of recorded history. However, in teaching, only minor notice was

paid to non-verbal elements before 1960 (Evertson and Anderson, 1978; and

Husesr m d Po~tlethwaite, 1985). Non-verbal communication has been based on

early suggestions regarding the use of eyes; and forms of 'proximity control"

were advanced but deliberate study of the area is a product of the period since

early 1960s and particularly since early 1970s (Morris, 1977). These statements

of Morris (1977) clearly suggest that research works on non-verbal

communication are generally rare and recent.

Non-verbal communication have been divided into a number of channels

to ensure effective teaching and research. The common elements of these

divisions invariably involve use of one's body within the dimensions of time and

space in teaching and it usually result in a list of sik to ten channels of influence.

These include the head, eyes, arm, mouth, face and body posture (York, 1981;

Wragg, 1984; Beard and Hartley, 1984; and Husen and Postlethwaite, '1985).

Akudolu in Okwor and Ike (1996) pointed out that non-verbal and extra-

verbal communication skills involve the effective use of different parts of the body

in communication. The author further observed that effective use of

communication involves the appropriate use of verbal, non-verbal and extra-

verbal communication skills. During an instructional process, the teacher is

constantly In communication with the learners. He communicates effectively

either through the verbal or non-verbal and extra-verbal skills to ensure that the

learners' behaviour can be changed in the desirable way.

Non-verbal commwication is an important means of sending messages to

people. Farant (1981) observed that, a simple gesture such as a smile can tell

someone else a great deal about how you feel towards him. A slight movement

of the hand can beckon someone to you and a handshake can indicate more

truthfully than your words how warm or otherwise your welcome greeting is. A

great deal of class control is exercised by non-verbal communication. Hence, it

is important to master its skills. Farant (1981:189) identified the teaching skills

related to non-verbal communication skills in the classroom as; calling a pupil's

attention; encouraging greater effort; expressing approval and other feelings;

re'buking misbehaviour; and stopping a pupil's action. He further indicated that

much of what a teacher communicates to his pupils is done unconsciously

through his actions and mannerisms, for actions speak louder than words. For

this reason, the author cautioned that the teacher need to examine himself as

objectively as possible to see what kind of message he intends to send.

Criteria for Evaluating Non-verbal and Verbal Communication Skills.

The need for dependable criteria for evaluating non-verbal and verbal

communication skills cannot be overemphasized. This is because student-

teachers often resort to positive head-nodding and negative head-turning

(indicating yes or no respectively) as if they are the only possible non-verbal

communication (NVC) skills. Some required information are communicated in

various non-verbal ways and extra-verbally (Burgoon and Saine, 1978; and Eze,

1997). Eze (1 997) further illustrated that frowning the face after tasting 'XI shows

and teaches pupils that 'x' is bitter. Likewise there are NVCIEVC behaviour

indicatmy pain, pollution, ugliness, sweetness, size etc. Moreover,

misunderstanding of the requirements of the skill of non-verbal communication

and extra-verbal communicatioln (NVCIEVC) calls for criteria of assessment. Eze

(1997) observed that students behave like the dumb while attempting to

emphasise the skills of NVC and EVC. The author pointed out that, it is wrong,

insisting that some verbal utterances should punctuate and co-ordinate

NVCIEVC for link and anchorage since the skills are being emphasized and not

isolated.

In evaluating teachers' use of NVCIEVC, the following criteria were

suggested (Eze, 1997:25):

1. the teacher's use of non-verbal cues at appropriate

moments;

2. the teacher's use of EVC at appropriate moments;

3. whether the non-verbal and extra-verbal communication media

were natural (not mechanised) with general human behaviour;

4 whether the NVC and EVC deepened the pupils' conception

and understanding of purported ideas of the teacher.

Quite often, teachers are negligent with reference to a constant insistence

upon a high standard of skill (Ezeji, 1988). This problem prevails because

determining what should count as a test of communication skills seems as

difficult as determining how to characterize communication skills in the first place.

Oller (1985) pointed out that, even to say which tests are not measures of

communication skills is no simple matter. He concluded that because of lots of

considerations in communication testing, the complexity of assessing

communication skills becomes more apparent as does its importance to

educational endeavours.

Traditionally, two broad classes of tests were distinguished. According to

Oller (1985), they are tests consisting of discrete-point items involving such tasks

as phonological discrimination, synonym, matching, surface morphology and

others were conceived to measure just one element at a time from a given

inventory of elements. By contrast, integrative tests for example, dictation,

composition, cloze, question answering, oral interview among others were

believed to assess ability; to use many elements and components more of less

simultaneously. In recent times, a sub-class of pragmatic tests has been

distinguished within the broader class of integrative tests (Oller, 1979). Lado

(1991), however, indicated that it is doubtful whether the pragmatic tests can ,

ever be 'discrete-point-tests." The present study adopts the discrete-point-tests

for their obvious advantages of being more specific.

A three-point approach to the assessment of communication skills had

been proposed as a general principle (Oller, 1985). First, the several abilities

judged to constitute communication skills are examined; then the different tasks

that may be defined as communication tests are considered; and finally,

population to be tested are taken into consideration.

In considering the first proposal, (Oller, 1985) suggested the division of

communicative competence into three subordinate capacities:

(a) grammatical competence (b) socio-linguistic competence subsuming

socio-cultural rules of use and rules of discourse; and (c) strategic competence

which is believed to come into play in order to compensate for breakdowns in

communication.

b

EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Related Studies

Pinney (1970) made use of video-tape recordings of trainee teachers to

examine the effects of a range of non-verbal as well as verbal behaviours on the

achievement of 13 - and 14 - year - old students. He conducted the study in a

high school in Britain, involving intact classes of 19 - 25 students. At the end of

the study which lasted for one month, the researcher reported that, the high

scoring teachers in general significantly conveyed the essential points of the

lesson by emphasizing them through the use of repetition, verbal statements of

importance, and reinforcement of pupil responses.

Kallenbach and Meredith (1969) compared an experimental micro-

teaching group (video-play-back) with control (conventional methods) group and

reported that the experimental group (video-play-back) differ significantly from

the control group. Acheson (1965) in a microteaching experiment, compared the

effects of feedback from video recording (experimental group) and peer group

(control group) and reported that, feedback from fellow student-teachers working

h p a i r s and feedback from peers were better than self-appraisal (video)

feedback. Doty (1973) carried out experiment on VTR and peer evaluation in

micro-teaching. The author reported that, micro-teaching without video-tape

recorder (VTR) and closed circuit television (CCTV) was found effective when

compared with micro-teaching with video (VTR-evaluation).

Allen (1972) compared microteaching with video (experimental group) and

the traditional method of instruction (control group) for improving performance in

industnal education. He reported of significant difference in favour of the

experimental (video-play-back) group. Raymond (1 973) compared skill

performance in a classroom of a group who were exposed to micro-teaching

skills (experimental group) and a group who are not exposed to it (control group).

He reported of significant digerence in favour of the experimental (exposition)

group on two of the three skills. Levis (1974) compared a group who were

exposed to a normal school experience programme (control group) with a group

exposed to micro - teaching skills (experimental group). He reported that, the

experimental (exposition) group differ significantly from the control (conventional

method) group on two out of the three skills.

Koran and McDonal (1 972) compared self-appraisal (video-play-back) with

peer appraisal, and reported that, self-appraisal (video-play-back) was not as

effective as peer appraisal. Allen, Cooper and Stroud in Brown (1975) reported

that over 200 students who were exposed to micro-teaching (video-play-back),

shbwed evidence of significant improvement and transferability of techniques of

explanations, use of peoples ideas, clarity and .reinforcement. Jansen and

Young (1972) compared the experimental (VTR) group with the control

(supervisor evaluation) group. The authors reported significant difference in

favour of the experimental (WR) group. Borg and Gall (1979) conducted an

experiment on micro-teaching in the Far West Laboratory in California. The

researchers compared the classroom performance of a group exposed to micro-

teaching skills (experimental group) with the conventional method (control

group). They reported of significant difference in favour of the experimental

group (micro-teaching group). They recommended a sample size of 30 - 100

subjects for experiments on micro-teaching.

Odusina (1980) researched on the effectiveness of micro-teaching in

teaching English Language Comprehension using the VTR evaluation

(experimental) group and the supervisor evaluation (control) group. She found

that student-teachers who had micro-teaching with VTR evaluation experience

(experimental group) were able to use and retain the new vocabularies, deliver

their lessons, and have greater confidence in themselves. The author further

reported that, significant changes in hehaviour of the trainees resulted at the end

of the experiment. Allen and Fortune in lzuwah (1981) reported that micro-

teaching produces higher teacher effectiveness ratings than an observation aide

programme.

Mkpa (1985) conducted a study on 'the Effects of Criticism Lessons on

the Oral Evaluation (Questioning) Techniques of Student - Teachersn. The

study sought to determine and compare the frequency of higher and lower order

questions; frequency of probing questions; accuracy of questions framed and

correctness of teacher responses to learner answers, made by those (peer

group) who participated in the criticism lessons (experimental group) and self-

evaluationlvideo (control group). In carrying out the study, the researcher

formulated four research questions and four hypotheses to guide the conduct of

the study. He involved a total of 20 undergraduate students who registered for

the History Methodology class. Her proceeded by assigning these students to

the experimental (peer) group and control (VTR) group using the simple random

sampling technique by ballotina. The study was a post-test-only control group

design. The study lasted for a total of eight weeks at the end of which the

researcher arrived at the following findings;

- there is a significant difference in the frequency of higher order

questions asked by the experimental (peer) and control (VTR) groups in

favour of the experimental (peer) group;

- the experimental (peer) group asked more probing questions than the control

(VTR) group;

- the control (VTR) group asked a greater number of wrongly formed

' questions than the experimental (peer) group:

- finally, that the control (VTR) group made more incorrect reacticns to

students' responses to oral questions than the experimental (peer)

group.

In another study on VTR and peer evaluation in micro-teaching, Mkpa (1991)

reported that, peer evaluation technique improved the pre-service teachers' use

of stimulus variation.

Ali (1 985) compared the performance of micro-teaching (experimental)

group with a group not exposed to it (control group) in modifying mathematics

teachers' personality in teaching practice. He reported that the micro-teaching

(experimental) group scored higher than those in the control group; and that

micro-teaching enabled the parkipants gain more self-confidence, open-

mindedness and attitudes than the (control) group not exposed to it. Avalos

(1 991) investigated traditional behaviourist approachlself-evaluation (control)

group in micro-teaching with the interactionistic or heuristic approachlpractice-

teaching without video (experimental) group. The author found that the

interactionistidheuristic (experimental) group performed significantly better.

Based on the findings, she pointed out that, a traditional behaviouristic approach

tends to be prescriptive regarding the skill to be acquired while

interactionistic/heuristic approach focuses more on processes which provide

variety of alternatives that enable the trainee teacher interpret situations.

There are studies that have shown no significant difference between

micro-teaching (experimental group) and control gmups (supervisor's evaluation,

peer evaluation and actual classroom teaching). For example, Steinen (1967)

conducted an experiment in micro-teaching using these techniques: Self-

evaluation (video-play-back), supervisors evaluation and peer evaluation. He

found that anyone of the three methods was effective in acquisition of skills with

student-teachers of mathematics. Kallenbach and Gali (1964) compared

elementary interns on micro-teaching with a similar group. The researchers

found that micro-teaching did not result in higher rating. Watten (1968)

investigated the effectiveness of micro-teaching on campus and the actual

teaching experience in the classroom. He reported of no significant difference in

the effectiveness.

Sparks and McGallon (1 971) reported that, pre-service elementary school

teachers who enrolled in a science methods course, and participating in a micro-

teaching laboratory experience, showed no significant increase in direct verbal

behaviour although, change in that direction occurred. Cope and Doyle (1973)

reported of no significant effect on the classroom performance of a group

exposed to questioning skill in a micro-teaching laboratory.

Perrot (1976) conducted a study on the supervisor's evaluation

(experimental) group and peer evaluation (control) group in micro-teaching. He

reported that, the supervisor's evaluation (experimental) group in micro-teaching

Wich involves one to one relationship between tutor and student is the most

expensive and time consuming, and makes no significant difference in

improvement of micro-teaching skills. He posited that, even the generous

staffing ratio in British universities will not allow the use of tutors for sufficient

time when normal size classes are involved. Butts (1977) camed out experiment

on questioning skill in micro-teaching. He exposed the experimental group to

video-play-back while the control group was not exposed to the video. He

reported that, they did not differ significantly on their pre-test scores but differed

significantly on 15 out of the 16 items used in the assessment.

Brown (1975) reported of a sample of five studies which compared micro-

teaching scores and school experiences. The study reported of a high

relationship between micro-teaching and school experiences as indicated (N =

34, P< 0.05, r = 0.84) on the effects of micro-teaching programme on intern's

ability to transfer skills.

Table 1

Mlcio-Teachinq and School Experience (Brown, 1975)

Source / Sample / Significant level / Statistical Test I 1 I

, Aubertine, 1964 1 30 Students I PC 0.001 I Chi square

Allen & Fortune,

1966

Allen & Fortune,

Gall, 1969 . / 27 students I PC 0.01 I Correlation r = I

60 students

1966

Kalleibach &

Source: Brown (1 975: 15).

1 14 Students

Brown, 1973

Madike (1980) carried out a research on alternative methods of training

teachers at the Institute of Education, University af Benin, Nigeria. Part of the

PC 0.01

34 Students

purpose of the study was to examine and ascertain the extent to which some

.Chi square

selected teaching skills are related to high school students achievements in

PC 0.01

mathematics. In carrying out the study, the researcher involved a group of 36

0.51

Correlation r =

0.84

trainee teachers. The 36 trainee teachers were video-taped while they

individually demonstrated any applied nine teaching skills in the classroom

mathematics lesson. Planned repetition was among the nine teaching skills

emphasized. In the course of the experiment; the researcher recorded the

frequency of the teacher trainees' use of the nine. The researcher analysed the

data collected and reported that, 'planned repetition" made no significant

contribution to the multiple correlation of the nine teaching skills to students

mathematics achievement. Kanno (1986) reported high coefficient of correlation

jr = 0.83) in the relationship between students' performance in micro-teaching

and actual teaching practice.

Studies on the influence of gender on VTR evaluation technique appear

inconclusive in favour of either sex. Lovegrove (1975) carried out a study at the

,?Ivan lrtoku College of Education, Owern', Nigeria. He reported VTR (students'

self-rating) of 73.60. (males) and 72.09 (females) with standard eviation of 8.05

and 6.25 respectively. These scores were found to be significantly higher than

the staff rating of the same students which showed males mean score of 63.09

with S.D. of 10.59 and females m a n score of 62.35 with 12.13 standard

deviation. Although, the self-ratings of the males and females relatively

correspond with that of staff, the males rated themselves higher than females'

rating of themselves. Lovegrove (1975) in his own appraisal of the students' self-

ratings, pointed out that, men in the West Afncan sub region seem to hold

themselves in high esteem hence, the tendency to overscore abilities in self-

rating .

in another study conducted at the college of Education, Kafanchan,

Nigeria, Anikweze (1998) compared the effect of the sex factor on 50 student-

teachers' self-evaluation during the teaching practice, Ye reported that with

regard to gender distribution, the male students' mean self-rating score of 76.20

was much higher than the female mean score of 67.03. He concluded that the

male higher mean score is consistent with the male self assertion of superiority

w e r the females in our cultural background while the female lower mean score is

consistent with the naturai humility which is the repertory of the behaviour of our

feminine gender. By staff assessment, the researcher, however, found that

many of female student teachers performed much better than their male counter-

parts. Indeed, 76.7% of the female student-teachers were rated higher than 47%

of their male colleagues by their supervisory staff.

The above two studies reported that, male student teachers rated

themselves higher than their female colleagues. Hence, the present study will

invest~gate the trend and influence of gsrtder factor on student - teachers' self-

rating on their acquisitjon of the verbal and non-verbal communication skills in

micro-teaching using the VTR group.

Ofoegbu (1984) and Nwosu (1987) reported that sex as a variable has no

signitican t influence on students' acquisition of science process skills, Ofoegbu

(1984) conducted his study with primary six pupils while Nwosu (1987) involved

114 SS I students as well as six secondary schools which may be considered

adequate for such generalizations.

Summary of Literatuse Review

Self-evaluation with VTR technique forms part of the formative and

diagnostic apprcraches by which the teacher gets to know the students'

weaknesses and strengths in the teacher preparation programmes. Self-

evaluation is also important in self-directed learning; and self-directed learning is

essential both in s c h ~ s l and out of school respectively. A number of techniques

or methods were identified to serve as approaches to formalize and objectify self

evaluation. The four methods of self-evaluation include; the use of self-rating

forms, open-ended self-reports, observation of colleagues teaching and video -

taping of one's own teaching.

In the micro-teaching sessions of pre-service teachers, video-taping and

self-rating forms are often used. The W R is used to record and play back to the

class the student-teacher's performance while the student-teacher participates in

self-evaluatbn. In addition to the four methods identified, the literature reviewed

suggests that, students' abilities in self-evaluation can be improved by helping

students learn what kinds of characteristics they can evaluate; and when it is

wise to attempt self-evaluation.

In the present review, a number of factors were identified as difficulties to

VTR evaluation of teaching. They include: self-delusion which tend to fraught

self-evaluation with problems of reliability and validity, Individuals tend to have

false opinion or belief in themselves. Related empirical studies has indicated that

self-delusion IS affected by gender. Hence, male students were found to rate

themselves higher than the females' rating of their abilities. The explanation

given was that males tend to be m r e asserbve and have a Yeding of superiority

than the females. This issue remains inconclusive, and the present study hopes

to investigate further on that.

Peer evaluation has been described as peer appraisal and peer criticism

lessons by different authors. It was developed and designed as an alternative to

self-evaluation with VTR. Some researchers found peer evaluation to be more

economical and to foster democratization of schools. Although the method has

its attendant problems, research reports indicate that it is of greater value in the

enhancement of 'questioning skills"; 'planned repetition"; "stimulus variation, and

'reirrfcmement of pupil responses" than VTR evaluation. The gains of peer

evaluation over VTR evaluation in improvement of micro-teaching skills is not yet

conclusive. Hence, the present study is geared towards investigating the

comparative effect of peer and VTR evaluation in the improvement of verbal and

non-verbal communication skills.

The researchers' choice of communication skills in this study was

informed by the fact that these skills seem not to have been investigated in other

related studies. Moreover, communication skills appear to be indispensable in

every teaching encounter in the classroom. Communication which has been

described as the process of passing an understandable message from one

person to another has many manifestations. ~ h e s e . include oral language and its

concomitant non-verbal behaviours. Oral language (verbal) and non-verbal

behav~ours together make up the primary materials of communication skills.

The concept underlymq both teaching and research in the area of

comrnunicat~on skills is that people vary in their ability to communicate (and

relate) with others, and that by improving their skills (through training), they will

have more effectiue, satisfying communication experiences. The same concept

underly the purpose af the present study aimed at ascertaining alternative way of

acqu~sition of communicatron skills by trainee teachers.

Related empirical studies showed that the provision of W R is too expensive and

necessaw in micro-teach~ng but these authors (McDonald, 1972; Doty, 1973;

Perrot, 7976; Madike, 1980; and Mkpa, 1985; and 1991) indicated that, there are

cheap alternative and effectwe techniques which supervisors and teacher

educators can employ to drill student-teachers in micro-teaching sessions. These

techniques include: supervisor's evaluation and peer evaluation.

CHAPTER I11

METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with the description of the method which was adopted

i v carrying out the study. It is presented under the following sub-headings:

Research Des~gn

Area ~f the Study

Population of the Study

Sample and Sampling Technique

Instrument for Data Collection

Validity of the Instrument

Reliability of the Instrument

Experimental Procedure

Method of Data Analysis.

Research Design

The study is an experimental stucy which adopts the post-test control

group design. A sample of 80 NCE students who registered for the Christian

Religious Stud~es (CRS] methodology course at the College of Education,

Nsugbe, were randomly assigned to the Experimental (E) and Control (C)

groups.

Area of the Study

This study was conducted in Anambra State of Nigeria. Specifically, this

study was carried out in College of Education, Nsugbe and in a Secondary

school at Onitsha, Anambra State.

Population of the Study

The population of this study comprised all the 135 second year NCE

students of Christian Religious Studies (CRS) in the 1998199 academic session.

There were 120 female and 15 males student-teachers in the academic session.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

The sample of this s t ~ d y consists of 80 second year NCE students

studying Chr~stian Religious Studies (CRS) in the 1998199 academic session at

College of Education, Nsugbe. This co~stitutes 59.2 per cent of the students

population (135) All the 15 male students were involved in the study while 65

female students were drawn through the simple random sampling technique

(by balloting) and assigned to Experimental and Control groups as

presented in Table 2.

Table 2

The 40 students in the Experirnental (peer) group and the 40 students in

the control (VTR) group were grouped into eight (8) micro-teaching sub-groups

consisting of five (5) students in each sub-group. This yielded total of sixteen

(16) sub-groups for the study. Each sub-group was assigned to micro-teaching

Sample Sekction Plan

cubick. Table 3 presents the distribution of the students into the sub-groups.

i 1 PEER imR i ( Experimental Group Control Group

Total

I P e +us 07 15

1 Female 1 32 --

33 1 65 -&mi+ lo

I 1-

80

Table 3

Distribution of Sample into Micro-Teaching Groups/cubicle

i Peer (Experimental Group) I VTR (Control Group)

Male I Female 1 Groups/Cubictes I Males Females

8 I ' - - ,_> I -.--

Instrument for Data Collection

The major instrument for data collection for this stuciy was a Rating Scale

Total = 40 i Total = 4

4

on Micro-Teaching Communicatiori Skills (RASOMTECS) developed by the !

8 10 -_I--

researcher based on the literature reviewed (Appendix B). The specific skills or

behaviours which are components of verbal and non-verbal communication skills

were identified and specified in the RASOMTECS based on reviewed literature.

Consequently, the instrument was arranged in sections.

Section A was concerned with the personal data of the student-teachers,

Section B comprised items dealing on verbal communication skills while

section C dealt on non-verbal communication skills. In addition, the maximum

score (5) for each sk~ll was indicated while the column for scores awarded to

each skill demonstrated were also indicated. Appendix 0 shows the component

skills of verbal and non-verbal communications as well as the maximum score

allotted to each skill.

Validity of the Instrument

Available literature revealed that the instrument requires both face and

coqtent validat;on to ensure that it measures what it was set to measure

(Kerlinger, 1973; Down~e and Heath, 1974; Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978; Glass

and Hopklns, 1984; and Nworgu, 1991).

Consequently two approaches were adopted in ensuring the validity of the

lnstrurnent. First, the face validity was determined by presenting copies of

IWSOMTECS to five experts in Education Methodology, four teaching practice

supervisors of NCE pre-service teachers and curriculum experts. These

resource persons face - validated the RASOMTECS items in terms of relevance,

clarity of words and appropriateness of the rating scale.

Secondly, the content valid~ty of the instrument was determined based on

the specific sub-skills of verbal and non-verbal communication as identified in

literature. The items of RASOMTECS were constructed on each skill based on

the content of the identified sub-skills. The second approach ensured effective

representation of the communication skills hence, the content validity. The

second method adopted in content validat~on of the RASOMTECS was the use of

judgment by content specialists. Here, the skills (verbal and non-verbal) as well

as their specific skills in the RASOMTECS were given to five content specialists

who rated in a "Ratmg Scale", the relevance (e.g. Not Relevant, Somewhat

Relevant, Quite Relevant, and Very Relevant) of each item to the skills which it

purports to emphasize. Based on the content specialists' independent ratings, a

content Validity Index (CVI) of the HASOMTECS was computed as shown in

Appendix C.

Reliability of the Instrument (Coefficient of Stability and Internal

Consistency)

Reliab~lity of an instrument gives significant insight in educational

researches as it concerns the consistency of an instrument to measure what it

was purported to measure (Ah, 1996; and Ogbazi, 1998). The researcher

administered the RASOMTECS to 28 student-teachers of College of Education,

Nsugbe,. who were involved in teaching practice. The choice of this category of

students is based on the fact that, they had received training on micro-teaching

practice. Moreover, they are of the researcher's background

(EducationIReligronj. Their scores were used in establishing the reliability

coefficient of the RASOMTECS. The re-testing interval was two weeks.

The reliability coefficient (coefficient of stability) of the instrument was

determined using the test-retest methcld as applicable to criterion-referenced

testing. The reliability coefficient was computed using the formular:

R = ~2 + Sy - Sd2

2Sx SY

Swrce: m i e and Heath (1 974: 94).

Where: S? = Variance of first test

sy2 = Variance of second test

sd2 = Variance of difference.

The computed reliability coefficient of the instrument was 0.9 (as shown in

Appendix D).

Experimental Pratedure

In the present study, the researcher adopted two-phase systematic

procedure as follows:

1. Training and practice sessions (treatment phase).

2. Post-test (Post-treatment) phase.

PHASE 1: Traininq and Practice Sessions (Treatment Phase): 8 weeks.

No. 7 . Training session

a . Lectures on various (nine) micro-teaching skijls with model lesson

plan on CRS for VTR (Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups.

b. Demonstration teaching on verbal and non-verbal communication

skills for VTR (Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups.

c. Demonstration teaching on VTR evaluation techniques for the

Control (C) group.

d. Demonstration teaching on Peer evaluatior, techniques for the

experimental (E) group.

e. Micro Lesson Planning;

No. 2. Practice Session

a. Gene~al format for Weekly Teach-Reteach treatment

sessions.

b. Specific format no. I: VTR evaluation cyclic process.

c. Specific format no. 2: PEER evaluation cyclic process

d . Practice session by W R (Control) group

e. Practice session by Peer (Experimental) group

In the treatment phase of the present study, five training sessions were held one

week before the commencement of the practice sessions. The order of training

is as follows:

Lectures an Various (nine) Micro-teaching skills with Model lesson Plan on CRS - Appendix E for VTR and Peer groups

The researcher started the treatment phase with lectures on various

micro-teaching skills for both the VTR (Co~trol) group and the peer

(Experimental) group. A model lesson plan on CRS as shown In Appendix E was

used as a deperidable criterra for teaching. The skilis were taught to the two

groups as fciiows:

Set Induction Stimulus Variation Use of Examples Planned Repetitions Verbal Communication (VC) Non-verbal Communication (NVC) Questioning Reinforcement Closure

I. Set Induction

- Meaning

- Approaches to set induction

- The when of set induction

- The How of set induction

- The whv of set induction

- Criteria for evaluating set induction.

2. Stimulus variation

- Meaning

- the whv of stimulus variation

- the how of stimulus variation (body posturelgesture; VC and

NVC ;

media and methods: use of examples; and classroom

interactions

viz: teacher - students or group, teacher-student, student-

teacher,

student-student etc.)

- Criteria for evaluating stimulus variation.

3. Use of Examples

meaning

- types: Inductive and deductive use of examples

sub-divisions

*Verbal (oral) use of examples

*Nan-verbal (concrete) use of examples

Criteria for evaluating use of examples

4. Planned Repetitions

- meaning - types

Simple repetition - Spaced repetition Cumulative repetition Massed repetition

- cntetia for evaluat~on planned repetitions

5. Verbal mmmunicatiofi (VC)

- meaning

- Facets of verbal communication

spoken wards

vocal expressions

expfanations

clarity of words

explicity of words

- sub-skills of verbal communication

- criteria for evaluating verbal cues

6. Non-verbal Communication (NVC).

- meaning

- facets of non-verbal communication

body posture

arm-hand-finger movement

head

eye

mouth-throat

face

- sub-skills of non-verbal communication

- cirteria for evahatim non-verbal cues

6 l l u e s t i ~ n ~ n g - rnean~ng - types

Lower order quest~on (LOQ) - Mig her order question (HOQ) grob~ng quest~on (PBQ) dwergent question (DVQ)

- criteria for evaluating questioning skill

8. Reinforcement

- meaning

- types: PosiIive and negative reinforcement

- su b-divrsions

verbal reinforcement (positive viz: good, thank you, well done,

excellent, a mund of applause etc. Negative viz: hide your face,

coconut head etc.).

non-vwbal ~reinfwcement (positive viz; a smile, head-nodding,

hand

shake, token etc. Negative vit: frowning, sudden raise of eye

brows silent Imk, fierce look, temporary withdrawal of title eg.

Class

prefect, natty student etc.

- Extral-verbal reinforcement (positive viz: ahaa, yeeeh etc.

negative v~z : haiii!, hiaaaa, shiii, cheii!, waao!, hmmm etc.

9. Closure

- meaning - types: Fnstmctional cfosure and social closure

- Enstructianal closure

- cognitive closure

affective closure

psychomotor closure

Social Closure

* words of praise

words of encouragement

a smile: leaving the class with a smile

- criteria for evaluating closure

Demonstration teaching on Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Skills for bTR and Peer Groups.

In this substratum, the researcher's teaching and demonstration emphasis

centred on verbal and non-verbal communication skills because they are the

dependent variables of the study. A model lesson plan on CRS as shown in

appendix E was used. Both the VTR (control) group and the Peer (Experimental)

group were taught the VC and NVC skills as follows:

Verbal Communication (VC) Skill.

meaning

- facets of verbal communication

spoken words

. explanalms

clarify of words . expljcity of words

Sub-skills of Verbal Communication

1. tone of voice in teaching 3 . voice projection in teaching

5 , pronunciation in teaching

4. clarity of words in teaching

5. expliciltgr of words in teaching

6. grammatical expressions in teaching

7. verbal cues and language of instruction

8 . verbal cues and organization of thought

9. e l o c ~ ~ i ~ o n diction and comportment

-1 0 use of verbaf cues for arousal and sustaining of interest.

I I use of verbal cues for sequencing and expression of ideas.

i 2, use of verbal cues for various and variegated examples

13. verbal cues and tfkctiue use of media

1 4. verbal cues for posit~ve reinforcement

I verbal cues {ofor negative reinforcement

16. use of verbal cues to enhance understanding in the cognitive

domain,.

17. use ~f verbal cues 10 enhance understanding in the affective

domain.

16. "se of verbal cues 20 enhance understanding in the psychonotor

domain.

use of verbal cues for choice of vocabu/ary within the age limit of

students.

verbal cues and planned repetitions

verbal cues and questioning techniques

verbal cues and story telling

verbal cues, and Rogiality (set induction closure) in presentation of subject

matter.

verbal cues and cFassroom interaction

verbal cues and encouragement of creativity

verbal cues for crlassroom management and control

integration of verbal cues and demonstrations

use of verbal cues to boost charisma

verbal cues for evaluation of content.

verbal cues and closure.

(Sources Milt., 1974; Brown, 1975; Orlosky, 1980; Farant, 1981; Perrot, 1982;

Wragg, 1984; Ohuche and Izuwdh, 1985; Maduewesi. 1992; and Eze, 1997).

Criteria for Evaluatinq VC Skills - -.

1. the teacher practised the sub-skills of verbal communication within the

micro lesson frame, work.

2, the teacher properly integrated the sub-skills e.g. Clarity of words and

voice projection

. the teacher used verbal cues at the appropriate moments.

4, the teacher used verbal cues naturally i.e. without wearing artificial look.

5, the verbal cues used enhanced students' active participation learning.

(Adapkd Maduewesi, 1992; and Eze, 1997 VC evaluation criteria).

Non-Verbal Communication INVC) Skill

- meaning

- facets of non-verba! communication

body posture

arm-hand--finger movement

head

eye

mouth-throat

face

Sub-skills of NVC

Body Posture

1. use of body signals to emphasize points

2 . use of the trunk for demonstration

3. use o; the hip for demonstration

4 . positioning of the legs for demonstration

5. positioning of the toe for demonstration

6 . pulling of the shauider to refute a response 7. leaning, sitting, csossirlg legs, walking forward or side ways in the class. 8. positioning of the body to command charisma.

Arm-Hand-Finger Movement

9. use of arm-hand and fingers lo explain and emphas~ze points.

10 use of arm-Ratxi and fingers in asking questions

11. folding and unfolding of the hands to express surprise,

12. use of Rand shake to reinforce a response,

13. use of fingers and palm to call attention

putting a finger on the lips to indicate silence

snap of the finger to indicate silence

use of hand for writing

use of hand for manipulation of instructional media

use of hand (arm-hand-palm stretch) to indicate stop;

use of arm-hand-finger fo point for directions; demonstrate width, length,

height; and counting of numbers.

Head

head-nodding to show acceptance of a response

head-tilting to indicated non-acceptance of a response.

head-tilting to indicate doutt in s response

head-turning to indicate the direction of expected response.

EVe use of the eye for obsemations (eye contact)

use of the eye for silent (gazing) look

wide opening of eyes for fierce look.

wide opening of eyes and raise of eye-brow to shol

squinting of the eye for demonstration.

blinking of the eye for demonstration

deeming of the eye for demonstration

iurprise and horror

laughing to avoid boredom and uninteresting learning

use of tongue for demonstration

use of teeth for demonstraticrn

Iuse of upper and lower jaws for demonstration

pause of the lips for silence

use of throat-mout h-nose for extra-verbal comm unication(EVC).

- I- ace

use of face to convey emotions and feelings

use of nose for demonstration

use of smik to encourage a response

frowning to show discontent.

(Sources: Mil@, 1974; Brown, 197.5; Orlosky, 1980; Farant, 1981 ; Perrot,

1982; Wragg, 19M; Ohuche and Izuwah, 1985; Maduewesi, 1992; and

Eze. 1997).

Criteria For Evaluatinq (NVC)

the teacher practiced sub-skills of non-verbal communication within the

micro lesson framework.

the teacher used non-verbal cues at the appropriate moments.

the teacher properly integrated the sub-skills e.g. Use of palm and fingers;

arm and hand etc.

the teacher used non-verbal cues naturally i.e. without wearing artificial look.

NVC and extra-verbal cues (EVC) deepened students' understanding,

active participation and learning.

(Adapted Madumsi , 7992; and Eze, 1997 NVC evaluation crrteria).

Demonstration Teaching on VTR Evaluation Techniques for the Control (C] group

For the VTR (Control) group the researcher demonstrated the VTR

evaluation techniques using video tape recorder. The emphas~s was on verbal

and non-verbal commun~ca?im skills. A model lesson plan on Christian Religious

Studies [CRS) as shown in Appendix E was used.

A group of five students was called out to demonstrate after the teacher.

The steps followed in VTR evaluation techniques include:

1. use of VTR I v

2. Plan a short lesson of 5-10 minutes duration

I v 3. teach a short lesson of 5-10 minutes duration with \/TR

+ 4. play it back (Video-play-back)

i 5. self-evaluation (Using evaluation form)

* 6. self-critique

i 7. replan

8. reteach

9. replay (Video-play-back)

11 0. re-evaluate (self)

1 1 1 recritique (self)

What to Avoid in VTR Evaluation -self-esteem - ~ ~ l f - d ~ l u s i o ~ *.false opinion of oneself

false image of oneself self-deceit

Demonstration Teaching an Peer Evaluation Techniques for the

Experimental (E) group

For the Peer (Experimental) group, the researcher demonstrated the peer

evaluation techniques without the use of VTR. The emphasis was on verbal and

non-verbal communication skills. A model lesson plan on Christian Religions

Studies (CRS) as shown in Appendix E was used. A group of five students was

called out to demonstrate after the teacher

The steps followed in Peer evaluation techniques include:

1 no mechanical recording or use of VTR

2. plan short lesson of 5 - 10 minutes duration P + 3 . teach a short lesson of 5 - 10 minutes duration without VTR

4. evaluation by Peers (group evaluation)

I v 5. critique by Peers (Commentslfeedback by group)

6 i

re-plan

7. re-teach

a. 1

re-evaluate (group)

1 9. re-critique (group)

What to Avotd in Peer Evaluation

-gender factor (malejfemale)

*suspicion (don't suspect performance)

personal bias (likes/distikes)

leniency or' generosity error in rating (4-5)

severity error in rating ( I -2)

central tendency error in fating (3-3)

c~rnpetit jon in rating (don't compete).

Micro Lesson Planning

The researcher reminded both the VTR (control) and Peer (Experimental)

groups of the need for lesson planning before the practice of any skill during the

practice sessions. Emphasis was placed an effective micro lesson planning using

the follawing steps as guide:

Steps:

1. re-study or refresh memory an the sub-skills of a particular skill i.e.

set induction-closure I

2. refresh memory on criteria of evaluation of a specific skill.

3. choose content (topic) that can be practiced without rush within 5 - 10 minutes

4 . plan (write) the micro lesson

5. with immediate feedback, replan or do not.

Also, Model Micro Lesson Format was given to the VTR and Peer

groups as shown in Appendix F.

No. 2 Pr'acti~a Session (6 weeks)

The practice session lasted for six (6) weeks with a total of eighteen (18) micro- teaching sessions. Specifically, each week had three micro-teaching sessions with a duration of 100-1 20 minutes per session.

General Format far Weekly Teach-Reteach Treatment Sessions

The general nature of treatment sessions per week is a tripartite interrelated process as follows: Weekly practice: 1. Plan lesson on use of VC skills --+ Teach -+ Critique 2. Replan lesson on use of VC skills ----, Reteach- Recritique 3. Plan lesson on use of NVC skills ---+ Teach --b Critique 4. Replan lesson on use of NVC skills- Reteach --+ Recritique 5 . Ran lesson on use of VC and NVC skills -+Teach--+ Reteach 6. Replan J e w on use of VC and NVC skills + Reteach + Recritique.

Fig 3: Specific format no. I: VTR Evaluation Cyclic Process.

10, re -evaluate

f 9 replay

4 4.Videc-play-

back

Adapted Standford micro teaching cyclic process for the Peer group.

Fig 4: Specific Format No. 2: Peer Evaluation Cyclic Process

-.

t No mechancal f recurding or use af VTR

2,Plan 6. Replan

5 . Critique by

9 Re airique 3. teach by group 7 Reteach

4. Emlualion /' 8. Re evalualion

Practice Session by VTR (Control) Group

Each student in the VTR(contro1) group demonstrated the verbal and non-

verbs\ communication skills in three different micro-teaching sessions using the

VTR kchnique. Each session for every student lasted 5 - 10 minutes. At the end

of every student's practice, the student-teacher who demonstrated was given a

copy of the FIASOMTECS to rate hirnlherself while watching the video-play-back.

There was reteaching for improvement and for acquisition of skills . There was no

group critique session follmving the demonstration of VC and NVC skills by any

member of the group.

Pmctice Session by Peer (Experimental group)

S~m~lady, each student in the Peer (Exper~mental) group practiced VC and

NVC sk~lls in three different micro-teaching sessions using the peer evaluation

techniaue. Peer teaching and evaluation requtres "no mechanical recording"

(Mkpa, 1985: 33 - 50; and Ohuche and Izuwah, 1985; 101 -102). In every

session, each student practiced 5 - 10 minutes during which, each member of the

group was given a copy of the RASOMTECS to evaluate the student-teacher

who taught and demonstrated the VC and NVC skills. Each experimental subject

defended hisiher ratmg of the student-teacher's performance by criticizing the

lessan at the end of the practice. Every student had equal chances of reteaching

for ~rnprovernent and for acquisition of the skills.

PHASE 2: Post-test (Post-treatment) Phase

At the end of the sixth week, the VTR and Peer groups were taken out for

teaching practice at GlPPS Secondary School, Onitsha. The researcher and two

trained research assistants rated the performance of the students in both the

VTR (Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups using the RASOMTECS. The

rating on the performance of each student-teacher on the teaching practice day

(post-test day) formed the post-test scores of this study. There was video tape

recording during the post-test.

Them Rating Scale on Micro -Teaching Communication Skills

(RASOMTECS) for each student was rated on a five-point scale as follows: 1 =

Poor; 2 = Fair; 3 = Good; 4 = Very Good; and 5 = Excellent (Maximum mark).

The verbal communication skills and the non-verbal communrcation skills (15

items each) attracted a maximum score of 75 points each; and a minimum score

of 15 points each (as shown in Appendix B). A score of three-poht five (3.5) and

aboveIdecide by content judgment specialist) was regarded as a demonstration

of mastery in the practice of a specified skill.

Method of Data Analysis

The frequency and purposeful demonstration of the verbal and nun-verbal

communication skills for each student-teacher were scored on the RASOMTECS

during the past test. fo r each student-teacher, the mean ( T ) scores on the

verbal and non-verbal sk~lls were ~espectively calculated on the RASOMTECS.

The mean scores served as an hdication of the respective student-teacher's

mastery of the communication skills.

The post-test scores of the Experimental and control groups on the verbal

and non-verbal communication skills as rated by three independent raters were

used to answer the research questions stated forethis study. The various mean@)

scores for both the Peer (Experimental) and VTR (Control) groups were later

subjected to the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The two research hypotheses

respectively provided answers to the four research questions hence, all the

hypotheses were tested using ANOVA at 0.05 alpha level. Multiple Classification

Analysis (MCA) which is a package built into ANOVA was used for post-hoc

analysis to determine effects on method of evaluation (VTR and Peer) and

gender (male and female) on the acquisition of VC and NVC skills of micro-

ieaching.

Table 4 Mean ( F ) ratinq scores of stcident-teachers in the VTR (Control) group, and Peer (Experimental) qroup on their mastery of verbal Communication skills)

-- voice in relation to content

2 clarrty of mrds in r e l a t h to content 3.31 3.52 I

I I--

/ 4 pronunciation in relation to content ' 3.26 3.59 L

I

5 grammar in relatjon to content 3.20 3.31 *

G ouera~~ use of language - - I

4.06 3.78 "Mastery tC

I (org+ation of thought) -- log~mlity (set induction to closure) 1.

1 in resnla -tion of subject-matter , p ,-- 8 verbal r4nforcement e.g gz; a

' 3.37 3.89

1 3.40 3.73 1 diction and cmprtment. 1 3.,8 3,37 - 1. 1 11 verbal cues (e.9 fhinkscognitive;

feel s-affective and acts- p~ychornc~tor vei l relai-ed to content. j

52 use of verbal cwnmunication enhance 1 3,30 1 3.83 I I k

draw etc. used I rl evduai~on of content, - - - -- -- - ' I 1 NB: A mean (X) ratmg score of 3.2 and above indicates mastery of

heuristid interactionistic approach to teaching.

13 v e M cmmunication e.g d o p - -3.23 the noise! what's it! Siandup! Was 3.70

3.60

3.77

proper& u w d for class control. 14 verbal cwnrnunlcation free of

mannerisms e.g m, ~ r n -- 1 5 ~ - l i o n verbs e.g define, list, outline,

identify. mefltion, pronounm, state, narrate, dmonstrate, dramatize.

3.5T

3.44

9

*I

--

t*

-- **

..

Table 5 Mean ( Z) rat in^ Scores of Student-Teachers in the VTR [Control) and Peer (Experimental) Groups on The( Mastery of Non-Verbal Communication Skills.

Bcdy posture (head, shoulder, hands, ) kmks . hip and legs etc)appropnately used I for bmonstrat~ons.

I 2 gestures (arm-hand and fingers) properly I I 1 1 3.67 1 3.52 .a

.*

used la explain and emphagsgaints. 1 3 effecuve used of amhand and firrgers in t ( 3.44 1 3.90 ( 'Non-

.. I

attention of a studevt. finger on the Ijp to ~ndicate 2.70 2.91 .I

3.63 4.07 .. rn

3.42 3.34 *I

I

mments. I -.

of the head to indicate doubtf 3.21 3.51 L*

disapprova! of a response at appropriate I mments.

F a smile on the face wll used to encourage 3.58 3.71 1 '" 1 - 1-z the face to show d~scontent at + 1336 . b 1 t>or&om a n d unintermling learning. -- - P - I 14 eyeye contact well used to create impress~on 1 3.83 ( 3.99 C.

I appropiate rnomyt. .

1 13 laughmg at appropriate moments to avoid

of mastery of sub~ect-matter and atten t lveneSs 15 use of throat deepened e x t r a - v a l

cornmunlcation e.g . Aaaah; Haiii!; Hiaaaal; Chetd; Yeeeh!

I I I 3.38 j 3.91 1 ' I a= I I

NB : A mean ( x ) rating score of 3.5 and above.indicates mastery of NVC skills.

Table 6. Mean (a scores of male and female student -teachers on their mastery of verbal communication skills.

I t m s X 1 \Deasio & 1 Decision Male 1

1 tone of voice in relation to content 4.09 1 " 3.34 I rnaste

of w f - s ~n relafian to conten1 prqeztrcm ~n r d a t m to mnterrt 3.95 3 43 -

I -- E j r n n u n c > a t m -- ~n re4atlc-n to candent 1 3.39 / 5 grammar In reial~on lo conlent 1 3.21

6 wedl use of language organization 3.71 of t haugM) - mastery

7 Iqical~ty (set ~ndumon to dosure} 4.15 " 1 3.61

1 round of applause etc. used at the I I I I I

In pisentation d subjectrrratter

1 repet~tion of key w r d s such as 1 I I I

I I I

moment. e.g planned

I religion. momlib e;c. deepened I I 1 I I

-- 8 verbal rantorment e. g g c d ; a I 339 I " 1 3.49

I understanding- - .- .----

I fb u e h i cues in selaliun to elocution I

1 4.m 1 " 1 3.44

I 3.84 1 .I 3 . 5 ~ --+-

I feelsaffective and acts- I 1 I I Prn and comportment.

1 1 verbal cues (e.g lhi n k q n i h v e ; 1 3.51

teachmg. I

I k & h a l uvnmunlcahon e g stop I the nolsel what's it1 Standup! Was

C1

1 p homotor well re l led ta contenl. 1 I . . - - - - !

1 p r o p e e r c r u d for C I ~ S cC@tro/. 14 verbal communication free of

3.22

i 12 ure of verhal mmunication enhance 1 3.84 1 " 1 3.50

rnannensms e.9 e e m , eeeern I - -- -- I I I

-I-

( f 5 actrm verbs e.g define, I~st, outlme, 13.99 1 " ) 3.51 i **

-I

~dentrfy, mention, pronounce, state, narrate, demonstrate, dramatize, draw etc. used in evaluatran of mtent . L - - 1

Research Qrrestion EV

What arc rhe rclatiw nean (?) raring scores of ni;~ll- mid li.millc

s~~iclcnts on nan-verbal c o ~ n m u n k a h ~ ski1 Is?

tlicir- of non-vcrbal comlnunication skills are pi-escn~cd on tahlt 7 as

li,l Ion-s:

Table 7. Mean scores of male and fernate student-teachers - on the~r masterv of non-verbal communication skills. -

1 BMy poslure (head, shoulder. hands, trunks. / t.

h ~ p arid legs etc) appropnately u d for demonst rat ions

2 getures (am-hand and lingers) properly used lo explain and emphasrs points. / 4 . 1 1 I * - I

3 effective u s e of am-hands and fingers in askmy questians.

4 effective use of hand(hand- shake) to remforce a respmse.

I 7 effective of hand for witmg and manipulation of instrucl~onal media. 1 4 2 4 1 *

5 mwerneflt of the hand (fingers and palm) to k k o n f m l l attention of a student.

3.44

3.28

' non- mastery

6 putting EI finger on iip tc kdicate- silence. 1 2.93

8 effective u% of hand (arm-stretch) to indicate stop!

10 tilting of the head to indicate doubV 1 I I

9 ncxiding of t h e head to show app.ovaV acceptance of a responw at appropnatc mwnents.

i 1 4.21

disapproval of a response at appropriate momczs.

3.77

. 9

11 a m i le on the face well used to encourage a rqmnse.

. .

12 frowning af the face to show discantent at appropriate moments.

13 laughing at appropriate moments to avoid h r 4 m - n and uninteresting learning. I 1 4.4 9 - '

* 'mastery I

* non- mastery

Furthemore, multiple clarification analysis (MCA) was done to determine

which method of evaluation that was more effective and which gender category

performed better. The result is show in table 9 as follows:

Table 9.: Summan/ of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) on verbal skills.

Eta': Adjuged Beta ' Multi- R for factors Squard

R --

0.64 0.87 0.76 2=PEER 3 3.67 0.17 0.17

0.58 , -7.30 x

- --

On method of evaluation, the multiple classification analysis (MCA)

presented in taMe 9 shows that Peer evaluation method was more effective than

the VTR evaluatbn technique. The mean score for Pee; group was higher than

the mean for VTR group. The mean for Peer group is 3.68+0.17 = 3.85 while the

mean for VTR group is 3.33-0.17 = 3.76. The ~ t a ~ for the method of evaluation

us 0.66 showing that there is high strength of relationship between verbal

communication skill and method of evaluation.

As regards gender, the mu!tiple clarification analysis (MCA) shows that,

male student-teachers perfumed better than female students on verbal

communication skills The mean score of male student-teachers (3.83 +0.33=

4 16) IS h~gher than that of the female student-teachers (3.43 -0.7.56 = 3.35).

l . - l~wl l w c lo. 1IK I~-l~illlO IiW 111ctI1od or ~ \ ~ ~ l I ~ l ~ l ~ l O l l ( M . I I i 1 I \ l l l ~ l ~ ~ ~ l

I ! I ; III t l~c l:-tablc \ : ~ I I I c 01'4 Oil :I[ 0.Oi lcwl o i ' ~ ) , ~ o l ~ ; ~ I ~ i l i [ ~ ~ SIIILT I . - I . ; I I ~ ( I I..

~ I L * ; I [ C I . 111a1i l l~c F-I;II)III;II. oi' 0 , O i lc\,cl of p ~ . o l ~ ; ~ \ ~ l l i ~ \ ~ . 11lc ! I \ ~ I I O I I I L ~ ~ I . S 1 l i : 1 1

1 1 i ~ * l l i O c \ 0 1 ' c \ . : I ~ L I ; I ( ~ o I ~ I ~ ; I S 1 1 0 s ~ ~ I I I ~ ' ~ c ~ I I \ ~ cI l>~l 011 1 1 1 ~ I I O I I - \ ~ C I - ~ ~ ; I ~

C . ( \ I I I I I I I I I I I C ' ; , I ~ ~ I I 4 ill..; of' s ~ t ~ i l c ~ ~ t I C ; I C ~ I C I ~ S is r c~cc.~ctl

Table 11 .: Summary of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) on Non - Verbal Communicat~on skills.

--<- - Method 1 =VTR 2=PEER Gender t =MALE 2=FEMALE

Predicted mean U a q d j -

Unadj Deviatn

Adjusted for factors

Square

On method of evaluation, the multiple ciassification analysis (MCA)

presented in table 11 shows that Peer evaluation method was more effective

than the VTK technique. The mean score for Peer group (3.56 + 3.1 5 = 3.71) is

higher than the mean score for VTR group (3.26 - 0.15 = 3.11). The eta2 for

the method of evaluation is 0.51 showing that there is high strength of

relationship between non-verbaf communication skill and method of evaluation.

As regards gender, the multiple classification analysis (MCA) shows that

male student-teachers per-brmed better than female student-teachers on non-

verbal communication skill. The mean score of male student-teachers (3.70 +

0 29 = 3.99) is higher than that of the female student- teachers (3.34 - 0.0678 =

3 33). The eta2 for gender is 0.48 snowing that there is high strength of

relationship between gender and non-verbal communication skill.

Tlic d;ita ccl l lc~tct l 111 L ~ I S si~rd! VLIK prcbcr~lvd ; I I ~ illl;ll!~U~l 111 1111~ C ~ ; ~ ~ L C I '1-116: I : ~ c 1 1 1 t ! l ' l I i~. \ i

III~IILIICS IIIC t d l t n ~ lng .,

l l ~ c i'..ll< t ~ ' o n [ r ~ { l I g r t ~ ~ p li;~d I ~ I I Ltt' i i~; i .st<n 11\d1i,;,< r i w ~ m ~ li,w113 IS 10 4 fI0 \ \ ! ! ! I L 1 1 1 ~ : 1h.1

( L y x r ~ t ~ ~ c n t I ) group's m;tdcr! 111dlccs rirnguj f ioni 3 3 1 l o 4 04 on lhu ~ l c ~ l i s o1'VC' \!-,111s I'CCI

c\duarron (Espc~. in~cr~~aI) goup pcrf'onucd S t t ~ lhan t h ~ : VTR (C'mtrol) gro{~p

. f l ~ \TR (('onrrd j ~ ; o i i l ~ had 0 ~ 1 r KVC I ? \~S IU~ i~ id~ccs m~l?,i~lg, fj011) 2.2 7 LO 3.S.j $ 5 111lc' IIIC I 'cu

(\,;\IICI IIIKIII;I~! F ~ o ! ~ p ' s l i i a ~ k n il id~ccs m l i g d f'roli~ 2 $1 104 ( j7 o11 [hc 1 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~)l'h\i( ,k 111s. ~ 'WI

~.\;I~II;IIIOI~ (L'SFI IIIICIII;!~) g11111p ~ C I IOr~ncd ~KIILI II\;III t l ~ \! \'I< (('OIIIIO~) ;I 0111)

T1)c u:dc SI~CII I -~ndic is had 111c1r Vt ' 1 1 1 x i l q I I ~ ~ ~ C C S ri111gi11g VIUIII 3.44 w-+ I 1 1 1 1 ~ die

f~1~1;llc: ? ; t ~ ~ d ~ ~ i ~ - t c ~ ; ~ i l , c r ~ ' 111sstcq i ~~d i ccs r;i!~pxl li.n~il 7 '2 I I[! 3 0 I mi tlw 11c.jl1q of'\-(' -h~ l l c Tli,

IIMIC S I N ~ L ~ I ~ S pcrl 'm~icd ~CIICI

1~11c'lll,l1~ ~ 1 1 1 ~ ~ ~ ' 1 1 1 - ~ c ~ , l ~ ~ ~ i i ~ 11,1<1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 \\'1' 111;1~lc'17 l lh l l i~! ; I;III~lIIg h16111 .' iJ ; 10 d*'l0J ~ ~ ~ 1 1 ~ ~

f h ~ h S ~ I I ~ C I I I - I V ~ I ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ ' III;IS!CI~ r;wg,rd fro111 2 24 10 3 70 1111 11ic IICIIIS oIX\T' 4119.. ' 1 ' 1 ~ 1 1 ~ 1 ; ~

srudcii rs pcrfortiictl hcttcr

h4crl1od ~ d u v a l ~ ~ n ~ ~ c ! n (V'TR and Pccr) and p m l c r csplalncd 7h1%jof'lJic \;~l- l ;~lrrw 111 l l l i \ c r b i ~ l

COII~II~I~I~ILJIIQII m w c s

11~1.l11.d r)t'c\;rluarlcw (VTR mid Pccr) x ~ t l g,ci~dui c y ) l i ~ l r ~ c d -IX'k,nl'~l~c \;II.I;IIIOII 111 111. 111111-i UI t).A

i ~ ~ l ~ l l l l l l l / ~ i l t l O l l 5i[lli'S.

I'll< IILI~C ( I I~~ICI 1lic;111 sco~c.1; 11; ~ O I ~ I \.C' nnc! Y!'v'(' ~ 1 , 1 1 1 ~ u c ~ c cil~l*ls\cllt \ \ 1111 l l ~ c r11LIi ;I.;s~~-[I;III

~ I 'SI I I~CI loill? o ~ c r \IIC t h a l c s 111 WI c111ft1r;)l .si:1111y \IIHIC tlic ILIIMIC I ~ ~ c I I ~ I I I . L I ~ I ~ S (1,.

LI~I~\I:.LL~III \\ 1111 I~,IIIII;I~ 1111111j1 111 \111!il\ 1: 11111~.11 ; t ~ c ~ I I L ~ I ~ I I J~CIIII L~CIIL,..I-.

- ,. .

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION OF FIHDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

This chapter deals with d~scussion of the results presented in the

preceding chapter. The discussion centres on the main issues addressed in the

study . This chapter also deals with the conclusion; Educational Implications of

the study; Recommendations, Limitations of the study; suggestions for further

Research; a d summary of the work.

Discussion of Results

The results of this stxty are discussed on the bases of the following

issues:

(i)

(ii)

( i i i)

(jvj

Effects of evaluation methods (VJR and Peer) on student- teachers'

Mastery of Verbal Communication Skilts.

Effects of evaluation method (VTR and Peer) on students-teachers'

Mastery of Non-Verbal Communication Skills.

Gender factor on student-teachers' Mastery of Verbal Communication

skills.

Gender factor on student-teachers' Mastery of Non-verbal Communication

Skills.

Effects of Evaluation Techniques (VTR and Peer) on Student: teachers' Mastery of Verbal Communication (VC] Skills of Micro-Teaching.

The Mastery ~nd~ces of VTR and Peer evaluation groups on VC were

deterrnrned and presented In Table 4. The Mastery indices for the VTR group in

WC ranged from 3.18 to 4.06. While those of the Peer evaluation group ranged

from 3 31 to 4.04. In addition, the WR group demwrstrated clearly their mastery

on only two (2) of the fifteen 115) QC ::ski!ls while the Peer group demonstrated

outstanding mastery on thirteen(l3) of the fifteen VC skills as shown in table 4.

Consequently, the Peer evaluat~on group showed significart Mastery (PC 0.05) of

the Verbal Communication skills over the VTR [self-rating) group. Method of

evaluation is therefore a sign~ficant factor in explaining the variation (76%) in the

VC post-test scores of the 80 student-teachers as shown in table 9. In

consonance w~tk this, Acheson (1985) reported that, feedback from fellow

student- teachers working in pairs and feedback from peers were better than

se/f-appra~sa! (Y~deo) feedback Doty ( I 973) also reported that, micro-teaching

without Video-tape ~eCbrd€?i (VTR) and closed Circuit Television (CCTV) was

found effective when cowarea with micro-teaching w~ th Video (VTR-evaluation).

The findmgs of Allen, Cooper and Stroud reported in Brown (1975); and

Jansan and Young (1972) were in contrast with the result of this study. The

former involved a sample of over 200 students who were exposed to Micro-

teaching (vidceplay-back) and others who were exposed to peer evaluation.

The researcher reported evidence Of significant improvement and

transferabil~ty of techniques of explanations, use of peoples ideas, clarity and

reinforcement. The above findings suggest that VTR (self-rating) technique is

better than peer evaluztion in improving micro teaching skills. The basic

difference in the work of Allen el af in Brown (1975) and the present study hinges

on the size or number of the micro-teachhg skills under consideration. In this

study fifteen Verbal Communication skills were under investigation while Allen, et

al investigated the effects of evaluation method on only four micro-teaching skills.

Again, while the present study involved 80 studen t-teachers, the former study

was experimented 00 a sample of more than 200 student-teachers. It has been

obsewed that increased sample size affects the efficiency of both distribution-

free and parametric statistical tests (Downie and Heath, 1974). Hence, the

source of variation in the findings of this study and those of the researchers may

be attributed to differences in the sample size of the two studies. Borg and

Gall(f979) had r~commended a sample size of 30-100 subjects for experiments

on M~cro-teaching. This reco~mendation suggests that the sample size (80) for

the present study is within acceptabie range.

However, the differential performance of the VTR and Peer evaluation

groups as reflected on their mastery of the Verbal Communication (VC) skills

seems to have clearly violated some existing research reports. Odusina (1980)

reported a significant difference between the VTR (experimental) group and the

supervisor evaluation [control) group in favour of VTR (self-evaluation) method

on the effectiveness of Micro-%!aching in teaching Engl~sh Language

Comprehension, This research was conducted using supervisors who served as

tire coarrol gwp Consequently, the study has no direct bearing with the

present study which involved peer groups.

Perrot (1976) deduced that method of evaluation (supervisor's and Peer)

as a variable has no significant influence in the acquisition of micro teaching

skills. Although , Perrot involved British Education Undergraduates in the study ,

the valid~ty and reliability of his finding were threatened due to insufficient

number of supervisors for the large number of students involved . The researcher

acknowledged that even the generous staffing ratio in British Universities would

not allow the use of tutors for sufficient time when normal size classes are

involved. Indeed , disparity in sample sire in relation to number of supervisor

could be considered a source of error for such generalisation . Again , since

Perrat's research was an experimental study , the effects of contamination might

have influenced his findings since the experimental and control subjects were

not confined duriig the period of the experimentation.

Effects of Method of Evaiuation [VTR and Peer ) on Student teachem' Mastery of r-ton-vshal Communication skills

The effect of micro-kzching evaluation method on the student- teachers'

master$ of the non-verbal Cclrnmunication (NVC). skill was investigated in this

study . The methods were VTR (self-rating ) evaluation and Peer evaluation . The

mean[ x ) rating score for the VTR (Control) group ranged form 2.27 to 3.83

while the mean( x ) score for the Peer (Experimental) group ranged from 2.49 to

4.07. The Peer group showed significant mastery (P<O.05) of the non-verbal

communication skills over their LTR counterparts.

Table 5 indicates that the peer group showed mastery on ten (10) skills

while the VTR group showed mastery on five (5) of the 15 Non- Verbal

communication skills that were investigated . Method of evaluation was found to

have explained 48% of the variation in the NVC post-test scores of the student -

teachers . This is manifest on Table 11, Since method of evaluation (METEV)

was significant and both and €ta2 were high for research question 2 , then the

method of evaluation (Peer) with higher mean should be regarded as the most

effective in acquisition of NVC skills.

The finding of this study with regards to the experimental (Peer) group's

acquisition of VC and NVC skills more than their VTR (cantrol) group

counterparts lay credence to the claim by Husen and Postlethwaite (1985) that

,peer evaluation is indispensable for formative evaluation in the acquisition of

teaching skills. Mkpa ('1985) also reported a significant difference in the

frequency of higher order questions asked by the Experimental (Peer) and

Control (VTR) group in favour af lhe Experimental (Peer) group. In addition , the

researcher maintained that the Experimental (Peer) group asked more probing

questions than the control (VTR) group ;and that the VTR (control) group made

more incorrect reactions to students' responses to oral questions than the

experimental (Peer) group .

In another study, Mkpa (1991) reported that peer evaluation technique

improved the pre-service teachers' use of stimulus variation . Moreover,

significant improvement in micro teaching skills acquisition by the Peer

(interactionistic approach) w experimental group than their VTR (control) group

counterparts was .reporfed in Aralos [1%1). The researcher found that the

experimental group performed signifkantiy better. The result of Avalos study is

therefore in conformity with the findings of this study. The plausible explanation

for the authenticity of the present research findings may be based on the

reliability of the instrument. The task were simple, clearly structured, criteria and

scales adequately defined, a balance panel or raters; and complete anonymity

and confidentiality of the ratings were ensured as suggested in Mehrens and

Lehmann (1978); and Husen and Postlethwaite (1985).

Although, the Peer (experimental) group showed mastery on the VC and

NVC skills more than the VTR (control) group, there was a general acquisition of

the skills in both groups as indicated in the post-test scores of the groups.

Consequently, the splendid performance could be vested on the

teachers!lecturers competence in the micro-teaching skills. According to Strawits

and Malone (1987), Bluhm (1979); and Zeitler (1981) increased teachers'

competence in the skills results in changes in planning and teaching practices

that gives student greater opportunity to acquire the skills. The reverse occurs

when teachers are incompetent on the teaching skills.

Gender Factor on Student -Teachers' Mastery Of Verbal Communication Skills

The effect of gender on the student -teachers1 mastery of verbal skills was

investigated in this study. T a ~ l e 9 shows that the mean ( X ) VC post- test scores

for males (3.83) was higher than the mean ( X ) VC post-test scores for the

females (3.43). Significant difference (Pc0.05) was found between the mean

( x ) VC post- test scores in favour of the male student-teachers. The R~ and ~ t a ~

values of 0.076 and 0.066 were high thus, confirming that gender has significant

effect on students' mastery of verbal communication skills. This suggest that it

should be considered when determining the things that affect VTR evaluation of

VC skills in ,micro-teaching.

The male student-teachers performed better than their female

counterparts. This result Fs not contrary to that of Lovegrove (1 975) who reported

that the males fated themselves higher (73.60) than females' rating (72.09) of

themselves with standard deviation of 8.05 and 6.25 respectively. Lovegrove

(1975) went further to cmclude that in the west African sub-region, men seem to

hold themselves in high esteem hence, the tendency to score high. Contrary to

the findings of the presen: study, Ofoegbu (1987) reported that sex as a variable

has no significant influence on students' acquisition of science process skills .

Ofeoegbu (19M) conducted his study vith primary six pupils. Consequently, a

suspicion accrued that his findings might have been age biased but Nwsu

(7987) involved 144 SS 7 students as well as six secondary schools which may

be considered adequate for such generalisation . Anikweze (1998) explained that

individual's self-esteem is related to gender. He Observed that self-esteem

influences one's perception of personal standards and that gender factor has a

way of intruding into peoples' self -esteem and self-rating. He reported that men

usually have the tendency to score high in evaluation. The above claim was

proved in the present study since Gender was found to have significant effect on

the students' mean score on their mastery of verbal communication (VC) skills.

Gender Factor on Student -Teachers' Mastery of Non- Verbal communication skills

Table 11 indicates that the mean I[ x ) rating score for the males (3.70) is

higher than the mean [ x ) score for females (3.34) on their mastery of NVC

skills. Table 11 also indicates that the h a (3.70 and 3.34) mean scores were

significantly different at 0.05 level of probability .This implies that gender has

significant effect on students' mastcry of non-verbal communication (NVC) skills

in favour of the males

The above findings is line with reports of Anikweze (1988) that with

regards to gender distribution, the male student s' mean rating score of 76.20

W ~ S much h~gher than female mean ( x ) score of 67.03 . Anikweze (1988)

involvd SO-student -teachers in a College of Education and compared the effect

of sex factor OR their se!f-evaluatm ciwing the teaching practice. He concluded

that the mate h~gt-ter m a n score was consistent with the self assertion of

superiority aver the females in bur cultural background. He argued that the

female lower mean score was consistent with the natural humility which is the

repertwry of the behav~our of our feminine gender. The researcher however,

reported that by staff assessment, many female student -teachers performed

much better than thew male counterparts . The report ~ndicated that 16.7% of the

female student -teachers were rated higher than 47% of fheir male colleagues

by thew supervisory staff.

The above research report indicates that male student -teachers rated

themselves higher than their female tOileSlgue. The present study is therefore

consistent with Anikweze (7988) findings. Hence, research reports on the effect

of gender factor on students ' mastery of verbal and non -verbal communication

s k~lls remain inconclusive

Conclusion

The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of the problems

investigated and the results of data analysis conducted in this study

(i) Method of evaluation is a significant factor (P4.051 in student -teachers1

mastery of the verbal communication skills in micro-teaching. The mean ( X )

verbal post 4esf scores of the student -teachers who were involved in Peer

evatuatlon technique was significantly greater (P<0.05) than the mean ( x )

verbal post-test scores of student -teachers who practised the Video Tape

Recording .(VTR) evaluation technique . The Peer group out- performed their

VTK counterparts by showing mastery on 73 or the fifteen verbal communication

skills while the VTR showed mastery on 2 of the verbal communication skills.

i l ) Method of Micro-teaching evaluation is also a significant factor (Pc0.05) in

student-teachers' mastery of the Non-Verbal Communication (NVC) skills.

The mean ( x ) Non-verbal Post-test scores of the students in the Peer

evaluation group was significantly greater (P4.05) than the mean ( x )

score of their counterparts in the VTR group. The Peer evaluation group

out-performed the VTR evaluation group by showing mastery on 10 NVC

skills while VTR evaluation group showed YAastery on 5 of the fifteen NVC

skills

i i i ) PJeneer is a significant factor (P4 .05 ) in student-teachers' mastery of the

Verbal Communication (VC) skills. The mean ( x' ) Verbal Post-test score

of the male students was significantly greater (P4.05) than the mean

( X ) Verbal Post-test score of hei r female counterparts. The males performed

berter by showing mastery on 14 of the 15 Verbal Communkation Skills. Their

female counterparts demonstrated mastery on 5 of the fifteen Verbal skills.

Hence, gender factor explained 76% of the verbal post-test scores of the two

groups.

Iv ) Gender is also a sign~ficant (P4l.05) factor on student-teachers' mastery

of Non-verbal Communication (NVC) skills. The Mean ( x ) Non-verbal

Post-test score of the mate students was significantly greater (P4.05)

than the mean ( x ) NVC Post-test score of the females. The males

shoved mastery on 9 of the 15 NVC skills while the females showed

mastery on 8 NVC skills The gender factor explained 48% of the total

variation in the NVC Post-test scores of the two groups.

Implications sf the Findings

The findrngs of this study have implications for micro-teaching instructors,

educat~onal methodology teachers, Guidance Counsellors, teaching practice

Supervisors, College administrators and Government. For the micro-teaching

~rtstructors and educational methodology teachers, Peer evaluation technique is

simple, cheaper, easily adaptable and above all, more effective in the training of

student-teachers in the acquisition of appropriate teaching skills. Peer evaluation

technique should also be adopted as an alternative or major technique in the

evaluation of trainee - teachers' mastery of micro-teaching skills.

The Peer evaluation technique could serve diagnostic function. Peer

evaluation should enable educational methodology teachers,Guidance

Counsellors and teaching practice supervisors to identify trainee teachers who

are proficient in the various teaching skills. Such student-teachers should be

advised and encouraged at the formative level to become 'borne' teachers and

subsequently proceed to higher levels of the teaching profession. Also, the result

of Peer evaluation could aid the lecturers and Counseilors identify students who

have problems with teaching skills in general; or with specific skills. Remedial

lessons should be organised for such students to ensure mastery.

For tire Government and College Administration, the adoption of Peer

evaluation technique in all colleges of education should be encouraged to reduce

cost and conserve funds usually spent on the importation and maintenance of

VTR equipment and facilities. The Colleges should adopt Peer evaluation

technique to serve in boosting the morals of student-teachers who should by this

technique be involved in joint decision -making.

The general acquisition leading to the mastery of the VC and NVC skills

shown by the student-teachers is contingent on the effectiveness of Peer

evaluation which also offer the students opportunity for a critical reflection on

what good teaching involves. This situat~on needs to be sustained so as to

improve trainee-teachers' mastery of the various micro-teaching skills.

That gender is a significant factor (Pc0.05) in student-teachers' mastery of

the Verbal and Non-verbal Communication skills has implications for the

methodology lecturers, Guidance, Counsellors, Supervisors, College

Administrators and Government. Micro-teaching instructors and supervisors in

recognitm that males performed better than females, should henceforth give

inore time, attention and more opportunity for practice to the fernale students in

micro-teaching sessions.

Recommendations

The following Recommendations were advanced from the findings of this

research.

i Peer evaluation technique shoutd be used by methodology teachers

and supervisors for both formative and summative evaluation of trainee-

teachers' mastery of the micro-teaching skills.

i i j Peer evaluation technique should be used as an alternative evaluation

technique by micro-teaching instructors, supervisors and future

researchers.

iii) Workshops, Seminars and In-service training should regularly be

organised for Micro-teaching instructors and Supervisors to acquaint them

with the most effective instructional strategies for provoking trainee-

teachers' master), of teaching skills.

IV) The use of Pew evaluation should be adopted by the college authorities

for checking and maintaming standards in micro-teaching practice. This

follows from the fact that results from Peer evaluation has much more

rater rehabil~ty than VTR rating .

Limitations of the Study

Some limitations :vere e~countered in conducting this research. These

include the following:

i j The procedures ~ti l ized in determining the rating scores for the individual

students in both the Experimental and Control groups could pose a

limitation to this study. The content specialistswm requested to suggest

the score a rninimaffy proficient student-teacher would obtain on the VC

and NVC skills to be classified as a master. Sequel to this, a content

validity index (CVI) was computed as shown in Appendix C. Even with the

CVL, this research can not claim perfect classification of students into the

mastery stafes.

Another limitation that cannot be ignored in this study was the use of a

secondary schsol at Onitsha for this study. Unfortunately, Nwafor Orizu

College of Education, Nsugbe has no secondary school that is part of the

college Schools w~thin Onitsha environs seem the only alternative.

Incidentally, these schools do not have similar calendar with the College.

For instance, GlPPS secondary school Onitsha used for this study was

preparing for inter-house sports as at the post-test stage of this

experiment, Although, the use of GIPPS secondary school seemed a

limitation in that subjects were bussed outside the College environment, it

would not rn any way affect the efficacy of the therapy since they were

confined in a iaboratory throughout the period of the experiment.

Suggestions for Further Research

Some areas of this study were deemed necessary to be researched upon

in future. Consequently, the following areas were suggested for further study.

i) Determination of the efficacy of Peer evaluation technique on the student-

teachers mastery of other micro-teaching skills (Use of examples,

Stimulus Variation, Planned repetition, Set-Induction etc.)

1 1 ) Determination of the level of mastery of Verbal and Non-verbal

Comrnunicatisn skills by University Undergraduates using the Peer

evaluatjm technique.

" ' \ l l i j Zeplication 01 the present study in other subject areas different from

Christian Religious Studies.

iv) Further investigation on tfie effect of gender on the pre-service teachers'

mastery of Micca-teaching skills.

v) Audio-cassette and pictorial evaluation techniques of micro-teachi ng ,

vi) Comparative effects of a guidance counsellor and micro-teaching

supe~isor in clinical supervision of rnicrc-teaching

vii) lncorporation of steps of clinical supervision in teaching practice

supervision .

viii) Influence of peripheral factors namely: pattern of dresses, patterns of

hair-do etc on supervisor's evaluation of female student-teachers in

micro-teaching sessions.

Summary of the Wark

This study is aimed at determining the effects of VTR and Peer evaluation

techniques of micro-teaching on pre-service (NCE) teachers mastery of Verbal

and Non-verbal Comrnunicatim (VC and NVG) skills. In conducting the research

four research questions and two hypotheses were formulated. The effects of

method of micm-teach~ng evaluation and gender on the student -teachers'

mastery of the VC and NVC sk~lls were mvestigated using the validated

instrument.

F~fteen items were constructed on the Verbal and Non-verbal

Cornrnunication skdls respecbvefy. The thirty (30) subskills were submitted to

five experts in Educational technology and curriculum content spec~al~sts who

rndependentjy determined the appropriateness sl each item to the Verbal and

Non-verbal skills Each item was also rated In terns of ~ t s relevance and

appropriateness to the sk~lls ~t purports to measure. After this scrutmy the

flawed ~tems were md~ f i ed while some others replaced based on the

recorr~rnendations of these experts

The Rating Scale on Micro-Teaching Communication Skills

(RASOMTECS) was face-validated by experts in Educational methodology,

teaching practice supervisors as well as CRS teachers and curriculum experts.

After effecting the cwrecticsns suggested by these resource persons, the initial

RASOMTECS was used In establishing the Content Vahdity Index (CVt) of the

RASOMTECS It was twice trial-tested on 28 pre-servrce NCE teachers of CRS.

The results of the two trial tests were used in determining the reliabitrty

Coefficient of the RASOMTECS

The 80 preservice teachers who conshtute the subjects for the study were

drawn from the Department of CRS, College of Educahon, Nsugbe, through

simple random sarnpfing technique. A1 tfie fifteen (15) male students were

involved while 65 kmales were selected through the simple random sampling

technique. The students' Mean ( x )rating scores were used in determining the

students level of mastery of the various Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Skills due to method and sex. The student-teachers that were involved in Peer

evaluation out-performed their counterparts who were involved in VTR

evduation. The Peer group demonstrated adequate mastery on 13 Verbal and

10 Non-Verbal skills while the VTR group showed mastery on 2 Verbal and 5

Non Verbal skills.

Consequently, the hypothesized non-significa~t difference (P4.05)

between the students who showed mastery on the VC and NVC skills in the VTR

and Peer groups were rejected. Thus method of evaluation is a significant factor

on student-teachers' mastery of the VC and NVC skills.

Gender was found to he a significant CP4.05) factor on the student-

teachers' mastery of the VC and NVC skitfs, infavour of the males. Finally,

conclusim, irnplicatjons of the findings, recclmmendations of the study and

suggestions for further research were highlighted.

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APPENDIX A 159

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA CAMPUS

DEPARThlENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

AGRICULTURE - .

BUSINESS

I lO!JE ECONOMICS

INDUSTRIAL .. TECHNICAL

0 c t . o b e r 7 , 'I996 DATE --- - ----

L a t t e r of I n t r o d u c t i o n : Hies Nuaau. S n b i n a E.

T h i ~ l ~ t t e r is t o r e q u e s t t h n t you ~ s a i s t t h c r r ~ ~ n r c h c r 5;) m n k i r ~ p ~ t n l information r e l e v a n t t o h e r topic munilable t o ?!? r.

T h ~ c k you f o r y o u r c o - o p e r a t i o n .

S u p e r v i a o r and IIead, D e p t . o f voc . . . T r . E d u c a t i o n

APPENDIX B RATING SCALE ON MICRO-TWCHfNG COMMUNICATION SKlLLS (RASOMPECS)

SECTION A PERSONAL DATA OF STUDENT-TEACHER. Name of Student. SEX: Student Serial No: -

Department SECTION 0. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS RATING

SCALE 1 .Poor 2. Fair 3. Good 4. Very Good 5 . Excellent (Maximum Mark)

INSTRUCTION: Circle Any Mark Awarded.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

SKILLS

I toneofvorci-

2. clarity of words In relabon to content

3. voice projection in relat~on to content

4. pronunciation in relation to content

5. grammar in relat~on to content

6. overall use of language(organizat~on of thought)

7, logical~ty (set induction-closure) In presentation of subject-matter

8. verbal reinforcement e.g. good; a round of applause etc. used at the appropriate moment.

--

3

Good

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3 ---

4

Ve r!i Good

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

Excellent

-. - - - - - - 1 9. verbal cornniunic3tron e.g. planned

repetiiim of key words such as religion, j morality etc. deepened understanding. I

10. verbal cues in relation to elocution I diction and cornpoflrnent.

11, verbal cues (e.g. thinks-cognitive, feels-affective and acts-psychomotor well related to content.

12 use of verbal cammunication enhance heur~slidinteractionist~c approach to teaching.

13 verbal communication e.g. stop the nmse!, what's it1 Stand Up! Was praperly used for class contrel.

14. verbal comnsunication free of mannerisms e.g. ee - eem, ee - eem.

15. action verbs e.g. define, list, outline, identify, mention, pronounce, state, narrate, demonstrate. dramatize, draw etc used in evaluatmn ofcontent,

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1 Bcdy Posture (head, shoulder, hands, trunks, hip and legs etc) appropriately used

f or demonstrations.

L2 gcs t u ~ s [arm-hand and fingers) properly

3

3

3

3

3

3 --

3 Good

used to explam and emph&& poirrls.

effectwe use of arm-hand and fingers in asking questions.

e f f ~ t i v e hand (handshake) to reinforce a response.

muvement of Ihe hand (fingers and palm) to k k o d c a l l attention of a student.

putting a finger on the lip to indicate silence.

effectwe use of hand for writing and n~anipulation of ir~structional media.

effective use of hand (arm- st~ekh) to indicate stop!

HEAn --

9 n&ding of tbe head to show approval~acceptance of a responw at appropriate moments.

10. tilting of the head to indicate doubYdisapproval or a rewnse at appropriate.

FACE 1 1. a smile on the face well r~sed to

enmurage a response 12. frowning of the tace to s h m ~

d~scontent at appropri3te moments. 1 3 Iaughlng at appropriale moments

to avoid boredom and un~nteres!lng learning.

14. eye contact well used to create ~nipresslon of mastery of subject-

matter and atlentnreness 1 5. use of t hroal ctwpened extra-

verbal cornmunicat~on e g. Aaaah!; Haii~l, Hiaaaal; Cheiii!,

skills.

APPENDIX C

Calculation of Content Validitv Index [CVI) of RASOMTECS.

Accord~ng to MalZuza (1977), the content vahdity Index (CVI) is the

proport~on of items rated Quite Relevant and Very Relevant (3 or 4) by both the

raters. This procedure was adopted in determining the content validity of

RASOMTECS as follows:

Verbal ,Communication Skills

Totat number of items = 15

Number of items "Quite Relevant" and "Very Relevant" = 15

I I CVI = Total no of items

No of items rated "Quite" and 'Very relevany.

By substitution,

Non - verbal Communication Skills:

Total number of items = 15.

Number of items rated 'Quite" and "Very Relevant" = 15

CVI = Tetal no of items

No of items rated 'Quite' and 'Very relevant".

C V l = G = 1.m 15 RASOMTECS has C.V.I. of li.l]O.

ApPEMDlX D

CALCULATION OF COEFFICIENT OF STABILlYY AND INTERNAL

CONSISTENCY[RELIABILITY) OF THE INSTURMENT. - 7TT

i'N I I 1 Ratingttesting

I -1 I x (-1 1 3 6

----

2 nu'

Ratingttesting

r SX' + s y 2 - 3d2 (hwnie and Heath. 1974: 94)

2SX SY

By substitution:

By substitution:

r = 0.51 + 0.45 - 0.1

2(/O.51 j i0.45)

APPENDIX E

MODEL LESSON PLAN ON CHRISTIAN RELtGlOLlS KNOWLEDGE (CRK)

Name of Teacher: Lynda Campbell

School: Girls" Secondary School, Awka

Subject: CRK

C!ass: JSS 111

No. of Students: 40

Average Age of Students: 12 Years

Date: 1 7/17 198

Time: 40minutes

Unit: 7 The Passion

Content: The Arrest of Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane

(Mtt. 26:36 - 56; MK. 14:32 - 52; LK. 22:39-53; and

Jn, 7 8: 1 - 7 1).

Specific instructional Objectives: Giving the biblical story of the Arrest of Christ

in the in the garden of Gethsemane, by the end of the lesson, the students will

be able to:

a. M~n t ion the place where the arrest of Christ took place.

b. nape the disciples whom Christ selected to pray with Him in the garden.

c. demonstrate the arrest of Christ using improvised swords and clubs.

d . demonstrate using improvised swords and a model of human head how

peter cut off the .ear of (Malchus) in defence of Christ.

e, express their fealings in Wwthree sentences on Christ's arrest and agony

in the garden of Gethsemane.

f. write one signifimnt lesson which the arrest of Chrkt conveys to us.

Skills To be Ernphasised: Set induction. Use of examples, Stimulus variation,

Planned repetition (simple, spaced, cumulative and massed repetitions),

~uesttoning [Loq. Hoq, Gq and Pbq), Dernonstratjon, Observation,

Reinforcement and Closure.

Instructjonal ,Materials: Chalk, Chalkboard, Bible 'RSV', Map, Charts, model of

human head, improvised swords and clubs.

Entm B~et7viour: The students are familiar with stories of arrest of criminals by

the police and public execution of armed robbers in the society.

L E S S O N M O V E M E N T -- I Conrcnr

I I Teacher's Actiuit~es

L71we'o?ment I- - . - - I I l n m d ~ n i o n I Ask the students lhese sueslions to arwse

C h s t and HIS dmples praying In the garden of / G e t h m a n e

their irrleresl what are lhe works of Ihe N~gerian PO~IE? Haw many Police arrests have you swn7 What are the events that led lo the r e n t launching of operation weep o w a h o n vig~lance, operation wpe aul etc In vanous pans of the country? The teacher relates studenis' answers to the lopic iChns1'5 arrestj and in Ihe light of the prevloulj koohiedge of the students, the leachrr in l r~duws the lesson.

Explains (fie tans . Prayer and agony of Chr~st, lhal Chnst went mlh hrs drscrples to pray In rha garden of GHhsemane, show Ihe studenls map cf Palesline pornbng at Gelhswiane: m ~ ~ t ~ o n s that Chrlst selected Peter, James and John rn pray wth hlm; Drmonzirafes how Chs) prayed and asked God lo k t the cup of suffering pass away from h ~ m Asks a student to read Vs 32-36; explam as above and shows then a chart wh~ch lndmtes Chnst and h ~ s dlsaples praylng In Gethsemane. Asks the studems Hrsw aften do you pray to God? For what purpose or reasons were ihe prayers? Do You think that praying ta God w~l l sdw your problms emer than preuallmg on your parents?

Students' Adivtlies

The studenls listen attenlively and answer questions

Listen to explanations, observe dsmonstratians, a sludent reads VS 32-36, oihers look on their 1 exl. obsewe the char1 and demonstrate praying to God.

----- Skills

Set inductioo.

Questioning Hoq.

Rei n f o r m enl

Stimulus uarialion NVC 8 EVC, denmslrations. 0 bservation, planned repslitlon, (simple rep), use of examples . queslioning Loq, DVq , Pbq. and reinforcement

unrlerstood tnat lhey were sp~ntually whng I ro p r y but phys~cally Im weak lo endure a I short stla~n The teacher relates ~t to a short ; slory about a student who asked his I lnlmate fnend to copy rates for hlrn

Decause he was gang fclr a surgical I owa l lon but when he relumed his fnsnd

d~sapza~ntsd h ~ m by not mpying anything. ' Arks Ihe Gudenls I I f vou wHe ihe oerson w o u ~ mu fw

happy? 'What ]usti~muons have for the d~saples who slept? Asks a student to read Vs 37 - 42; explains and shows t h m a chart whch indrcates the sleqlng disaples and Chnst lalklng lo Ihem.

Explains that ~rnmecllalely Judas Kissed Chrlsl, crowd w~ lh S W M ~ S and dubs came lnsrdr the garden and arresled Christ; shows, iPe sludsnts swords and clubs and dmonstraies how the c r w d used them in arresong Chnsl hlentlclns lhal pet^ pul up defence by cuthng off the right ear of Malchus, the slave o l the h~gh priest; dernanstfales usrng sword and rnodd of human head how Peter cut off the ear of Malchus, asks a student lo read Vs 43 - 52, explains and calls out snnle ~ludenls lo demonstrate the arrest of Christ and Peter's defence reasonable? To whai eamt lo you b e h e lhe assertion that a crowd wilh swci~ds and dubs arrested ChrfsV Was Christ no! arrated at gurr polnt by a few dlwrunlled elements?

Asks tho students to menlion significant lcssons r f l lhe topic. The teacher modifies sludenls' answers and put than as follow: a :hat Chnsl praytxi to Gocl to let the cup nf suffer~rq pass away was a dear ~ndimlion lhal we should always pray tor God's inkrenl io~n in our lrfe and problems.

b Chrisl's deep sorrow about his farthmmlng dea1h showed that although Chrw was God, He war also man and Iher~lcue sub:ecl lo human feeling of grief

i

c Chnsl's selectlnn of Peter, James and John to pmy w11h hlrn shows Ihat, Christ dld not repose equal confidence in the spiritual

I strength ool all h~s dlsoples. Chnst had deep --- -ck L. - - S T ! ? ! ? - - - .- -

Lisienj answer question.; reads

VS 37 - 42, Others look on their text,

observe the char!

Listen to explanations

observe the swords and clubs, observe demonstfalions

Reads Vs 43 - 52, do some demonstrations.

Mention significant Ims~ns ,

Ask questions for clarifications.

- Stlmulus vanalion, use of examples.

planned repetition (simple rep1 NVC 8 EVC

Questioning Loq, Dvq and

Use of examples, slm ulus uanation, NVC & EVC.

questioning Dvq, Fm, FlW, Planned repetition (spaced rep),

I 1 ' Ioulsdal~on of the church I ' d J d a s ind~calion of Chnst with a kjss I Stgn~ficant I shows that th8 Chlef prlesls, Captams and

le5sun 1 6 l U ~ s were no1 fm~ l l a r mlh Chris!. , Ccnld I

I 1 e It also shows tho ~nslncenly and 1 I w~chdness of l h e betrayer (Judas)

1

1 f. Pelefs defence aF Chfist was a clear I ~nd~ r , I ~on of love for his master.

I g. Chnst d ~ d lhe work of mercy by healing Ihe ear of Makhus to show us that we

i should always forgive those who oKmd us.

1 I ,Asks lhese questions to waluale [he

I I sludenis:

Evaluallon I a. what j5 Ihe name of Vie place where

I ( Chr~st was arrested?

1 b. Wna, are the names of the dlsdptes whnm Chn~t selected to pray mth h~m?

: Dmonsirate the arrest of Christ.

1. Demonairate Psreis defence.

? express your feelings in wethree ;enten= on Christ's arrest and agony In he garden of Gefhsemane

' wnle one signifant lesson from ihe arrest of Christ. The leachar goes rwnd, marks and makes rmark

Summanses and emphawzes major points oi rhe top~c : wr~tos them on the chalk- board and Imves the class with a smile

Mention Significant Lessons

Ask queslibns

fur

clarifications

Listen, answer questions and

Write one sig nificanl lessan

Take note of C.B. summary

Reinforcement,

Strmulus variation.

Planned repetition (curnulalive rep.) ..

Massed repetition. Cognitive and socia closure -

APPENDIX F

Model Micro Lesson Fonnat

SKILL (S) PER WEEK

1 Name of Student 2 Reg. No.- 3. MT group 4 MTCubicle 5. Subject 6. Class 7. Time 8,Date 9. Content 7 0. Specific O bject~ves - 11. Skrllrj to be Ernphasrsed - 12. lnstructl~nal Materials 7 3. Entering Behaviour

L E S S O N M O V E M E N T - - - --

[content 7 Teacher's I Students' I Skills.

1 Develop men t / Activities '8

---I--- Activities

ANOVA"

E ~ e r ~ n i c n l a l MelhuA. -

Sum of 1- r Mean

-

VCSKlLLS Main Effects (Combined) VTR=I .PEER=2 MALE=l ,FEMALE= 2

2-Way lnteract~ons VTR=I .PEER=2 ' MALE=l ,FEMALE= 2

Model Res~dual Total

Factor Summarya

VCSKILLS VTR=l ,PEER=2 1 .OO 2.00

MALE= 1 .FEMALE=2 1 .OO 2.00

a. VCSKILLS by VTR=1 PEER=2, MALE=? ,FEMALE=2

Experimental Method

Adjusted

Factors VCSKILLS VTR=l PEER=2

MALE= 1 FEMALE= ,576 ----

F 141.463 151.246

122.666

11.404

98.110

3 VCSK1L.I.S by VTR=l PEER-?. MALE=l ,FEMALE=:!

N 4 0 40 15

65

I

a VCSKILLS by VTH=I.PEER=2 MALE=l .FEMALE=2

Slg. .OOO .OOO

,000

,001

,000

I I

Model Goodness of Fit

Beta

VCSKILLS by VTR=I .PEER=2. MALE=I ,FEMALE=

Predicted Mean

Unadjusted 3.3310 3.6782 3.8322 3.4291

Deviation

Adjusted for

Factors 3.3359 3.6734 3.8210 3.4317

Unadjusted - 1736 . I736 ,3276

-7.5594E-02

Adjusted for

Factors -. 1687 . I687 .3163

-7.30E-02

ANOVA

Case Processing Summa@

lnclyded Cases

Excluded- I Total N I Percent / N 1 Percent I N I Percent

80 1 100.OO/o 1 0 1 .O% 1 80 1 100.0%

a NVCSKILL by VTR=I .PEER=2 MALE=I.FEMALE=2

ANOVAa

NVCSKILL Main Effects (Combined) VTR=I .PEER=2

MALE=I ,FEMALE= 2

2-Way lnteract~ons VTR=I ,PEER=2 MALE=I ,FEMALE= L

Model iies;:ual

Total

S uares +xi++

l0d

Mean Square

1.655

NVCSKILL Main Effects (Combmed) VTR=l ,PEER=2 MALE=I ,FEMALE= 2

2-Way Interactions VTR=l .PEER=2 " MALE= 1 ,FEMALE= 2

Model Res~dual Total

Experimer

F 34.784 36.115

31.230

,749

23.439

31 Method

Siq. .ooo ,000

,000

,390

,000

a. NVCSKILL by VTR=l .PEER=2. MALE=l,FEMALE=2

M CAa

a. NVCSKILL by VTR=I .PEER=2. MALE=l ,FEMALE=2

Factor Summarya

NVCSKILL VTR=I ,PEER=2 1 .OO 2.00

MALE=I .FEMALE=2 1 .OO 2.00

I I I Beta

N 40 4 0 15 65

L I I

a. NVCSKILL by VTR=I ,PEER=2, MALE=l ,FEMALE=2

NVCSKILL VTR=1 ,PEER=2

Model Goodness of Fit

NVCSKILL by VTR=l ,PEER=2. MALE=I .FEMALE=

Predicted Mean

Eta .512

Unadjusted 3.2571 3.5591 3.7018 3.3404

Deviation

Factors ,497

Adjusted for

Factors 3.26 15 3.5548 3.6920 3.3426

Unadjusted -.I510 ,1510 ,2936

-6.7762E-02

Adjusted for

Factors -. 1466 .I466 .2839

-6.55E-02

APPENDIX H

Research (field work) Video Tapes: 1-6 viz

1 Lectures on nine micro-teaching skills with model lesson plan on CRS for the VTR (Control) and Peer (Experimental) groups.

2 Demonstration Teaching on verbal and non-verbal Cor,munication skills for the VTR (Control) and Peer

3 Demonstration Teaching on VTR evaluation techniques for the VTR (Control) group.

4 Demonstration teaching on Peer evaluation techniques for the Peer (Experiments! ) group.

5 The VTR (.Control) group in a practice session at the micro-teaching Laboratory, College of Education, Nsugbe.

6 Post-tes? of the Experimental subjects at G P P S Secondary School, Onisha