University of Nigeria Research Publications

NWACHUKU, Viktor Chinagorom

Aut

hor

PG/MA/86/4187

Title

The Media as School: An Assessment of the Agenda-Setting Theory In Nigeria

Facu

lty

Arts

Dep

artm

ent

Mass Communication

Dat

e

August,1992

Sign

atur

e

THE MEDIA AS SCHOOL:

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE AGENDA - SETTING THEORY IN NIGERIA

VIKTOR CHINAGOROM NWACHUKU

PG/MA/86/4187

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO I

THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS IN

MASS COMMUNICATION

SUPERVISOR: DR. IKECHUKWU .E.NWOSU

AUGUST, 1992

CERTIFICATION

Viktor Chinagoroa Nwachuku, a postgraduate student in

the Department of Mass Communicationwith the Reg. No PG/

86/MA/4187 has satisfactorily completed the require-

ments for course and research work for the degree of

Master of Arts in Mass Communication. The work embodied

in this report is original and has not to the best of my

knowledge, been submitked in part or full for any other

diploma or degree of this or any other University.

t 3

Head of Department /' Supervisor I

DEDICATION

Dr. (Mrs.) ~lizabeth Eke Cultivated and unusually brilliant lady

and

Mrs. Lucy Nwachukwu Unpretentious and Caring Mother

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Responsibility for scholarly work such as this

is a collective one. This is so because one's output

is, invariably, a reflection of the various experiences

which he has garnered over the years. In the light

of this fact, the researcher wishes to record his

indebtedness to those who have, either directly or

indirectly, influenced the completion of this study.

Foremost among them is Dr. Ikechukwu Nwosu who

supervised the study. Gratitude is owed to him for

his insight, painstaking attention to details, and

very generous co-operation.

Next, Dr. Charles Okigbo, for generating interest

in the study of mass communication and for initial

supervision of this work.

Staff members of the Department of Mass Communication

- Dr. Ralph Okonkwo, Dr. S. Ekwelie, Dr.P.Agba, Dr;

S.O. Idemili, Prof. (Mrs.) Felicia Ekejiuba, Ebele

Ume-Nwagbo forveryinspiring and illuminating lectures.

Dr. Amobi Chukwumerije deserves thanks for showing

a lot of interest andoffering the initial encouragement

for the study of mass communication..

Prof. M.A. Mkpa and Mrs. N. Mkpa, for steadfast

and long-standing friendship.

Dr. Jachimike Adiele, for very sincere and devoted

friendship.

iv Nelly Nneka Nwako, for her love, kindness and

affection.

Chief B.C. Ndulagwa, ChiefA.U. Kanu, Dr. P. Ekpendu,

Mr. Chima Ume - for great concern and care during

a most difficult period in life.

A lot of gratitude is owed to Ms. Patience Nwachuku,

my younger sister, for being a very good companion

and friend.

Ernest Onuoha and M.U. Ajoku for wonderful support

In the typing and administration of the instrument,

and for sustained friendship.

Special thanks go to my friends and colleagues

in the mass communi.cation class - Pamela Eze Uzuomaka

(nee Ibuzor), Ngozi Ozigbo, Ike Okonta, Emma Onuoha,

Ugochi Ohaja, GraceNwagbara - for warmthandcomradeship.

Final thanks go to the staff of the libraries

at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka and Abia State

University, 'Jturu, for permission to use their back

copies of newspapers.

Viktor C. Nwachuku

Department of Mass Communication

University of Nigeria

Nsukka .

18th August, 1992.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the

extent to which the media provide and systematically

organize learning experiences formembers of the public.

It also aimed at assessing the extent to which members

of a given audience rely on the media for formal

and informal learning.

The sample consisted of 200 subjects (undergraduates

and workers of junior status) drawn from Abia State

University, Uturu, andFederal University of Technology,

Owerri . A twelve-item interview questionnaire was

administered to the subjects for three days. Before

then, content-analysis was done on articles related

to health, cooking, arts andentertainment, and literature

which had been extracted from three national dailies

- The Guardian, Daily Times and National Concord.

Results were analysed using percentage scores and

product-moment correlation. The study concluded that

the media had didactic and pedagogic effects on their

consumers, thus pointing to an agenda-setting function.

Implications of the findings for media functioning

were noted.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL PAGE

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background to the Study

1.2. Statement of the Problem

1.3. Research Questions

1.4. The Hypotheses

1.5. Significance of the Study

1.6. Scope of the Study

1.7. Definition of terms

References

i

ii

iii

v

vi

viii

CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 The Concept of Agenda - Setting 17

2.2. The School as a Social Institution 21

2.3 The Media as School 24

2.4. Studies on Agenda - Setting 27

References 3 8

CHAPTER THREE - DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

3.1 Design of the Study

3.2 The population

3.3, The Sample

3 - 4 . Media Agenda

3.5. Coding Categories

3.6. Content Analysis

3.7. Construction and Administration

of Instrument

3.8. Method of Analysis of Data

References

CHAPTER FOUR - ANALYSIS OF DATA

Reference

CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSION OF

CONCLUSIONS

IMPLICATIONS

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX I1

RESULTS

vii 43

4 6

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

TABLE

Frequency with which

respondents read newspapers.

Topics usually read by

subjects in newspapers

Extent to which respondents

believe that they derive

new knowledge from what

they read.

Extent to which respondents

read articles related to

cooking, art, literature,

and health.

Extent to which respondents

feel that they are taught

by what they read. 55

Reasons for regarding

newspaper topics as important. 56

Page

51

52

4.7.1. Scores derived from media

and public sources regarding

media and public relationships. 58

4.7.2 Relationships between public

attribution and media content. 59

4.8.1 Audience recall of encounter

with specific issues and actual

newspaper content.

4.8.2 Relationship between audience

recall and media content.

I T I S BETTER TO LIGHT

A CANDLE T m T O

CURSE THE DARKNESS

- Bangladeshi saying indicating the

complimentary role of the press in education

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Backqround to the Study

The media have experienced prodigious development

in Nigeria. From very humble beginnings in the 19th

century and using the well-known vectors - radio,

television and print their ubiquity has become, in

our time, an acknowledged reality of Nigerian life.

The impact of the media is felt from the remotest

parts of Borno State to the fashionable district of

Ikoyi in Lagos. Events that occur in different sections

of the country are learnt about or watched almost

at the same time. The media's phenorienal progress

has come about both as a result of man's natural

inclination to be curious, to communicate, and to

employ the fruits of communication in the improvement

of human society.

Today, the media are put to several uses. First,

they are invaluable tools for the collection, storage,

processing and dissemination of information. By means

of what they purvey, human beings are well placed

to understand daily events (national and international)

and to define the meaning of these events for themselves.

Second, the media serve as an important instrument

of socialization. This is achieved through the

generation and provision of values and attitudes which

foster the existence of a given society and bind

it together. Third, the media also provide knowledge

which is consciously geared towards the development

of human intellect and affectivity, much like the

2

school does. Fourth, the media have an entertainment

function, the performance of which enables citizens

of a given social group to recreate themselves and

to benefit from the products of art, music, and sports.

The media also hold the promise for any and every

individual to benefit from the accumulated knowledge

and skills of the world accompanied by an ever-critical

awareness of social situations, as indicated by their

pervasiveness.

In particular the newspaper (or the magazine),

given its vividness and "personality" is able to create

and sustain reality. By virtue of the content

made available, and the treatment of that content,

the newspaper helps set the public agenda. In a

sense, it determines what it is the public comes

to know about. What results is very helpful in

developing individual intellectual potential.

The ubiquity andwide-ranging nature of the functions

of the mass media have led certain theorists into

concluding that they exercise enormous influence on

the minds of individuals. As Lang and Lang (1966:466)

observe :

The mass media force attention to certai-n issues. . . They build up public images of political figures . They are constantly presentingobjects suggestingwhat individuals in the mass should think about, know about, have

feelings about.

As has been suggested above, the implication of

this assertion is that the media often set the pattern

for the kinds of topics which the public thinks about.

It is not that the media necessarily dictate what

should be thought by people but they are critical

in focusing public attention on important issues.

This ability of the press to affect the direction

in which thinking proceeds is described as the agenda-

setting function of the media. So strong is this

perceived influence of the media that questions such

as these are being raised by scholars: what indeed

is the nature of the effect of mass media on their

audience? In what circumstances are effects of the

media likely to be m ~ s t pervasive?

Inevitably, research efforts have shown up, diverse

in content and form, and arguing different agenda-

setting effects of the media. For instance, early

agenda-setting studies focused on what the total media

package does to audiences, especially in terms of

their subsequent responses to elections. Along this

line, McCombs and Shaw (1972) asserted that "in

politics, the media are a bridge between the public

and politicians".

In a given society, they point out, people's

perception of the issues at stake in an election is given

direction by the media. "The mass media set the agenda

for each political camphign influencing the salience of

attitudes towards the political issues" . (McCombs and

Shaw, 1972).

Gormley (1975) takes a different perspective.

Although his interest is in politics, he argues that the

point of emphasis in agenda-setting should be the elite

in society. This consideration stems from the possibil-

ity that the masses may be less attentive to the news of

daily events, resulting in a free-wheeling elite. In

such a situation "media agendas may serve as a valuable

check on political elites."

Tipton and his associates (1975) also focus on

the impact of the media on voter behaviour during

city and state elections. Unlike national campaigns,

voters in Local and State elections can confront office

seekers in small groups and are therefore in a direct

position to learn about such people through a source

other than the media. On the basis of their findings,

Tipton and others concluded that the media do not

set the agenda for local and state elections.

In a further attempt to enlarge the data base

of agenda-setting, Gadziala and Baker (1976) present

the results of a study of the 1976 Election Debates

in the United States of America. Findings indicate

that the debates had no significant effect on issue

salience.

However, say some scholars, agenda-setting theory

should not focus exclusively on the effects of media

campaigns on individual cognition. There is a feeling,

also shared by Sohn (1978), that agenda-setting should

be tested in other contexts. Only then can its

status and relevance as a detailed theory be correctly

determined. In this connection, agenda-setting must

explore other circumstances in which people are exposed

to media fare.

McGuire (1974) attempts such an extension of the

effects which consumers experience consequent upon

their exposure to the media. Assuming an orientational

function for institutionalised dissemination of

information, McGui.re hypothesizes that people have

a natural tendencyto seek informationwhich is unrelated

to what they already know about their own family,

friends, and community. Because of this tendency,

they wlll strive to keep abreast of developments in

several aspects of human behaviour. This 1s with

a view to giving "one some feeling of participation

and control in things larger than oneself" (McGuire,

1974). This possibility offered by the media is

shared by Atkin (1972) who in proposing the concept

of cornmunicatory utility of the press, writes that

information that the individual obtains at one point in time may beusefulinavarietyof subsequent communicatory situations,including everyday communicationwith friends and relatives, and casual interaction during special occasions such as meetings or

parties.

Here Atkin point3 to larger issues which are germane

to agenda-setting research. For instance, as Berelson

(1949) does, he sees a conversational value for the

newspaper. In this sense, "readers not only can

learn what has happened and then report it to their

associates but can also find opinions and interpre-

tations for use in discussions of public affairs.

It is obvious how this use of newspaper serves to

increase the reader's prestige among his fellows."

Other effects are possible. A person may seek

information because of social prestige. He would not

wish to be regarded as ignorant when issues of local

andnationalimportancearebeingdiscussed. In addition,

there are the effects of the media on public policy

formulation, their role in determining priorities for

political action, and the overall contribution to

the educational process of the modern vectors of mass

communication. Aspects of these issues have been

addressed in studies by Winter and Eyal (1981) who

established strong agenda-setting effects between the

"New York Times" content and national opinion regarding

the issue of civil rights. Again, Cook and others

(1983) explored the effects of the media upon the

general public, policy makers, interest group leaders,

and public policy. Results suggested some consonance

in terms of media emphasis on news items and the

opinions of the public and policy-makers.

These studies do not exhaust the possibilities

which are offeredbyagenda-settingtheory. Nonetheless,

they point to the tentative and inconclusive nature

of the theory as a valid and reliable explanation

of the effects of mass communication fare on its

consuming public. If this is the case, scholars

have no recourse than to probe further into the nature

of agenda-setting especiallywithinthe African context.

This is with a view to providing formulations which

would help fill the gaps that exist in African

communication scholarship. This step would be in

line with Okigbo's (1985) call for more work in this

area, "as in journalism and mass communication.. theory

building is in its infancy reflecting the youthful

age of the discipline.. . "

This call has not gone unheeded. Adopting a fresh

perspective himself, Okigbo (1985) has advanced agenda-

setting theory in a noticeable way. He argues, for

instance, that the traditional notion of agenda-setting

as an effort to understand media effects on people

and how such understanding may be utilized beneficially

in marketing and politics should give way to another

in which the impact of the media is measured in

terms of government policies and actions. This premise

was the basis of a 1985 study which found that government

decisions on important issues were related to the

emphasis which has been laid on them by the press.

It is also this line of thinking that informed a

study by Onuoha (1988) which examined the relationship

between public relations information (i.e. agenda-

setting) and the public's perception of the Federal

Housing Authority in Nigeria.

Onuoha's study may not necessarily have fitted

into the mould which was sought by Okigbo but in

a rather indirect manner, it provides information

which may be of use to policy makers. At the same

time, it accentuates the need for studies which attempt

to explore other dimensions of the agenda-setting

theory.

An aspect of the functioning of the media whlch

is yet to be explored is its educative potential.

In our time, it is not a discovery to state that

the media do not only have information and entertainment

as their raison d'etre, they are obviously also involved

8

in the enterprise of education. In this sense, the

media may be said to be performing the task of formal

schools -- which is deliberate provision of and

systematic organisation of learning experiences for

the purpose of effecting some improvement in the quality

of functioning of individuals within a given society.

On the other hand, the mass media also provide

education of an informal nature which has the same

character as incidental learning. Whatever its form,

the central focus is on the fosteringof eachindividual's

capability to function maximally in society. In

transmitting signals and message from one source to

the recipient, the media are educating people. But

exactly what the components of media packages are

that bring about changes in people is not known.

Equally not understood is the extent to which members

of a given audience rely on the media for formal

and informal learning. It follows then that there

exists a need for studies that aim at investigating

the extent to which the mass media now do so much

of the school's traditional job and the impact of

this duty on their target audience.

1.2 statement of the ~roblem

McCornbs and Becker ( 1 9 7 9 : 1 3 2 ) decried the fact

that "there simply isn't much that even goes by the

name of theory, and less that should" in the field

of mass communication. Schramm (1983:15) echoes this

impression when he doubts whether communication "has

produced a central interrelated body of theory on

which practitioners . . . can build and unify their

thinking?" After reviewing the literature on agenda-

setting and in endorsement of the views of the above-

named scholars, (Okigbo (1985) concludes that mass

communication theorists are yet to refine agenda-

setting concepts and specify the contexts within which

thetheoryoperates. Thesepositions call for additional

work in theory building, especially as in the case

of agenda-setting, studies have had the following

characteristics: (a) they have tended to fixate on

political campaigns and consumer preferences in au-

diences (b) some findings do not support the general

theory. This situation spells the need for work

which would further strengthen the theory base of

agenda-setting.

Specifically, the study raises the followingproblems:

Do the media affect the education of Nigerians If

so, in what ways? To what extent can relationships

be established between media fare and people's desire

to be educated? To what degree can the media be

said to restrict the need of people for "school"

education in certain areas of life? Questions such

as these would be in line with Sohn's (1978) idea

that agenda-setting studies should move beyond "media

messages about political issues, candidates or topics".

1.3 Research Ouestiona

The following questions are formulated to guide

this study.

(a) What is the nature of the educational effect

which the media have on their consumers?

(b) Will there be consonance between media fare

and the publlcis indication of the source

of their knowledge?

(c) What conclusions can be drawn from the above

questions in terms of the educational function

of the media?

1.4. The hv~otheses

The study hypothesizes that

Ho:l There will be no significant relationship

between the publics' attribution of edu-

cationalinfluenceandthe educational aspects

of media content.

Ho:2 There will be no significant relationship

between thepublic indicationofthe saliences

of educational content and media perception

of content salience.

Conventionally, education has always been equated

with schooling. Such schooling is supposed to take

place within the confines of some walls, and in the

presence of a teacher. In recent times however,

the realization has grown that not all learning takes

place within the confines of the school. It has

become possible, using much more novel strategies

as the media to enlarge the possibilities of learning

which are available to our society.

It is now acknowledged that through their broad

reach and pedagogic versatility, the media have a

capacity to raise the individual's potential to a

hitherto unimagined scale. In performing such an

unusual task, the media may as well be drawing attention

not just to what people should think but what they

should think about. It is an acknowledgement of

the reality that is epitomized by the media that

they can have different kinds of influence on their

audiences. They can persuade or fool through argument

or bombast, or they can . . . shape a reader's whole frame of reference by providing him with varied

information and strategies with which he must construct

his social reality. In such circumstance it will

be necessary to find out just how the media control

the agenda of education and to what extent, if at

all, the media can be regarded as a parallel school

to the conventional one.

If it becomes possible to establish an agenda-

setting function in relation to educa~ion, then a

basis would have been created for broadening the base

of the theory. As Okigbo (1985) states, "mass

communication is not atheoretical, and for a literally

minded scholar in the area, the body of knowledge

in certain aspects of communication research provide

tentative theories". It seems logical therefore to

explore agenda-setting theory beyond the classical

framework which sets out to determine the effects

of the media on audiences1 knowledge of electoral

issues, campaigns, interpersonal communication, and

the like.

Again, MacBride (1980) suggests that information

and communication have an educational value in the

thirdworld, particularly f ~ r t h i n k e r s ~ r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s ,

and government authorities. This is because

for innumerabledeprivedmen, women and children the school is equated with the media, even if they can only draw from it those elements least rich in significance and with the most simple content, thus picking up but the crumbs from

the feast.

An implication of Macbride's thesis is that

communication theorists should strive to establish

the nature of the relationships between education

and mass communication, with a view to appreclatlng

what prospects such relationships hold out to the

intellectual development of the citizenry.

1.6. Scone of the Study

This study sought to establish a wider framework

for educators and communicators who are interested

in the agenda-setting theory. This being the case,

related concepts such as "uses and gratification"

"gate-keeping", and "play" were not explored.

The study hoped to achieve its aim by examining

the effects on the reading public of special features

on literature, health, cooking, and arts/entertainment.

Such articles were drawn fromthree national newspapers

knownas TheGuardian, Daily Times, andNationa1 Concord.

1.7. Definition of Terms

The terms used in this study are defined opera-

tionally as follows:

Socialization; The process of equipping indi-

viduals with the attitudes, values, knowledge and

skills which are required for efficient functioning

in society.

Informal Education A life-long process by which

every personacquires andaccumulates knowledge, skills,

attitudes and insights from daily experiences and

exposure to the environment.

Educational Effect: The change, either overt or

covert, which results in an indindual on being exposed

to the contents of a newspaper.

Attribution: Inferences about the reasons for one's

own behaviour .

Salience: The relationship between acquired

knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and actual,

manifest behaviour.

Information: Contents of a newspaper, which either

factual or attitudinal, help to shape the behaviour

of a reader.

Aaenda-Settinq: A tendency for the press to

structure the cognition of members of a given audience

and to determine priorities in what the audience thinks

about.

References

LANG, Kurt and Gladys Lang, "The Mass Media and Voting" in Bernard Berelson and Morris Janawitz, (eds.) Reader in Public O~inion and Cornrnunicat ion New York: Free Press, 1966.

MCCOMBS, Maxwell and Donald Shaw, "The Agenda- setting function of Mass Media "Public O~inion Ouarterly, 36, (1972) ,126 - 187

GORMLEY William, Jnr, "Newspaper Agenda and Political Elites" Journalism Ouarterly 52, (l975), 304 - 308

TIPTON, Leonard, Roger Ifaney, and John Basehart, "Media Agenda Setting in City and State Election Campaigns"Journaiism Ouarterly, 52 (l976), 15 - 22

GADZIALA, Stephen and Lee Becker, "A New lookat Agenda-Setting in the1976 Election

Debates", Journalism Ouarterlv.

ATKIN, Charles,"AnticipatedComrnunication and Mass Media Information-Seeking, "Public O~inion Ouarterly, 36, (1972), 188 -

199

BERELSON, BERNARD, "What "Missing the News - paper' Means" in Paul Lazarsfeld and Frank Station (eds) . Communications Research New York, 1949.

WINTER, James and Chaim Eyal "Agenda-Setting for the Civil Rights Issue "Journalism Quarterlv 45, (l98l), 376 - 383.

9. COOK, Fay Tom Tyler, Edward Goetz, Margaret Gordon, David Protess, Danna Leff, and Harvey Molotch, "Media and Agenda-Setting: Effects on the Public, Interest Group Leaders, Policy Makers, and Policy" Public O~inion Ouarterly 47, (l983), 16 - 35.

10. OKIGBO, Charles "Modern Mass Communication Theories in the context of African Communication" International Comrnunica- tion Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, May, 1985.

11. ONUOHA, E.E. "The Publics Perception of the Federal Housing Authority: A Study of the Agenda-Setting Influences of Public Relations Information .M.A. University of Nigeria : April, 1988.

12. McCOMBS, Maxwell and Less Becker, UsingMass Communication Theory Englewood Cliffs: renti ice - Hall, 1979

13. MACBRIDE, Sean, Manv Voices, One World UNESCO REPORT ON THE STATE OF COMMUNICATION IN THE WORLD. PARIS: THE UNESCO PRESS,

1980.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2 . 1 . The Conce~t of Acrenda - Setting

During the last two decades, mass communication

scholars in Nigeria have shown justifiable interest

in examining and explaining the effects of the media

on the Nigerian public. Given the pervasiveness and

omnipresence of the media the effort in such inquiry

is to be able to say with exactness and clarity

what happens to various men and women when they attend

to media fare. Naturally, just as elsewhere, effects

have been interpreted along certain lines. Prominence

is laid on such ideas as "uses and gratification, "

"gate-keeping", "play", and "agenda-setting." Of course

these positions are in many ways related (Shaw, 1979).

Butthey also embody contradictions, which in themselves

reflect the biases, dispositions, and inclinations

of diverse investigators and scholars.

While each of the four theories mentioned above

may have its own merit, the one that appears to

be gaining ascendancy among Nigerian communicators

and which relates directly to this study is agenda-

setting. The discussion that follows will therefore

attempt to explicate this concept. The basic thesis

of agenda-setting is that while performing their

everyday function of informing and entertaining, the

media call attention to certainissueswhichare regarded

as important by editors. On the other hand, while

consuming information, members of the public find

themselves giving greater prominence to those issues

which have been emphasized by the media. This view

is based on the notion that because of their omnipresence

and imagined omniscience, the media play an unusually

powerful role in the political, social, educational,

and cultural activities of our citizens. The effect

of agenda-setting is such that has led researchers

to suggest that "the media may influence society's

priorities at least to the extent that they legitimate,

articulate, and sometimes restrict public discussions."

Curiously enough, the earliest explicit reference

to media agenda-setting influence was made within

the framework of political science, Apparently, this

was in response to a wide-spread belief in the United

States of America in the capability of the media

to act upon the minds of the public and thereby

contribute to the shaping of opinion. In proposing

awesome powers for the press therefore, Cohen (1963)

wrote:

The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think but itis stunningly successful in telling its readers

what to think about

Cohen's memorable statement emphasizes not only

the informational role of the media but their capacity

to orientate the members of a given audience as they

s t r i v e t o l e a r n m o r e a b o u t t h e ~ r p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g ~ c a l

environments. This same point is taken up by McCombs

and Weaver who stress each individual's need for

knowledge of and familiarity with his surrounding.

19

In such a circumstance, "the media provide the ori-

entation by suggesting topics which then become part

of the personal agenda of individuais.

McGuire (1974) explains the circumstances which

give rise to the agenda-setting function of the media.

His account is that the public relies on the media

especially in those areas which do not relate to

the everyday existence of human beings. By turning

to the media the public ferrets information about

"politics, entertainment, sports, or anything else".

Traditionally, agenda-setting has been interpreted

in political and cornmunicatory terms. In recent times,

however, effort has shifted in the direction of

instruction and other concerns of man. There is

growing recognition that for most of the populace,

especially in our own setting where reading is largely

undertaken as pre-requisite for certification, the

media are also significant in determining the quantum

and direction of intellectual development. In addition,

the media are helpful in generating continued interest

in learning. In a sense, it can be arguec that

just as the media prioritize political issues and

establish their salience, so do they force attention

to newspaper conte.nt which has educative in addition

to information value.

The net effect of the consumption of such media

fare is to raise the intellectual tone of a substantial

section of the public, a reality which in itself

translates into qualitative accomplishment. In this

connection, it would then be proper to argue that

the media may indeed have an agenda-setting capability.

To do so, Shaw (1972) affirms, is to admit that

"the theory itself is designedly open to other personal

and social needs of the individual that could signal

the appearance of the agenda-setting phenomenon."

Moemeka (1978) contends that in an essentially

rural community with a high rate of illiteracy,

communication should aim not merely at informing.

Its primary function should be to educate the people,

and in so doing raise their levels of aspiration

and consciousness. A major object of such education

would be the motivation of various strata of the

society into self-fulfilment and self-actualization.

By prescribing this role for the media, Moemeka is,

in fact, focusing attention on an aspect of the agenda-

setting task of the press, and one that is both

healthy and productive. The basic point is that

there are individuals who are willing to learn just

as there is an institution that has both the capability

and the will to provide such instruction.

In the same vein, Nostrand (1977) envinces, among

others, a role for the media in which they purvey

directive messages. This implies that the media have

a responsibilityto "command, exhort, instruct, persuade,

and urge in the direction of learning and new

understanding. " Very of ten, in perf arming such a

role, the media exert substantial and conscious

intellectual upliftment of the larger society. When

viewed from the background of agenda-setting theory,

this role would seem to conform to its broad tenets

especially as the media would wish the members of

21

the public to lea.rn those things which are regarded

as significant by the bearers and mediators of such

knowledge.

What the above considerations would suggest is

that agenda-set ting concerns need not be confined

to those that relate only to politics or interpersonal

communication.

2 . 2 The School as a Social Institution

The school as an institution was born at a time

in the history of man when it became increasingly

difficult totransmitaccumulatedknowledge fromgeneration

to generation by means of the traditional vectors

of experience and apprenticeship. Its evolution also

coincided with the emergence of division of labour

in society and the need to have officials who would

carry out relevant functions in several sections of

the collectivity. Classrooms were thus created in

which groups of learners were taken care of by teachers.

In our time society also establishes the school

in the hope that: it can augument and improve upon

the learning which takes place informally. In this

connection, the school offers to individuals certain

experiences which cannot be acquired through normal

exposure to the environment. In organising a formal

institutlon such as the school, our society hopes

to reap some rewards by way of increased efficiency

as indicated by the acquisition of knowledge (a

prerequisite for human improvement) , and the assimi- lation of certain basic values (honesty, respect for

22

truth and for other individuals) which equip the

individual to live fruitfully and creatively in a

modern society (Nwachuku, 1991) .

Goble and Porter (1977) identify four main tradi-

tional functions of the school. First, a custodial

function. This implies that the school takes on a

responsibility to look after full-time learners who

spend several hours a day out of the sight and minds of

their parents and relations. For adults particularly,

this would entail. considerable separation between

education and the world of work.

The second traditional function of the school is

that of indoctrina.tion. The import of this is that

the school is expected to transmit a prevailing set

of social values and to define an ethic for each

human group which would facilitate the process of

absorption into soclety.

A third function of the school is to prepare

individuals to fit into any of several vocations.

This presupposes that the school possesses the expertise

to prepare its clientele for all kinds of vocations.

The fourth function of the school is known as

its credential function. The school is known to

foster the development of certain aspects of knowledge.

Based on this reality, it must have a mechanism for

stamping success on those who have gone through the

mill, moreso when such approval earns its beneficiaries

some worth and privilege in society.

However, in a world that has become increasingly

sensitive to the numerous needs of its citizens, the

traditional notion of the school has become the subject

of scathing criticism. First, it has been suggested

by scholars and enlightened citizenry alike that the

school, in its present form, is ill-suited to the

establishment of a democratic and just society. There

is reference to the curriculum which was copied from

foreign models and which is ill-adapted to the social

and economic needs of an emergent ati ion such as

ours. In this connection, the critics maintain that

given its claustrophobic and selective nature, the

school does not offer its products enough opportunity

to share in experiences which fall outside its purview

(Illich, 1974) .

Part of the criticism levelled against the school is

its perceived slowness and even inability in influencing

those outside the mainstream of formal schooling, in

particular those who need to be mobilised to bring about

genuine development through the acquisition of creative

management skills. As a logical response, scholars and

educators are engaged in vigorous discussion regarding

concepts such as 'the invisible college, "learning

webs I , I independent study ' and networks, - all of which

have to do with self-learning.

There has also been concern about the enormous

financial demands which formal schooling makes on

the society. Such concern has led to a search for

new ways of educating people that keeps costs to

a minimum.

The last major criticism centres on the fact that

with time, hitherto neglected sections of our popu-

lation, particularly in high-density urban and rural

areas, are demanding education as a social right.

The school is not in an advantageous position to

meet this demand which stems from a new clientele

consisting mainly of clerks, technicians, and various

professionals.

These realities of the school have jolted educators

into a re-consideration of the notion of the school

and a re-definition of the channels of education.

They have also led to the incorporation of the media

and other forms of non-formal education into the broad

framework of the educational process.

2.3 The Media as School

Rapid advances in the latter half of this century

have resulted in the adoption of various forms of

the mass media for educational purposes. Widespread

use of newspapers, films, radio, television, and the

telephone has created an "educational environment"

and in turn has given "the impression that anyone

at all could come into direct contact with the very

sources of knowledge, that there would no longer exlst

either social distances or professional secrets:-

(Dieuzeide, 1980) .

In their everyday business of communicating and

informing, the media are known to exercise considerable

impactontheintellectualdevelopmentoftheiraudiences.

This is especially so with the deprived sections of

the community, who, possessing low levels of education,

have come to regard the media as their only refuge.

In this sense, the school is equated with the media.

Every kind of information, in a sense, serves an

educational function for this group.

Even more than this, the organs of mass communication

performfunctionsw'nichhaveapurelydidactic character.

For example, the print media operate beyond their

conventional role, which is that of informing readers

about events in their various communities and around

the world. They provide additional fare related to

health, cooking, banking, fashion, property-leasing,

literature, and the arts.

Radio and television have also made dramatic

impressions on the world. Through their use, the

traditional notion of education as being organised

only within walls in the presence of a teacher has

now been supplanted by the belief that through the

application of mass instruments for education, more

and more people can benefit from the accumulated

knowledge and skills of the world. Ir, the words

of Emery and his associates (1965).

Television and radio are the electronic magic carpets that transport millions of persons each day to far away places. They are the twentieth century creations of the technological revolution that has been transforming much of the world for almost two centuries, and their impact on our social political, and cultural

life has been profound.

Radio and television have been put to use as

part of mass-oriented distance education programmes.

In this role, they supplement printed matter, bringing

knowledge and skills to the homes of numerous people.

They are also used to reinforce the instructional

function of the classroom teacher by having these

specialised media present certain aspects of learning

in ways that appeal to and retain the interest of

the learner. The assumption here is that such aspects

are better arranged by media that arrest the attention

o f t h e l e a r n e r a n d s t i m u l a t e h i s i n t e r e s t a n d i m a g i n a t i o n .

The media, as exemplified by newspapers, create

and sustain reality. By virtue of the content made

available, and treatment of that content, newspapers

help "set the public agenda." They determine what

it is the public comes to know about. There is

thus a symbiotic relationship between the school and

organs of mass communication. There are scholars

who now ascribe to the school the task of managing

the deliberate, formalised and conscious aspects of

education while they also perceive the media as a

parallel ' school whose function is to comp1.ement

the work of the school. A fusion of the two would

ultimately create a system of life-long education

for all, which as Faure (1972) has noted, should

constitute the objective of education in the world

today .

The concept of education limited in time (to school stage) and confined in space to school buildingsmustbesuperseded. School education must be regarded

not as theendbut as the fundamental component of total educational activity, which includes both in- stitutionalised and out-of-school education. A proportion of educational activity should be deformalised and replaced by flexible, diversified models

(p.233)

2.4 Studies on Aaenda-setting

Researchers in the field of mass communication

in Nigeria are now examining the effects on the audience

of their exploitation of mass communication. This

follows a trend across much of the developed world

which seeks to determine, using social research, if

andhow themedia come to influence people's perceptions

and cognitions. Nigerian researchers realise that in

a country in which modern mass communication is a

recent phenomenon, which exists alongside the tra-

ditionalmechanisms fortransmittingmessagetoindividuals

and the community, explanation of its . functioning without an adequate theoretical base would amount

to statements about the mass media which are too

global and therefore lacking in specificity (Okigbo,

1985). Hence the interest in theory-building . 0

Of the theories that have come to us from western

sources, four of them - agenda-setting, uses and

gratification, gate-keeping, and knowledge-gap are

generally discussed and researched into. Each of

them, as would be discovered from the corpus of work

associated with it, is a valid subject for theorizing.

In our own setting, such an exercise would be a

logical throw-up from our own research findings. In

the present context however, it is not the intention

to review studies related to all the above-mentioned

theories. This is because such an undertaking would

be not only physically tasking but would be extremely

difficult to accomplish in a satisfactory manner.

The preference, given these limitations, is for agenda-

setting, moreso as such a theory ought to be able

to explicate the relationship between the media and

the public mind.

The conceptual basis for agenda-setting was laid

by Cohen in 1963 when he wrote:

The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers

what to think about.

However, it was left to two professorp of mass

communication to offer a scientific basis for testing

the agenda-setting theory. In a seminal study, McCombs

and Shaw (1972) argued that in politics, for instance,

the link between candidates for election and the public

is t k media. What people read about by way of

pledges and promises published in the newspaper becomes

the basis on which people make most of their voting

decisions.

McCombs and Shaw believe that people learn about

politics in relation to the amount of emphasis placed

on campaign issues by the mass media. This is because

in choosing and displaying news,editors, newsroom staff, and broadcasters play an important

part in shaping political reality.

The study hypthesized that "the mass media set

the agenda for each political campaign influencing

the salience of attitudes toward the political issues."

A major objective of the study was to match what

Chapel HI11 voters said were key issues of a campaign

with the actual content of the media which was used

during the campaign.

100 voters were randomly selected from respondents

who were registeredvoters in fivechapel Hillprecincts.

They were interviewed while the mass media which served

them were collected. and analysed. The study indicated

that "the correlation between the major item emphasis

on the main campaign issues carried by the media

and voters" independent judgement of what were the

important issues was . 9 6 7 " . An implication of thls

finding was that key issues of the campaign which

were defined by Chapel Hill voters actually matched

the content of the mass media during the campaign.

There have been attempts by other scholars to

specify "if and how the media affect our social world".

(Sohn, 1978). Accordingly, a study which examined

a medium's effect on a panel of rural respondents

was designed. These respondents were part of a rural

community which was served by a newspaper. It was

the aim of the study to find out the extent to which

what was emphasized in the newspaper was equally

emphasized in discussions of the local community.

Sohn set out on the assumption that it is the

primary function of the media to orientate the consumer.

This function is predicated on the need of every

individual to know about his surroundings. Sohn quotes

McGuire (1974) as suggesting a number of psychological

explanations for the media's agenda-setting function.

As McGuire sees it the public naturally turns to

themedia for informationwhichhas no direct relationship

to what they know about their own families. BY

keeping abreast with information provided by the media,

the public can obtain information about politics,

entertainment, sports, or anything else. This role

is considered the communicatory utility of the media.

In playing this role, the media help individuals to

communicate with relatives and friends and others

who are so close to them.

It is a major suggestion of agenda-setting research

that the media could define society's priorities to

the extent that they "legitimate, articulate, and

sometimes restrict public discussions.", Sohn's study

therefore was focused on the provision of data which

would be helpful in defining the relationship between

the media and society. To this end, he carried

out a content analysis of the newspapers and analysed

answers given by respondents to open-ended questions.

The findings of his study led to the conclusion

that there was no support for the idea that the

local newspaper was effective in setting the reading

agenda. It was also concluded that there was only

limited support for the assertion that the local

newspaper was effective in setting the local talking

agenda for respondents.

Writing at about the same time as Sohn, Atwood

and others (1975) raised further problems regarding

the agenda-setting capability of the press. In their

view, it is doubtful whether any item in the newspaper

is exempt from becoming a topic on the community

conversation agenda.

They also contend that even though people talk

to each other, the literature examining the relationship

between what they read about in the newspaper and

their day-to-day conversation is meagre. The press

is considered all-powerful in its ability to set the

political agenda.

This is because

if no one conversed, the newspaper would appear to no avail in which case one cannot conceive of their publication-because they wo-~ld exercise no profound influence

over any minds.

Nonetheless, it is felt that it is necessary to

test the agenda-setting theory in a non-political

context before it is generalised to the world. The

consequence of this and previous considerations was

a study which sought to realize the extent to which

topics appear in the newspaper and in what the public

read and says. 150 residents of a small city in

Illinois, United States of America, constituted the

sample for this study. Each respondent was asked

to recall what he read in the paper during the preceding

day. Content analysis was done for each issue of

the local daily newspaper for a period of two months,

which period preceded the final day of interviewing.

Results indicated significant correlations between

contents of the local daily newspapers- and what. people

in one community reported reading and talking about.

The conclusion was that findings demonstrate agenda-

setting by the newspaper.

In contrast to the above finding, Gadziala and

Becker (1976) found no convincing evidence of an agenda-

setting effect for the media which were examined.

Their study was more an attempt at methodological

refinement rather than the adoption of fresh insights

into agenda-setting. For this reason, it is of little

relevance to the present study whose thrust is towards

enlargement of the scope of agenda-setting.

In their own study, Tipton and his associates

(1975) hypothesized that media agenda-setting should

be the strongest among individuals who are the least

interested in a campaign. They explain that those

who pay much attention to the media would tend to

have more stable views in politics. Not so for

thosewhoareleast interested. "Lowinterestrespondents,

since they are not as apt to have solidified views

of the campaign, should be more influenced by the

'immediate flow' of changing media emphasis." - Using

respondents randomly selected from the United States

of America, the authors found that there was weak

evidence for agenda-setting and in any case, this

depended on the medium which was used. Like similar

studies, the focus in this study was on the effects

of the media on elections and, in particular, the

kind of impact whlch they exercise on voter behaviour.

What comes out clearly is that contrary to their

expectation, the study revealed the need for voter

orientation during the course of any election. Such

orientation may be regarded as analogous to education,

without which the voter would be confused and would

therefore behave differently. The media control and

disseminate considerable amounts of knowledge; in so

doing, they can redirect and reinforce the tentative

ideas of various people. Thus, information is power,

and as M'Bow, former Director-General of the United

Nations Educational, Scientific, and cultural Organi-

sation (UNESCO) has noted,

information is both politics and economics. It is also power. He who controls the media often hclds

the key to power (M'Bow, 1980).

Other studies also focus on politics, albeit

different aspects. For instance, Gormley (1975) asks

whether, in the light of current knowledge about agenda-

setting, the press also set the agenda for politics.

This question is posed in the light of the fact

that members of the public may not follow state politics

as they do national or international politics. In

such event, media agendas may serve as a valuable

check on political elites, given a less attentive

public. His study involved a questionnaire which

was sent to 50 NorthCarolina's senators. The instrument

required the subjects to rate the importance which

they attached to each of 25 salient State issues.

Findings indicated that North Carolina newspapers and

legislators expressed agreement w h e ~ agendas were

defined in terms of issue areas but they were not

quite agreed on agendas defined in terms of specific

issues.

Winter and Eyal (1981) also contend with meth-

odological problems besetting agenda-setting research.

Citing several studies, they point to certain flaws

related to time-frame for the studies, selection of

sample size and appropriateness of statisticalanalysis.

Although a shift in emphasis is desired by the authors,

they end up with political concerns, particularly

the issue of civil rights in the United States of

America. In the final analysis, their study suggests

that "it is recent media emphasis rather than the

cumulative effects over time that leads to public

salience". Even so, a basic problem remains unresolved

which is whether there are no non-political aspects

of agenda-setting which can be delineated by scholars.

Cook and others (1983) attempt to shift the emphasis

in agenda-setting research in order to "understand

how the media help to shape the policy agendas of

decision-makers". Using an experimental design which

involved 250 respondents, the study suggested that

the media influenced views about issue importance

among the general public and government policy makers.

What makes this approach significant is that it does

not merely stop at establishing the impact of the

media on the public. It goes beyond that to examine

howanelitegroup internalizes traces of media influence

in the policy-process. In this sense, it also adds

to the enlargement of theory base in agenda-setting

studies. Specifically, it does so by suggesting the

possibility of exploring other effects of agenda-

setting. On thi.s matter researcher Noelle-Newrnann

(1978), offers the following advice:

Even though media practitioners have plainly declared that they are not interested in successful investigations of media effects, communication researchers must support each other in penetrating this field. The mass media are too important for a working democracy to be left in the dark

as to their effects.

This was the basis of her work in 1981. The

question which she posed was whether mass media

contribute to the reinforcement of the status quo

or whether they act as agents of change. Using

television as the prime medium, and a local paper

as supplementary medium, she showed that the mass

media have both agenda-setting and opinion-moulding

functions which glve them the capability to induce

change in society.

Atkins and Ganz (1978) come to precisely the same

conclusions in examiningthelikely effects on children's

socialization process of entertainment and informa-

tional programming. Their finding indicated that

exposure of children to television fare stimulated

36

further information-seeking behaviour in the subjects.

The net-effect of this was an increase in political

knowledge, interest, and further information-seeking.

Although the authors do not say so directly, one

would not be wrong in inferring an agenda-setting

effect in such a circumstance, the significant point

being the power of themedia to determine an individual's

attitudes and behaviour through what he "knows, thinks,

believes".(Shaw,l979).

Shaw, in analysing the relationship between agenda-

setting and mass communication theory observes that

research tradition in agenda-setting developed around

the citizen's need for orientation during a political

campaign. But he is quick to remind other researchers

that "the theory itself is designedly open to other

personal and social needs of the individual that could

signal the appearance of the agenda-settingphenomenon".

He suggests that the need to have information is

only one type of human need. This offers a basis

for extending agenda-setting research beyond the news

content of the media, thus ensuring that "agenda-

setting effects resulting frompeople'shabitualexposure

to other media fare" are also explored, "and not

only during a political campaign."

Shaw therefore underscores the need for elaboration

and conceptual extension of the agenda-setting concept

specifically because as he sees it,

The media's role in a nation's political economic and social and intellectual life and their influence on a person's cultural

and religious values, sexual and leisure norms, work and play behaviour may be far greater than the agenda-setting theory pres- ently defines it. For the basic claim of agenda-setting theory is that people's understanding of much of social reality is copied

from the media.

Herein lies the basis for studies whose object

would be further exploration and elaboration of the

agenda-setting phenomenon. The present study seeks

to achieve just that.

References

SHAW, Eugene, "Agenda-Setting andMass Commurlication theory", Public O~inion Ouarterly 42 (1979) , 140-146.

COHEN, Bernard, The Press and Foreian Policv Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963, p.13.

MOEMEKA, Andrew, "The Right to Communicate: The Rural Population --Access to and Participation in Broadcasting Communication. "UNESCO Expert Meeting: Towards a Definition of the Rlght to Communicate, Stockholm, Sweden, May, 1978.

NWACHUKU, Viktor "An Experiment In Education" k Proposal Presented to The Guardian Rutam House, 1991.

GOBLE, Norman and James Porter "The Chanuinq Role of the Teacher, Paris: The UNESCO Press, 1977

FAURE, Edgar: Learnina to BP: The World of Education Todav and Tomorrow: Paris: The UNESCO Press 1 9 7 2 .

OKIGBO Charles, "Modern Mass Communication Theories in the Context of Afrlcan Commu- nication". International Communication Asso- ciation, Honululu, Hawaii, May, 1985.

McCOMBS, Maxwell and Donald Shaw, "The Agenda- Setting function of Mass Media. " Public O~inion Ouarterlv; 36, (1972), 176-

187.

39

9. DIEUZEIDE, Henri, "Communication and Education." Pros~ects, 10, 1, (1980), 43-47.

10. ATWOOD, Erwin, Ardyth Sohn and Hrold Sohn, "Daily Newspaper Contributions to Community Discus- sion.", Journalism Quarterly, (1975).

11. GADZIALA, Stephen and Lee Becker "A New Look at Agenda. Setting in the 1976 Election Debates", Journalism Ouarterly, (1976).

12. TIPTON, Leonard, Roger Haney, and John Basehart, Media Agenda Setting in City and State Election Campaigns, " Journalism Ouarterly, 52 (1976), 15 22.

1 3 . M'BOW, Amata Introduction to Manv Voiceg: One World. Paris: The UNESCO Press, 1980

14 . GORMLEY, William, Jnr . , "Newspaper Agenda and Political Elites," Journalism Ouarterly, 52, (1975), 304 - 308.

15. WINTER, James and Chaim Eyal "Agenda-Setting for the Civil Rights Issue,Journalism Ouarterly 45, (1981) 376 - 383

6 COOK, Fay, Tom Tyler, Edward Goetz, Margaret Gordon, David Projess, Dona Leff, and Harvey Molotch, "Media and Agenda-Set t ing : Effects on the Public, Interest Group Leaders, Policy Makers, and Pollcy, "Public O~inion Ouarterlv, 47 (l983), 16-35".

17. NOELLE - Neumann, Elisabeth, "The Dual Climate of Opinion: The influence of Television in the 1976 West German. Federal; Election, . "Klause von Beyme and Max Kaase (eds . ) German Political Studies Vol. 3, Sage: Beverly Hills (1978) CA. 137 - 169,

18. ATKIN, Charles and Walter Ganz, Television News and Political Socialization." Public O~inion Ouarterly, 42 (1978) 183 - 197

19. ILICH, Ivan, Deschoolincr Society. London :

Calder and Boyars, 1974.

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

This chapter sets out the design and procedure

adopted for the study. It describes the population,

the sample, construction of instrument, administration

of instrument, content analysis , analysis of data,

and other related issues.

3.1. D e s i m of the Study

Winter and Eyal (1981) indicate that in traditional

studies of agenda-setting which have explored the

relationship between media agenda and public agenda,

approaches have involved the construction of media

and public measures "with extensive content analyses

used to determine the former, while survey techniques

have assessed the latter." As they see it, such

studies have been fraught with several conceptual

and methodological problems, chiefly those concerned

with the haphazard selection of time periods and the

nature of the individual issues examined.

Cook and others (1983) also argue that leaving

aside these variables, drawing causal inferences would

involve "Careful conceptualization and measurement of

both the media and the public agenda and the execution

of research designs that allow causal inferences".

But they also acknowledge the difficulty in employing

this approach since the content of newspapers cannot

be easily anticipated.

42

The problem for the present study was how to evolve

a design which was feasible, practicable, and which

also attempted to eliminate the problems identified

by the afore-mentioned researchers.

Therefore, thedesignemployed in this study remained

the classical cross-sectional approach which looked

at media fare and audience agenda-setting. However,

emphasis was placed on cumulative effect by adopting

the extended time frame in examining the educational

content of the media.

3.2. The Po~ulation

Given the nature of the study, the subjects consisted

of two groups - (a) an educated group made up of

University undergraduates and (b) a literate group

made up of workers of junior status. As a result,

the population was a combination of ( : L ) Third-year

students in Abia State University, Uturu, and Federal

University of Technology, Owerri, (2) Junior members

of staff drawn from those Universities. In all,

the size of the population was 2,000. Along the

same lines as Kalagbor (1987) it was hoped that the

population would typify those who use the media

regularly.

3.3. The Samnle

The device for selecting the sample from the two

groups was random sampling. In thls instance each

4th subject was chosen fromlists obtained fromofficials

of the Universities. Following the work of Krecjie

and Norman (1976) 300 was consid&d an adequate sample

size for the study. In reality however, only 200

subjects returnedcompletedcopies of thequestionnaire.

No attempt was made to achieve a balance between

the sexes or to allow for the impact of variables

such as background and age on subject ability to

read and recall information. The age range of the

respondents was 16-55 years.

3.4. Media Asenda

Features selected from three serious National

dailies - The Guardian, Daily Times, and National

Concord were used for the study. The objective was

achieved in two parts. Articles related to health,

literature, cooking, and arts/entertainment for nine

consecutive six-day week were extracted. Second,

these articleswere content-analysedandcodedaccording

to categories which were evolved by the study.

Such analysis was completed six days before the

administration and receipt of copies of a questionnaire

whichhad earlier been administeredto subjects selected

for the study (Winter and Eyal, 1981, Kalagbor, 1987).

3.5. Codins Cateaories

Following Bush (1960) and Kalagbor (1978), in

news content studies, the units of analysis should /

be the elements of reader interest and not the entire

news story. In the present study, the units of

analysis were the ideas of interest contained in each

feature article. It was assumed that each article

would contain a particular idea or skill that was

of interest to the reader. For knowledge or skill

to be useful to a citizen and to enable him fulfil

his role as a member of the society, such information

must: be evaluated according to the extent to which

it enables the citizen to meet three special needs:

(a) The need for knowledge: This must be such

that the reader is able not only to acquire

facts about a given phenomenon but also is

able to interpret andevaluate suchknowledge.

(b3 The need for intelligent communication: Some

questions are pertinent in communication.

(a) who is talking? (b) what are the reasons

for the communication? ( c ) what is the

essence of such communication in the life

and work of the reader? Communication, to

be educative, must allow for the reader to

make wise judgement about what is commu-

nicated.

(c) The need for discrimination in the cultivation

of attitudes and the choice of values.

Knowledge that is gained from the newspaper

should enable the reader to develop a point

of view and wise judgement, in particular

(Reston, 1952).

The newspaper communicates the world on a daily

basis through words. To many, it is "the living

textbook". In this connection, one would go along

with Reston (1952) and proclaim that perhaps more

4 5

thanany other institutionin the country thenewspaper ... creates the intellectual climate in which the nation

lives". In the words of Arthur Schlesinger, the

newspaper provides "an environment for free and

responsible discussion. To the extent that the

newspaper achieves these objectives its educative

may be categorized along these lines:

information source?

Does it enable the reader to observe, report,

and interpret new knowledge?

Does it reinforce what he already knows?

Does it have appeal? Is it concerned with

the here and now?

Does it enable the reader to achieve balance

in society, i.e. balance between work and

play, between good taste and perversion,

between tension and stress, etc?

Does information contained in the newspaper

help the reader in the making of choices?

Does the newspaper have a sense of drama?

How much of the content of the newspaper

enables the reader to watch human activities

live?

Does it engage the imagination? Does it

enable the reader to achieve neurological

46

symmetry ? In a sense, to what extent

is the acquisition of facts backed by a

desire to try out such facts?

3.6. Content AnaIvsis

The variable of study {educational material), would

normally be found on different days in the week,

depending on the relevant paper. Thus, in the Guardian

o r instance articles with specifically educational

appeal would be found on Tuesdays. Similarly, these

related to health were published on Thursdays. On

the other hand, there was no consistency in the

p~blication of ideas related to Arts and Entertainment,

and cooking. This meant that one might have an

article in these areas in a particular week and miss

it in another.

Procedure: Each article was initially read by

the researcher and a colleague who had been trained

for the purpose. Then followed a second reading

which sought to determine the extent to which ideas

contained in the article could be categorized along

the lines defined by Reston (1952).

Astrialtesting, 50 articleswere randomlycategorized

by the two testers. Each of the indicators that

was abstracted from an article formed the basis of

one tally. At the end of the trial exercise, indices

obtained by two of the testers were employed in the

calculation of an inter-coder reliability index, using

the following formula.

CR - N (Averaae) 1 + ( N - 1 ) (Average)

where CR stands for Composite Reliability

N stands for Number of Coders

AV stands for Average of inter-judge agreement.

On the basis of calculation, the inter-coder

reliability was . 7 9 . This figure was considered

sufficiently high to warrant the use of the coding

categories as indices of educational value of ap-

propriate newspaper material.

These categories were then employed in the analysis

of newspaper articles on health, literature, cooking

and arts/entertainrnent. To the extent that an article

met one criterion, it had a score of 1. At the

end of the exercise, the scores were summed up for

each of the areas mentioned above.

In all, 59 newspaper articles were content-analysed

fur health, 8 for cooking 25 for arts and entertainment,

and 18 for literature.

3.7. Construction and Administration of Instrument:

On the basis of available literature, a twelve

item interview questionnaire was constructed. It

was later admin~stered to the subjects from Monday

through Wednesday of the week following the cornpetion

of content analysis (June, 1 9 9 2 ) . 'Phis approach

was to have ensured that audience recall reflected

as much reality as possible (Kalagbor, 1987; Sohn

1978).

48

The questionnaire had earlier been subjected to

psychometric treatment which assessed validity and

reliability.

Because of the non-complex nature of the instrument,

face validity was considered an adequate measure.

On this scare, the instrument was examined by

some specialists in Mass Commtlnication at the Abia

State University who later indicated the adequacy

of the instrument.

Assessment for reliability yielded an index of

r = 0.85, using the split-half method of measuring

reliability.

3.8. Method of Analvsis of Data:

Percentages and Pearson's Product Moment Correlation

were used to establish agenda-setting effects.

References

WINTER, James and Chaim Eyal, "Agenda - Setting for the Civil Rights Issue" dournalism Ouarterly, 45 (1981)) 376 - 383

Cook, Fay, Tom Tyler, Edward Goetz, Margaret Gordon, David Protess, Donna Leff and Harvev Molotch "Media and Agenda - Settin on the Public Interest Group Leade Makers and Policy", Public O~inion Gudr L ~ I ly,

47, (l983), 16-35.

KALAGBOR, A.C. "Editorials and Time - lag in Agenda - Setting. M.A. university of Nigeria; June, 1987.

BUSH, C.R. "A system of Categories for General News Content",JournalismOuarterly,37, (1960) 206 - 23.0.

JOHN, A.B. "A ~ongitudinal Analysis of Local Political Agenda - Setting Effects". Journalism Ouarterly, 55 (l978), 325 - 333.

RESTON, James, Are American News~a~ers Meetinq their Res~onsibilities? Colombus, Ohio: Walter Shepard Foundation, Ohio State University, (1952) .

MORGAN, D. and R. Krejcie. "Determining Sample size for Research Activities". Educational

and Psvcholoaical Measurement 30 (1970).

STENSLAND, Per "The classroom and the Newspaper in David R. Olson (ed. ) Mass Media and Education. Fiftv-Third Year book of the National Societv for the Studv of Educati~p Part 111. Chicago: The University of Chicago

Press, (1955) .

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter represents and analyzes the results

obtained by the study.

Forthe sake of clarityandconsiskency, the research

questions and hypotheses which were formulated for

the study are reproduced below:

( a ) What is the nature of the educational effect

which the media have on their consumers?

(b) Will there be consonance between media fare

and the public's indication of the source

of their knowledge?

(c) What conclusions can be drawn from the above

questions in terms ofthe educational function

of the media?

Ho:l There will be no significance relationship

between the public's attribution of edu-

cationalinfluence and the educational aspects

of media content.

Ho: 2 There will be no significance relatianship

betweenthepublics' indication of the salience

of educational content and media perception

of content salience.

Table 4.1

Fremencv with which res~ondents read newsDaDers

Question filter

Daily

Regularly

Infrequently

Not at all -

Total

Responses Percentage P

It can be gleaned in table 4.1 that 72 (36 percent)

read newspapers everyday. This apparently places

the group in a better position to recall topics than

others.

It can also be seen that 45 (22 percent) read

regularly. The two figures assist one to conclude

that 127 (58 percent) are well placed to recall topics

which they have read.

On the other hand, 58 (29 percent) indicated not

having regular access to newspapers. More than that,

25 subjects (representing 12.5 percent) read newspapers

on a weekly basis. This even makes it difficult

to rely on their responses in terms of media effect

on consumers.

Table 4 . 2

Tonics usuallv read bv subjects in newsnaners

Arts and Entertainment I 9 2 I 2 1 I

Category

Science and Technology

Police and Judiciary

Economy

I Literature

Responses Percentageof

Total Number

I Total I 436 I 100 I

Health

"Categories are an adaptation of

theUNESCO - SponsoredIAMCRsearch,

the "World of the News" Study

(Sereberny - Mohammadum, 1984).

The table indicates that all the ideas that are

7 9

germane to this study were read by the subjects.

18 -I

However, the economy constitutes the primary topic

that was recalled. Even so, arts and entertainment

ranks second in the list of commonly read topics

while few subjects (29 representing13 percent, indicated

reading about cooking in the newspapers. On the

other hand, 92 (21. percent) recalled reading topics

related to arts and entertainment; 56 (13 percent)

and 79 (18 percent) read topics relaked to literature

and health. In all, 256 (59 percent) read the topics

53

of interest to the study.

Table 4 . 3

The perception of most of the subjects ( 1 5 4 ,

representing 77 percent) is that they believe that

what they read from newspapers represent new forms

of knowledge. What this points to is that there

must be useful and novel information which they derive

from aspects of newspaper fare which are intended

to educate. There is not so much of new knowledge

for 27 subjects, representing 13.5 percent of the

sample. For 19, representing the least percentage

of 9.5, it does appear that nothing considerable is

new knowledge in relation to what they read in the

newspapers.

F o r G c r r L a y t z

To a Large extent 154 77

To a little extent 27 13.5

Not at all

Total

1 9

2 0 0

9 . 5

100

Table 4.4;

related to cookins, art. Literature and health.

- - - - - - - -

Table 4.4. shows that 29 subjects (14.5 percent)

read articles with an educative value on a daily

basis. On the other hand, a substantial number (78

representing 39 percent) indicatedreading sucharticles

on an occasional basis. 52 (consisting 26 percent)

indicated reading such articles often while 33(con-

stituting 16.5 percent) read such articles when it

was possible for them to do so. On their part 8

subjects (4 percent) did not read such articles. This

last fact casts some doubt over the responses of

2 Question Filter

Daily

Occasionally

Of ten

Infrequently

Not at all

Total

this category of subjec~s.

Ref

29

7 8

52

3 3

8

200

Percentag

1 4 . 5

3 9

2 6

16.5

4

100

Table 4 . 5

Extent to which res~ondents feel that they are

tauaht bv what they read.

I Question Filter I Responses I Percentage

Of ten 113 56.5

Occasionally 76 3 8

Hardly 11

I Total Among the respondents, 56.5 percent indicated that

they often feel that they are in the presence of

a teacher while reading the articles under study.

On the other hand, it can be seen that 38 percent

developed such a feeling only an occasional terms.

Lastly, the table indicates that a small proportion

( 5.5 percent) hardly nursed any such feeling .

Table 4 . 6

Reasons for re~ardinu newmaper t o ~ i c s as

Category I Response

Provides information I

Portrays life in

Society

Focuses on Happenings

in Society

20

16

on health

Throws light on

20

politics

Has personal importance

on sport I

10

for individuals

Provides information

Has educative and

2 5

information to mankind 1

informative value

Provides scientific

Total 1 200

103

Of the total number of respondents, 51.5 percent

felt articles on health, cooking, arts and enter-

tainment, and literature were important because such

articles have educative and informative value, i.e.,

57

through them they are enabled to make better adjustments

in society. Along the same line, 10 percent of

the respondents felt that such articles were important

for the ideas which they provided about the health

of individuals, for other groups 12.5 percent believed

that educative articles haesignificance in relation

what they reveal about thepersonal lives of indiv:duals;

10 percent of the subjects appreciate such articles

in terms of the insight that they offer into current

happenings in Society.

For yet another group, the importance of the articles

under reference lies in their portrayal of life in

society.

An insignificant proportion sees the significance

of such articles as providing information about sports

(1 percent) and science (2 percent) .

4.7 Test of Hv~otheses

Ho:l There will be no significant relationship

between the publics ' attribution of edu-

c a t i o n a l . i n f l u e n c e a n d t h e educational aspects

of media content.

Table 4.7.1,

Scores derived from media and ~ublic sources

renardincr media and nublic relationshi~s

Category Media

Provision of new

- .t of

W I l d L I b LedU

Reinforcement of

existing knowledge

12 6

12 0

102

Discussion of everyday

experiences

Enables the process of

choice-making

Gives a desire to try

out what is learnt

8 4

7 2

Gives the feeling of

watching human activities

Audience

42

Gives a true picture

of human activities 48

Table 4.7.2

Pelationshiw between ~ublic attribution and media

content,

Media Audience

From the foregoing analysis, we can conclude that

there is a significant relationship between public

attribution of knowledge and media content. This

therefore leads to the rejectionof thenullhypothesis.

There will be no significant relationship

between the public's indication of the

salience of educational content and media

perception of content salience.

Table 4 . 8 . 1

Audience recall of encounter with s~ecific

issues and actual newmaner content

S/N

3. 1 Arts and ~ntertainrnend 25 1

1

2

4 . 1 Literature

Category

Health

Cooking

Media Audienc

59

8

50

6

Table 4 . 8 . 2 ,

Relationshin between audience recall and media

content.

Media Audience -k

From the above analysis, it can also be concluded

that there is a positive and fairly significant

relationship between audience salience and media

salience.

2 . Table 4.5 indicates the degree to which respondents

nurse a feeling of having been taught by reading

the sections of the newspapers whose primary intent

is to educate. It can be gleaned that over 94

percent of the respondents perceived the newspaper

as taking the place of the teacher, in a sense,

serving as a parallel pedagogue. This trend reinforces the feeling among scholars that the frontiers of

knowledge should be further extended, that there should be indeed no barriers to knowledge. The responses

also lend credence to the position of those who see

the mass media in a developing nation such as ours

as playing a pivotal role in the education of the

populace.

Responses in Table 4.6 are equally very revealing.

The data are indicative of the inner working of the

minds of subjects that were used for this study.

It is worthy of note that 51.5 percent of the subjects

indicated that the reading of extended newspaper topics

on various issues has educative and informative value.

Equally so, a substantial number, 12.5 percent perceive

such articles as interpreting the complexities and

intricacies of life, and in so doing enable the

individual to cope with life's decisions in a much

more realistic manner than would otherwise have been

the case. Note should also be taken of the fact

that some of the respondents regard the media as portraying a vivid picture of life, thus placing their

beneficiaries in a vantage position to appreciate

the foibles, idiosyncrasies, and peculiarities of each

individual.

Reference

UNESCO, "The World of the NewsM Study, XAMCR search, Paris : The UNESCO press, 1984 .

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Results of this study are discussed in this chapter.

Conclusions are arrived at, and the implications of

these conclusions are given.

Research Questions

(a) What is the nature of the educational effect

which the media have on their consumers?

(b) Will there be consonance between media fare

and the public's indication of the source

of their knowledge?

( c ) What conclusions can be drawn from the above

questions in terms ofthe educational function

of the media?

In the context of this study, it is instructive

to note that all the subjects who were questioned

indicated that they read newspapers. This, at least,

is a beginning point for any individual who is eager

to acquire the kind of knowledge which is capable

of reinforcing what he already knows and transforming

his life. It is acknowledged that a small proportion

of the respondents reported that they read newspapers

on a weekly basis. There is some difficulty with

this sort of response because it does not exactly

state the number that is read on a particular day

or week. One inference that can be drawn from these

6 6

responses is that even on a daily or weekly basis,

an individual may read one or more newspaper. In

certain circumstances, the difficulty may relate to

time rather than availability of newspapers.

In such event, it may be argued that a weekly

reader is just in a position to accurculate as much

information as a daily reader, albeit that he is

likely to lose the element of timeliness that comes

from daily reading.

From table 4.2, it can easily be deduced that

readers are not only interested in news of the here

and now. They appear to be equally interested in

aspects of media content which have educative sig-

nificance. Specific interest needs to be taken in

the fact that 59 percent of the responses ( N = 4 3 6 )

relate to the areas that are covered by this study.

Although not directly related to the objectives of

the study, it should also be noted that the subjects

also indicated general interest matters related to

science and technology. This trend would be in line

with the contention by Moemeka (1978) to the effect

that the media have a responsibility t.o educate at

the same time as people are being informed. This

reality is obviously conditioned by the fact that

human beings, as part of the survival game, are eager

to learn more about their physical and psychological

environments. This need will be even more compelling

in our own setting where experience points to the

habit of reading as prerequisite for certification. In situations different from the normal, citizens

are bound to rely on the media for knowledge that

is of quantitative and qualitative kinds.

This logic is reinforced by the responses given

in Table 4.3. Most of the subjects perceive what

they read fromnewspapers as constituting newknowledge.

This being the case, it can be construed that

information which is contained in newspapers serves

supplementary knowledge for those who, like students,

are engaged in formal reading. On the other hand,

those not involved in formal education may find the

newspaper as the only ally which they have. In

this sense, it can be argued that in addition to

the primary informative role, newspapers have a didactic

role to play in society. The significance of this

sort of service for the broad strata in society can hardly be over-stressed. Even more in need would

be members of the society who are usually categorized

as being on the fringe. This is so because, as

MacBride ( 1 9 8 0 ) has suggested

For innumerable men, women and children the school is equated with the media, even if they can only draw from it those elements least rich in significance and with the most simple content, thus picking up but the crumbs from the feast.

69

These responses, both in intent, and in practical

terms, possess the palpable quality of education. In

a sense, it can be said that all human activities

are potentially educative, even though some are more

purposeful, deliberatelyphannedandconsciouslycarried

out than others. This form of interpretation would

correspond to that by Dieuzeide (1980) who contends

that the widespread use of newspapers has created

an "educational environment" which has in turn given

"the impression that anyone at all could come i n t o

direct contact with the very sources of knowledge, that there would no longer exist either social distances

or professional secrets I' .

Ho:, There will be no significant relationship

between the public's attribution of edu-

cationalinfluenceandthe educational aspects

of media content.

As indicated by the analysis of data, there is

a significantposj.tiverelationshipbetweentheindividual

reasons for reading articles on health, cooking,

literature, and the educative value of such articles

as determined by content analysis. This outcome further

indicates that members of the audience do not just

embark on a mindless reading of newspapers. In a

sense, it can be said that each person has his own

agenda which he brings to the reading of articles

of interest. It would not be wrong to conclude

that the correlation between public attribution and

media content is a clear demonstration of the agenda-

setting phenomenon. This is in line with an earlier-

stated position of certain scholars which maintains

that the media possess the capability to shape a

reader's whole frame of reference by providing him

with the materials - facts and perspective - with

which he must he must construct his social reality.

As members of the public desire to widen their social

and intellectual horizon, they turn to the media for

content which prioritize issues, in addition to having

educative and information value.

Ho:, There wil.1 be no significant relationship

between thepublic's indication ofthe salience

of educational content and media perception

of content salience.

Fromthe analysis of data related to this hypothesis,

it can be seen that there is a relationship, even if not highly significant between thepublic's perception

of important newspaper content and the attention given

to such content by the media. One way of lookmg

at this fact is to recognize that the press is not

an isolated phenomenon, hung up somewhere in the air,

oblivious of the yearnings and aspirations of its

clientele. A responsible press would indeed attempt

to mirror some of the desires of those who patronize

it, in the best sense of the word. Given this truism,

it becomes easy to explain why consumer recall of

media content actually coincides with the content

itself. Admittedly, the relationship is not highly

significant but it does not vitiate the importance

of this finding.

This finding is clearly in line with agenda-setting

theory. It is an affirmation of the ability of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkin, C. (1972) "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information - seekingl'Public O~inion Ouarterly, 36, 188 - 199

Atkin, C, . Ganz, W. (1978) "Television News and Political Socialization". Public Oninion Ouarterlv, 42, 183 - 197.

Atwood, E, John, A., and John, H. (1975) "Newspaper Contributions to Community Discussion".Journalism Ouarterlv,

Berelson, B. (1949) "What 'Missing the Newspaper' Means", in Paul Lazarsfeld and Frank Staton (eds) . Communications Research New York.

Bush, C.R. (1960) "A System of Categories for General News Content", Journalism Ouarterlv,37, 206 - 210.

Cook, F., Tyler, T., Goetz, E., or don, M., Protests, D., Leff, D., and Moklotch, H (1983) "Media and Agenda - Setting: Effects on the public, Interest Group Leaders, Policy Makers, and Policy" Public O~inion Ouarterlv 47, (1983), 16 - 35

Curran, J., Gurevitch, M., and Woollacott, J. (1983) 0 (eds)Mass Communication and Society London:

Edward Arnold Publishers.

Dieuzeide, H (1980) "Communication and Education". Pros~ects, 10, 1,43 - 47

71

the media to set the pattern for the kinds of topics which the public thinks about. It also underlies

the media's skill in focusing public attention on

important issues. As McGuire ( 1 9 7 4 ) has shown, the

media assumes an orientational function for insti-

tutionalizeddisseminationof information. This implies

that most people rely on the media to give them

a sense of direction especially when what they seek

to know is "unrelated to what they already know about

their own family, friends, and community. " In this

sense, it can be inferred that the media have set

themselves the task of formal schools, which is the

conscious, plannedandorganizedpresentationof learning

experiences whose aim is the improvement in the quality

of functioning of individuals within a given society.

72

Conclusions

The following conclusions are derived from the

f i n d i n g s of this study:

1. Evidence points to the didactic and pedagogic

effect of media fare on their consumers.

This study confirms that the media exercise

considerable influence on theminds of several

readers, especially in a system such as ours

in which the reading of newspapers has been

shown to be the only pastime available to

a significant proportion of the populace.

2. The study indicates that there is consonance

between media fare and what the p u b l i c thinks

that media consumption does to it. It further

goes to indicate that within our system,

media audiences rely on them for formal and

informal learning.

3. The press in Nigeria has an agenda-setting

function in relation to the educational

process. In this sense, the media defines

priorities in educational thought which, in

turn, motivate the readingpublic into studying

and internalizing the ideas and thereafter

using them for practical action.

4. Key issues about education expressed by

members of the audience correlate with actual

content of the mass media.

73

5 . Public perception of the mass media is that

of a veritable instrument for the renewal

and emancipation of human intellect.

his study can be interpreted as indicating a

need for pervasive mass media influence among newspaper

audiences. Allowing for errors that go with research design, one is left in no doubt that a substantial

number of Nigerians, as typified by the present sample,

would be very well served by sufficient provision

for articles which tend to enhance human dignity an6

raise intellectual tone. As MacBri.de (1980) points

out, "it would be difficult to deny the educational

- and not simply didactic in the strict sense of

the term-impact of the media and of communication

in general", even in cases where the content of the

messages is not of an educational nature. The

educational and socializing role pertaining to

communication implies that it should correspond to

the utmost to society" development needs, and be

treated as a social good.

As schools relaxmuchof their monopoly on education, 03

the mass media communication will be expected to assume

the I of presenting more and more

experiences wi-nch have an educational flavour. The

media have the potential for initiating meaningful

change in Nigeria. Given their broad reach and pedagogic

versatility, it is pclssibleto envisage the exploitation

of an average Nigerian's potential on a scale which

had never been imagined. This task is an inherent

74

component of the definition of the agenda-setting

capability of the media.

If this ideal is to be realised, it presupposes

further attention being devoted to the relationship

betweenprint communicationand the educational process.

In particular, further studies would need to examine

the differential impact of media exposure on various

strata of the society, ranging from those who are

just literate to others who have high-level education,

By doing this, communicators would be turning their

eyes "more naturally to modernisation and to fitting

young people to take their place in a world that

is being remade". At the same time, they would

be bringing "to light social possibilities which have

not yet been explored or applied".

References

MOEMEKA, Andrew, "The Right to Communicate: The Rural Population -- Access to and Participation in Broadcast Communication". UNESCO Expert Meeting: Towards a Definition of the Right toCornmunicate, Stockholm, Sweden, May, 1978.

MAcBRIDE, Sean, M a w Voices. One World UNESCO REPORT ON THE STATE OF COMMUNICATION IN THE WORLD. PARIS. THE UNESCO PRESS, 19 80 .

DIEUZEIDE, Henri, "Communication and Education".

P ~ D S D ~ C ~ S , 10,1 (1980), 43-47.

Emery, E., Ault, P., and Agee, W., (1968) Introduction to Mass Communications New York: Dcdd, Mead and Co.

Gadziala, S., and Becker, L., "A New Look at Agenda - Setting in the 1976 Election Debates",Journalism Ouarterlu,

Gormley, W., (1976) "Newspaper Agenda and Pol.itica1 Elites", Journalism Ouarterly, 52, 15 - 22

Illich, I. (1987) Deschoolina Society. London : Calder and Boyars, 1974

Kalagbor, A.C.(1987) "Editorials and Time - lag in Agenda -Setting. M . A . U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a .

Lang, K., and Lang, G (1966) "The Mass Media and Voting" in Bernard Berelson and Morris Janawitz, (eds) . Reader in Public Oninion and Communication, New York: Free Press, 1966

Lengrand, P. (1975) An Introduction to Lifelong Education. London: The UNESCO Press

Macbride, S., (1980) Manv Voices, One World: UNESCO Renort on the State of Communication in the World. Paris: The UNESCO Press.

M'Bow, A. (1980) Introduction to Manv Voices: One World. Paris: The UNESCO Press

Mackenzie, N., Poscage, R., and Scupham, J. ( 1 9 7 5 ) ODen Leaninu: Systems and Problems in Post

-.ation. Paris: The Unesco

7 8

McCombs, M., andBecker, L. (1979)UsinaMassCommunication Theorv, Engleword Cliffs: Prentice -- Hall

McCombs ,

Moemeka ,

Mohanty ,

L 3. "The Agenda - Setting function i a " , Public O~inion Ouarterlw

,,, ,,,,,,, 126 - 187.

A.A (1981) Local Radio: Communitv Education for5eveloornent. Zaria: AhrnaduBelloUniversity Press.

(1981) "The Right to Communicate: The Rural Population - Access to and Participation in Broadcast Communication", Paper Presented to An Expert Meeting on the Right to Communicate. Stockholm, Sweden, 8 - 12 May.

J . ( 1 9 8 4 ) Educational Broadcastina: Radio snd Television in Education New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd.

Morgan, D., and Krejcie, R. (1970) "Determining Sample Size for Research Acitivities" . Educat:ional and Psvcholosical Measurement 30.

Noelle - Neumann, E (1978) "The Dual Climate of Opinion: The influence of Television in the 1976 West German Federal Election, Klause von Begme and Kaase, M., (eds) inGerman Political Studies Vol. 3 Sage: Beverly Hills, CA., 137 -- 169

bkigbo, C., (1985) "Modern Mass Communication Theories in the context of African Communication, l1

International Communication Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, May.

Onuoha, E.E. (1988) "The Publics' Perception of the

7 9

Federal Housing Authority: A Study of the Agenda - SettingInfluencesof PublicRelations Information. M.A. University of Nigeria: April.

Reston, J. (1952) Are ~merican News~a~ers 5

ite Unlverslty .

Meetina their Resoonsibilitie9 Columbus Ohio; Wal-ter Shepherd Foundat i o n , Ohio S t e

Shaw, E (1979) "Agenda - Setting and Mass Communication Theory," Public O~inion Ouarterlv 42, 140- 1 4 6 .

John, A.B (1978) "A Longitudinal Analysis of Local Political Agenda - SettingEffects,"Journalisrn Quarterly, 55, 325 - 333

Stesland, P., (1955) "The classroom and the Newspaper, in David R. Olson (ed.) Nass Media and Education, Fifty-third le? Societv for the Studv I11 Chicago: The Universi

mbookof the National of Education Part .ty of Chicago Press.

Tipton,

Winter,

L., Ifaney, R., and Basehart, J. (1976) "~edia Agenda Setting in City and State Election Campaigns", Journalism Ouarterly 52 ( l 9 7 6 ) , 15 - 2 2 .

J., and Lval, C. (1981) "Agenda - Setting for the Civil Rights Issue", Journalism Ouarterb, 45, 376 - 383.s

80

APPENDIX I

Department of Mass Communication University of Nigeria Nsukka

- 6th June, 1992

Dear Sir/Madam,

QUESTIONNAIRE

I would like to request that you take some time out of your schedule to complete this auestionnaire. It seeks to tap informazion regarding what pec 3er about health, cooking, literature and art. 3e such information to suggest ways in which th- to play their educational role. Your co-operation will be greatly appreciated.

Yours faithfully

D r . V. C. NWACHUKU

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

................... 1.2 Please indicate the name of your University:

...................................... 1.2 Where is it located?...

1.3 Indicate your sex by ticking the appropriate box:

Male TI Female [ I 1.4 To which of these groups do you belong?

Lecturers 1-1 Non-academic Staff Student 0

1.5. Indicate the highest level of education you have attained:

p h . D [-I HSC/A Level I I

S S C / O Level TI HND Grade 1/ACE (Assoc) 1-1

OND 1 Grade I1 I I 1.6 To which age-group do you belong?

Under 16 1 1

18 - 24 55 and above I-1

2.1 Which of the following issues do you read in the newspaper?

(a) Arts and Entertainment (b) Economy

( c ) Science and Technology [-I (d) Cooking 1 I (e ) Police and Judiciary ( f ) ~iterature [-1 ( g ) Health 1-1

2.2 List five important and recent topics which you remember reading in the newspaper about a, d, f, g.

(a) ......................................

(d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3 Of these, which do you consider to have been of interest to you?

2.4 Does your reading of these issues make yopu feel that you are acquiring new knowledge?

(a) To a large extent (b) To a little extent {c) Not at all

2.5 Of these issues which you have read, indicate the order of importance to you.

(extremely important)

(el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Least important)

2 . 6 Indicate the sense in which you regard these issues as important to you.

2.7 How often do you read newspapers?

( a ) daily 4 regularly (c) infrequently (d) weekly (el not at all

2.8 In most newspapers, there are articiles about cooking, art, literature, and health. How often do you read such articles?

daily often occasionally infrequently not at all

2 . 9 Of those important issues you identified and ranked in Nos. 2.2 and 2.5, which did you recently read about in a newspaper article related to art, literature, health, and cooking? Please name them.

(a) ............................................

2.10 Of those important issues you identified and ranked in 2.3 and 2.6, which did you recently read about in a newspaper article related to art, literature, health, and cooking? Please name them :

(a) ................................................

(e) ................................................

2.11 Do you find the contents of such articles givi-ng you the impression that you are being taught?

(a) often

(b) occasionally

( c ) hardly

2.12 Of these, which ones apply to you. Reading educative articles is important because (Please tick the appropriate ones).

(a) I rely on such for new information

(b) I can make meaning out of what I read

(c) They enable me reinforce what I already know

(d) They talk about everyday experiences

(e) They enable me make choices in life

( f ) Reading them gives me a true picture of human activities

(g) Gives the feeling of watching human activities live

(h) Gives a desire to try out what is learnt.