University of Groningen The role of microbe-matrix ... · downstream of the nisin-inducible nisA...

University of Groningen

The role of microbe-matrix interactions in dairy starter culture functionalityTarazanova, Mariya

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Chapter 7

General discussion

Mariya Tarazanova, Herwig Bachmann, Jan Kok


Chapter 7

210

Summary and general discussion

The research described in this thesis aimed at gaining a better understanding of

molecular mechanisms involved in interactions between the matrix of fermented dairy

products and Lactococcus lactis, a Gram-positive bacterial species that is widely used in

dairy starter cultures. Cell surface properties are determined by the molecular

composition of the cell wall and they play a significant role in interactions between the

bacterial cells and the dairy food matrix. The work described in this thesis shows that

this holds potential to ultimately influence starter culture functionalities.

Detailed characterization of the dairy isolate Lactococcus lactis NCDO712

The interactions between starter cells and dairy product components, as well as the

location of the bacterial cells in a dairy matrix are influenced by bacterial surface

properties. As it was the aim of this work to get a better understanding of such microbe-

matrix interactions, we started out by a detailed characterization of the wild-type dairy

strain L. lactis subsp. cremoris NCDO712 (1). This strain is the ancestor of the most

widely used model strain MG1363 (2). The nucleotide sequencing of the entire

genome of NCDO712 showed that, next to the chromosome, it contains 6 plasmids

(Chapter 2) instead of the 5 reported earlier (1). The additional plasmid, labeled

pNZ712, has a size similar to that of the lactose catabolism plasmid pLP712, and this is

the most probable reason why it was not detected earlier. Plasmid pNZ712 carries

functional nisin immunity (nisCIP) and copper resistance (lcoRSABC) genes and we

could show that the latter can be used as a marker for plasmid transfer through

conjugation. Interestingly, L. lactis NCDO712 had high surface hydrophobicity,

whereas its plasmid-free derivative MG1363 showed very low surface hydrophobicity.

This suggests that cell surface hydrophobicity is determined by plasmid-located gene(s).

Further, the cell surface-located subtilisin-like serine protease NisP was reported to be

involved in cell adhesion to surfaces (3–5). Thus, the pNZ712-encoded NisP might also

be a good candidate gene involved in cell surface hydrophobicity. Plasmid pSH74 from

NCDO712 was shown to contain a novel pilus gene cluster, which was named pil


General discussion

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(Chapter 2). Overexpression of this gene cluster in L. lactis strains MG1363, MG1299,

and IL1403 resulted in altered cell morphologies, such as cell chaining and fast

sedimentation, which were absent in the parental strains. In addition, cell surface

hydrophobicity significantly increased, from 5-20% to 95-99%, in the pilus

overexpression strains. More specifically, the tip protein SpaC, which takes part in

process of cell attachment to a substrate, might be involved in surface hydrophobicity,

although this remains to be confirmed. Light centrifugation of cells overexpressing the

pil gene cluster causes the formation of strong aggregates of which the cells cannot be

detached by vortexing. Such strong cell-cell connections might be explained by

interactions between the cell surface-located pilin proteins or by interactions between

pilin and other cell wall proteins.

In the process of starter culture production, fast sedimentation could make the

harvesting of cells more efficient. Besides the effect that pili overexpression has on cell

surface properties, it also increases conjugation efficiency. While some of the identified

effects of pili overexpression lead to significant phenotypic changes, the actual role of

pili in lactococci is still unclear. Oxaran et al. described pili in strain IL1403 and

showed that deletion of the pilus genes abolished the binding of the mutant lactococcal

cells to Caco-2 cells (6). The authors suggest of a role of the pili in the interaction with

intestinal cells which is similar to what has been observed in probiotic lactobacilli (7, 8)

or with natural a host of L. lactis, e.g., udder cells of a cow (9) or with the udder canal

cells (10). However, as L. lactis did most likely not evolve in the human gut, such

attachment is possibly not the primary function of the pili. On the other hand, pili of

the plant-associated Pseudomonas syringae are involved in the attachment of the

bacteria to plant surfaces (11). We did test if overexpression of the pilin cluster

increased adhesion to different plant leaves but could not find significant effects (data

not shown). While examples for a role in surface attachment may give hints as to the

potential functions of the pilus gene cluster identified here, it remains to be determined

whether it is an evolutionary remnant from the proposed plant ancestry of L. lactis (12)

or whether they fulfill a function in the dairy environment.


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The regulation of the pilin gene cluster was examined and it was found that the pil

leader sequence is required for pili expression. Initial attempts to clone the pil operon

downstream of the nisin-inducible nisA promoter or the constitutive purC promoter

without this leader sequence failed. Three L. lactis NZ9000 strains were constructed

carrying the pilin gene cluster followed by the gene for green fluorescent protein (GFP)

as an easy marker for gene expression. One of the 3 strains contained the leader

sequence. However, this strain did not produce GFP at a level significantly higher than

that of other two transformants. Fluorescence microscopy showed that all three strains

were fluorescent immediately after introduction of the plasmid into the strain but not

after that. Growth of the strains in a rich M17 medium with 17% sucrose and 1%

glucose resulted in more GFP production than in other media tested (CDM, GM17,

whey). Why the native promoter is of importance for successful overexpression of the

pilus gene cluster, what the exact role of the leader sequence is in gene expression and

how the medium composition exerts its influence are questions that need to be

investigated in the future.

Lactococcal cell surface biodiversity and cell surface alteration

To investigate the diversity of lactococcal surface properties, the 55 L. lactis isolates of

which 25 were isolated from non-dairy (mainly plant) material and 30 from a dairy

environment were analyzed (Chapter 3). The cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH), cell

surface charge, emulsion stabilizing properties, and the attachment of the bacterial cells

to milk proteins were measured. The results demonstrated not only that a large

biodiversity in L. lactis cell surface properties exists, but also that lactococci isolated

from a dairy environment have stronger binding affinity to milk proteins than plant

isolates do have. This suggests that protein binding gives an evolutionary advantage to

L. lactis strains that compete in the dairy environment.

Phenotype-genotype matching allowed identifying 10 candidate genes involved in the

modification of the cell surface. Their characterization resulted in the identification of 7

genes that are involved in cell surface properties. It would be interesting to examine

whether the alteration (mutation/deletion) of these 7 genes alone or in combinations


General discussion

213

would also impact the functionality of the mutant strains in either pure culture and/or in

mixed-culture fermentations.

As genetic manipulation to alter cell surface properties is currently not accepted in most

jurisdictions, cell surface properties were attempted to change by changing

environmental conditions. This was done by e.g., adding ethanol or ammonium sulfate

in order to enhance cell aggregation and subsequently cell surface hydrophobicity

(Chapter 6). When salt is added to a cell suspension the surface tension of the water

increases (13), resulting in the re-arrangement of water molecules, the increase in ionic

strength and the Debye-length decrease, as a result of which electrostatic repulsion

decreases and hydrophobic interactions increase between cell surface proteins and

hydrophobic molecules of a substrate. Interactions between exposed hydrophobic

patches of proteins and water molecules are unfavorable. The response of surface

proteins is to decrease their exposed surface area in order to minimize contact with

water (14). Thus, proteins on bacterial surfaces tend to interact with each other via

hydrophobic forces leading to cell-cell contact and consequent cell aggregation and,

ultimately cell sedimentation. Such protein-protein contact releases associated water

molecules, the entropy of the system increases indicating that these processes are

energetically favorable (15). Generally, when ethanol is added, it disrupts hydrogen and

hydrophobic bonding of globular proteins, which would usually unfold; the

concentration of ethanol needed for protein unfolding varies among proteins (16).

After a protein is unfolded, its apolar side chains become exposed to the

microenvironment and thus, a protein reacts with other molecules via hydrophobic

interactions. We showed that hydrophobic lactococcal strains can form stable oil-in-

water emulsions with hydrocarbons in a manner similar to Pickering stabilization,

wherein the bacteria act as solid particles that bind to the surface of the oil-water

interface and prevent the oil droplets from coalescing. A general rule of Pickering

emulsions is that the particle size should be at least 10 times smaller than the targeted

emulsion droplet size (17). There is no optimal particle size to make emulsion: it was

reported that particles with diameter of about 100 nm can form an emulsion stable for

several months with an oil droplet size of 10-30 μm (18), and hydrophilic silica particles


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with a primary particle size of ∼12 nm form emulsions with droplet size of 2 μm, while

aggregated silica particles (size ∼150 nm) form emulsions with droplet diameter of

about 10-30 μm (19). If it concerns cells as stabilizing particles, then the average

emulsion droplet diameter range varies from about 80-100 μm (20) to 500 μm (21).

While the formation of bacterial cell-stabilized emulsions worked well with the

fluorinated oil HFE7500, it was necessary to induce cell aggregation first with either

ethanol or ammonium sulfate to stabilize oil-water emulsions of sunflower seed oil

(Chapter 6). This indicated that the emulsifying capacity of cells in oil-water systems is

facilitated by solvent-mediated cell aggregation, probably by the ability of the

ammonium sulfate to “salt-out” the cell surface proteins and, thus, increasing surface

protein hydrophobicity (22). When at this moment mixing by vortexing is applied to

cell suspensions containing oil, we hypothesize that protein-oil contacts occur in a

matter of seconds via hydrophobic areas in cell surface proteins made available by e.g.

the added salt or ethanol. It might also be that the increased cell hydrophobicity is a

side effect of cell aggregates. Cell aggregates are better in forming a Pickering emulsion

than (single) cells as a consequence of creation a coherent surface layer. Additionally,

cell aggregates would increase emulsified oil droplet mass, which might prevent oil

droplet creaming, thus, providing longer emulsion stability. All in all, studying microbe-

matrix interactions is a challenging task, even on well-characterized L. lactis strains like

NCDO712 and MG1363. The microbial cell surface composition is complex and

strain-specific, which results in a large biodiversity. A complicating factor is the growth

phase-dependency of cell surface properties, as we observed in 22 out of 55 L. lactis

strains, for example in L. lactis HP (Chapter 3). The surface hydrophobicity of this

strain is >90% in the exponential growth phase and decreases to <20% in the stationary

phase of growth. The exact underlying mechanism(s) and which particular surface

proteins are involved in hydrophobic interactions of L. lactis remain to be identified. In

terms of applicability, the enhanced cell aggregation as a result of cell surface

hydrophobicity upon salt addition could be used for emulsion stabilization in clean-

label or E-number-free applications. Hydrophobic or electrostatic interactions between

microbes and matrices can be strain-specific (23), (Chapter 3) due to the specific


General discussion

215

biochemical characteristics of cell surface molecular composition (24, 25). To

understand the impact of the matrix on lactococcal cells we also studied the

transcriptional response of cells residing at an oil-water interphase. The results showed

that mostly (46%) genes involved in amino acid and inorganic ion transport and -

metabolism were significantly differentially expressed. Of significantly differentially

expressed genes 28% have unknown functions; we hypothesize that some of them

might be cell surface related and it would be great if additional work would be further

conducted in this area.

Functionality of lactococcal cell surface engineering in fermented

dairy products

After engineering surface properties and surface morphology of L. lactis, it remained to

be tested whether these alterations have an impact on the functionality of the bacteria in

pure and mixed-culture fermentations (Chapters 4 and 5). The results show that, in

fermented milk, gel hardness positively correlated with clumping of cells as a result of

pili overexpression, whereas viscosity was higher when milk was fermented with cells

with a chaining phenotype or overexpressing pili or exopolysaccharides. It was also

observed that the localization of the bacteria in a dairy matrix was dependent on cell

surface properties. For example, pili expressing and aggregated cells appeared in tightly

filled cavities of the protein matrix of fermented milk while cells that form chains were

localized randomly. Clumping, expression of pili, and chaining led to formation of large

cell aggregates embedded in the protein matrix in cheese. Furthermore, surface

alteration strongly affected the distribution of lactococcal cells in the cheese matrix

(Chapter 5). Pili overexpression in L. lactis MG1363 and L. lactis IL1403 resulted in a

significantly increased cell-retention in cheese curd. These results suggest that surface

properties of lactococcal dairy starter cultures strongly determine the retention and

distribution of the bacteria in dairy food matrices (Fig. 1) and affect textural properties.

In this respect, starter culture cells might be considered as structure elements, either by

connecting food matrix molecules or as structure breakers or inert fillers in fermented

foods, as a consequence of cell surface-dependent properties. The alteration of cell

surface properties opens possibilities to modifying starter culture functionality (Fig. 1)


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and to use starter cells as structural matrix components. For example, by expressing

more charged surface molecules like proteins, glycopolymers or polysaccharides on the

bacterial cell walls, the bacteria might function as stabilizers of high viscosity products

like puddings, cream cheese, plant-based milk smoothie, dressings, or dysphagia drinks

in which electrostatic interactions are the major stabilizing forces (Fig. 1). In this case a

product stability might be controlled by the selection of the proper ratio between

charged cells and proteins or hydrocolloids used. Possibly, the amount of added salts

like e.g acidity regulators like trisodium phosphate and dipotassium phosphates could

be lowered in such applications. An alternative way of liquid product stabilization

would be via salt bridges when bacterial cells and proteins or when bacterial cells and

hydrocolloids are both negatively charged (Fig. 1). To change electrostatic and ion

interactions in the food matrix by the alteration of starter cultures still seems to be a

challenging task. The simplest way seems to be to screen the strains for surface charge,

then group strains based on strong (> -25 mV) or weak surface charge and then create

the starter culture mix combining strains with desired surface charge and other

properties like fermentation speed or flavour profile. Alternative and more time-

consuming way of charge alteration might be a targeted selection of cell surface proteins

and the subsequent modification (knock-out, point mutations, or overexpression) of the

genes encoding those proteins. In this case it is important to take into account the

legislation rules. Incorporation of cells (for example probiotics) in a solid product could

be regulated via hydrophobic interactions. To that end it would be important to use

probiotic strains with a high surface hydrophobicity e.g. with molecules containing

hydrophobic groups or hydrophobic patches like proteins per se or cell surface

proteins with high binding specificity for sugar moieties of food polymers: fibers or

complex polysaccharides (Fig. 1) that are slowly digestible by a consumer to provide

balanced energy after a meal (26). Strong binding of strains to slowly digested fibers or

even to proteins would entail a kind of encapsulation of the bacterial cells or its

protection against stress conditions. This would allow using such bacteria as probiotics

in functional foods. Strain-specific binding to food substrates could even be a beneficial

factor in this case as it would allow developing a mixed-strain starter culture with multi-

functionality in one application: in fermentation as well as for probiotic purposes.


General discussion

217

Figure 1. Schematic view of interactions between bacterial cells and components in dairy food matrices such as cheese or fermented milk (not to scale). ¥ Indicates the potential of altering microbe-matrix interactions and subsequently starter culture functionality, as described in this study.

Concluding remarks

Altering cell surface properties and/or cell surface morphology can lead to different

starter culture functionality in dairy food matrices. We endeavored to unravel the

molecular mechanisms underlying the L. lactis surface properties. To employ potential

new starter functionalities microbe-matrix interactions need to be studied more

intensively as a better understanding thereof is required. One of the challenges that

needs to be tackled is that many of the interactions between substrate and bacterial

surfaces could be strain specific. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of microbe-

substrate interactions should ultimately allow altering bacterial surfaces in the desired

direction in a non-GMO way. Using strains with preferred surface properties may result


Chapter 7

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in improved or even entirely new industrial processes and in enhanced product quality.

Up to date genetic techniques are used to obtain bacteria with desired surface

properties, in addition to employing chemical components (e.g. alcohols), selective

fractionation and enrichment of spontaneous mutants (27). Novel genome sequence

data in combination with bioinformatics and comparative genomic analyses hold great

promise for the rapid improvement of bacterial industrial functionality (28).

It would be also interesting to study the interactions of surface engineered starter

culture cells in combination with hydrocolloids like pectin, carrageenan, cellulose, fiber,

and starch which are used as stabilizers of dairy matrices (Fig. 1). The question is

whether there are any specific or synergistic effects of microbe-matrix or microbe-

microbe interactions that might impact textural properties of an end product like

viscosity and/or firmness or lead to a new product matrix? Due to an increasing

demand for animal-free products the market of dairy-free products or dairy alternatives

is growing, including vegan cheese, vegan spread, dairy-free yoghurt-like desserts, etc.

However, taste and texture of the dairy-free alternatives are often still inferior to those

of dairy products. The research presented in this thesis paves the way for research into

improved or innovative dairy and dairy-free applications and developing new textures

and products.

Despite some successful and interesting research results presented here, the knowledge

on genes determining starter culture surface properties and microbe-matrix interactions

still remains far from complete. Hopefully the questions raised and answers obtained

throughout this research will be picked up in future studies.

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