University of Nigeria (2).… · The human speech mechanism starts with the flow of airstream from...
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University of Nigeria Research Publications Author UMOBI, Fredrick C. PG/ MA/99/26411 Title Media Agenda-Setting and Mobilization for Political Elections: The Nigerian Experience (1998/99) Faculty Arts Department English Date June, 2002 Signature
Transcript of University of Nigeria (2).… · The human speech mechanism starts with the flow of airstream from...
University of Nigeria Research Publications
Aut
hor
UMOBI, Fredrick C.
PG/ MA/99/26411
Title
Media Agenda-Setting and Mobilization for Political Elections: The Nigerian Experience (1998/99)
Facu
lty
Arts
Dep
artm
ent
English
Dat
e
June, 2002
Sign
atur
e
U . J I Y i Z R S I T Y O F N I G E R I A , N S U K K A
DEPART>X:dT OF i;\Jt;LISI-I
S C l I G O L Sl-'UDE;\ITS O F AGUATA L O C A L SOVLRIJME;,''T
A R E A O F ANAMBRA STATE.
A p r o j e c t Report Submi t t e d in P a r t i a 1 F ' u l f i l 1 i l c 1 7 t of t h e Requirements for t h e ?,ward of t h e Degree of Master of A r t s (M.A.) (ESL).
UMOBI , F I I E D R I C K C.
S U P E R V I S O R : S.M. O N U I G D O
J U N E , 2002
CERTIFICATION
U M O B I , FREDliICK C. , a p o s t q r a d u a te s t u d e n t
of E n g l i s h and w i t h R e g i s t r a t i o n ~ u r & e r ~ G / ~ ? A / 9 9 / 2 5 4 1 1 )
h a s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o r n p l e teii t h e ~-eqilir:it~ci~ ts f o r . c o u r s e i:r.td r e s e a r c h w o r k f o r t h e a w a r d 0:- t l ~ e d e g r e e
of MasLc:r df hrts (M.A. i n L n q l i s h a s a s e c o n d
L a n g u a g e (ESL).
T h e w o r k e m b o d i e d i n tllis p r o j e c t .is o r i q i n a l
and } \a s n o t been s u b m i t t e c i n p a r t or i n <>ill fbr
U n i v e r s i t y .
dead oi D e p a r t m e n t
iii
APPROVAL PAGE
This w o r k h a s been r e a d and a p p r u v e d a s
h a v i n g n e t t h e s t a n d i i r d r e q u i r e d for t h e award of
t h e d e g r e e of Mas te r o f A r t s . (M.A. ) (EsL) of t h e . Depar tment of E n g l i s h , U n i v e r s i t y of N i ( j e r i a ,
N s u k k a .
S U P E R V I S O R
E X T E R N A L SXAMINER
HEAD OF D E P A R T M E N T
I N T E i < : J k L EXAMINER
DEDICATION
The work is d e d i c a k d t o the very f e w who
u n d e r s t o o d and syrnpathised w i t h m e d u r i n g t h e era
of c r i s i s , n o t quf te long ago.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I A m g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o my s u p e r v i s o r ,
" Mr. Sam Onuigba fo r his c o m m i t m e n t to my w o r k and
g r a d u a t i o n .
I a l s o a p p r e c i a t e t h e e f f o r t s of former Head
of Depar tment , D r . N.F. Inyama and t h e S e c r e t a r y
t o t h e Department Mrs Aida O j i r n e l u k w e f c l r t h e i r
immense encouragement i n many ways.
Worthy of commendat ion a l s o are M r E n m a n u e l
uba and Miss T h e r e s a , fellow s t u d e n t s ; ~ l s o .
Miss Amaka Ugwu. Tnese a r e f r i e n d s i n need i n t h i s
academic s trugglc.
K O R K S CITED. . . . - ' 61
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of t h e s t u d y :
T h e human s p e e c h mechanism s ta r t s w i t h t h e
flow of airstream from t h e l u n g s and t h e i n d i v i d u a l
s o u n d segments s o produced a r e a r r a n g e d according
to t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l rules o f E n g l i s h t o g i v e
a c c e p t a b l e sequences f o r meaningful c o m q u n i c a t i o n .
I t i s ' a l w a y s i m p o r t a n t t o p r o n o u n c e t h e vowels and
consonants p r o p e r l y b u t i t i s more irnl,or t m t to .#
manf p u l a t e t h e f e a t u r e s o f stress and in t o n a t i o n
e f f e c t i v e l y s i n c e these f e a t u r e s affect, i n v e r y
s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s , t h e q u a l i t y of the s egmen t s . T h e
f e a t u r e s o f stress a n d i n t o n a t i o n w h i c h a r e tecqnical-
ly referred t o a s ' t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s ,
affect n o t j u s t t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h e s e g m e n t s b u t
a l s o the m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d s formed front t h e s e
s egmen t s , F o r this r e a s o n , t h i s p r o j e c t i n t e n d s to
examine the supra-segrnen tal p rob l ems of / i g u a t a s p e a k e r s
of E n g l i s h b i i t h a view t o p r o v i d i n g s o l u t i o n s t o t h e
problems,
I t i s n o t e n o u g h t o r n a s t e r , ' t h e descrete
s o u n d s of t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e : t h e vowels a n d
t h e c o n s o n a n t s , T h e s e s o u n d s a r e o n l y a
c o m p o n e n t , s l i t t l e more t h a n h a l f o f t h e entire
c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e E n g l i s h s o u n d s y s t e m , As
O n u i g b o (1997:T) p u t s i t .. t h e s p e e c h s o u n d s of
~ n g l i s h a n d t h e f e a t u r e s of stress a n d i n t o n a t i o n
c o n s t i t u t e t h e s o u n d s y s t e m of E n g l i s h . S o , t h e
s t u d e n t who knows t h e d e s c r e t e u n i t s w i t h o u t .thlL
k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s h a s a
l o t t o do y e t ,
T h e p rominen t s u p r a - s e q m e n t a l u n i ts a r e stress
a n d i n t o n a t i o n . They a r e o f g r e a t c o n c e r n t o t h i s
work b e c a u s e t h e two are r e l a t e d to t h e e x t e n t t h a t
o n e c o m p l e m e n t s t h e o t h e r and o f t e n times, t h e t w o
are used t o g e t h e r , I f one t a k e s time t o l i s t e n t o
t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r s , o n e w i l l a l w a y s n o t i c e t h a t
t h e p i t c h of t h e v o i c e rises a n d f a l l s i n l i n e with
t h e c o r r e c t r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l
e l e m e n t s , Any proficient u s e r of t h e E n g l i s h
l a n g u a g e a l s o r e a l i s e s i t this way.
T h e N i g e r i a n l e a r n e r s o f E n g l i s h are s e c o n d
l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s and s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g i s
3
known to be cumbersome. It i s q u i t e u n l i k e f i r s t
l a n g u a q e a c q u i s i t i o n w h i c h Markey (1965 : 1 3 8 ) says
is p a r t of natural learning a n d m a t u r a t i o n .
h contrastive a n a l y s i s of t h e sour , r i .sy.stern of
E n g l i s h and any Nige r i an languaqe s h o w s t h s t there
a r e cases of s f rn f l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n the
i n v e n t o r y of descrete sounds. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o
note these a r e a s of s i m i l a r i t y . The Nigerian l e a r n e r
of t h e E n g l i s h as well as o t h e r second l anguage
learners of E n g l i s h i n ~frica and ~ s i a h a s no
problems w i t h t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , T h e a r e a s of
differences says C h r i s t o p h e r s e n (1981: 2 ) a r e ~ L L
p o t e n t i a l sources of problems.
T a l k i n q a b o u t t h e supra-segmentals, t h e cases
of dif ferences are a l l over and t h s t is why those
concerned w i t h t h e business of s p o k e n E n q l l s h i n
N i g e r i a do not, b y with t h e s u p r a - s e g ~ n c n t a l f e a t u r e s
of stress a n d i n t o n a t i o n .
C h r i s t o p h e r s e n (1981:5) m a i n t a i n s that t h e
secrete of l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g i s i m i t a t i o n . I n t h e
same l i n e , the secrete of spoken E n q l i s k i s t e i , ~ h f n q
a.nd l e a r n i n g the en t i r e sound system, no t ju:;t a
p a r t o f i t . g o v e r n m e n t , t h e M i n i s t r y
of E d u c a t i o n , r e c o g n i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s p o k e n
E n g l i s h a n d t h e r e f o r e i n s i s t s o n s t u d e n t s
' a c q u i s i t i o n of oral E n q l i s h a t t h e secondary a!ld
u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n w h e r e i t forms an
e s s e n t i a l p a s t of t h e c u r r i c u l u m . Stress a n d
i n t o n a t i o n are a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e d e s c r e t e s o u n d s .
Issues s u c h a s t h e s t ress, i n t o n a t i o n a n d syllable
s t r u c t u r e a r e important f e a t u r e s of t h e s o u n d s y s t e m
of E n g l i s h w h i c h a r e a l s o s p e c i a l l y h a n d l e d a s t h e y
affect t h e quality o f t h e vowels and c o n s o n a n t s .
T h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l e v e l i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n
t h e a c a d e m i c s t r u c t u r e b e c a u s e i t i s a t t h i s l e v e l
t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r good E n g l i s h i s l a i d . What-
e v e r i s o m i t t e d i s r e a l i s e d l a t e r w i t h much d i f f i c u l t y
and w h a t e v e r i s g a t h e r e d a t t h i s l e v e l i s r e t a i n e d
a lmos t f o r a l o n g time. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , I-lowever,
t h e N i q e r i a n l e a r n e r a t t h i s s t a g e ' e x p e r i e n c e s .I
l o t o f problems i n t h e p r o c c s s cf l e a r n i n t j and t h i s
r e s e a r c h i s t h e r e f o r e d e s i g n e d to exa rn inc s u c h
p r o b l e m s e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e y a f f e c t t h e s e c o n d a r y
s c h o o l l e a r n e r s i n Aguata L o c a l mvern~ner~t Area of
Anambra S t a t e ,
1.2 Research Oh j e c t i v e s
T h e p u r p o s e of t h i 5 r e s e a r c h i s t o F3xpose
t h e i n d e s p e n s a b l e r o l e s o f t h e supra-seqrnen t a l s
i n s p o k e n E n g l i s h and t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t i n i l i t a t e
a g a i n s t the e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f
s t ress and i n t o n a t i o n i n a s-econd' 1 a n g ~ ; ~ q e
s i t u a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r reference t o h q u a t a L o c a l
Government Area, Recogn i t i o n o f t h ~ t s e problem:; i s
more o r less a p o s i t i v e s t e p t o w a r d s t h e s o l u t i o n .
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e supra - seqrnenka l
f e a t u r e s a f f e c t t h e q u a l i t y of v o w e l s and c o n s o n a n t s
a s w e l l a s t h e way we s p e a k . F a u l t y m a n i p u l a t i o n
o f these f e a t u r e s makes o n e s s p e e c h u n n a t u r a l ;md
some times m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e r e s e a r c h , t h e r e f o r e ,
tries t o i d e n t i f y t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t h i n d e r p r o p e r
m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e f e a t u r e s and t h e r e a f t e r s u q g e s t
ways o f h a n d l i n g these p r o ~ l e m s to ensure e f f e c t i v e
o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
1.3 R e s e a r c h P r o b l e m
F o r e f f e c t i v e E n g l i s h c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e
p i t c h of t h e voice r ises a n d f a l l s . some u t t e r a n c e s
are s a i d o n t h e r i s i n q t u n e w h i l e o t h e r s are made
o n . t h e f a l l i n g t u n e . T h e r e a r e s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h a r e
m a d e w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h t h e r is i ! . lq a n d
t h e f a l l i n g t u n e s a n d i n t h e s e u t t e r a n c e s g r a m m a t i c a l
words a r e u s u a l l y n o t stressed w h i l e t h e c o n t e n t
w o r d s a r e s t r e s s e d . I t i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e
o c c u r e n c e of t h e s t r e s s e d a n d u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
i n t h e u t t - e r a n c e t h a t makes f o r t h e r h y t h m and
c a d e n c e of E n g l i s h s p e e c h . T h e s e are made p o s s i b l e
t o t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r t h r o u g h t h e l a n g u a q e a c q u i s i -
I-. tion d e v i c e . T h e N i g e r i a n l e a r n e r f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t
to g r a p p l e w i t h t h e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n of E n g l i s h a n d
t h i s i s d u e t o t h e r r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e - r h y t h m of E n g l i s h s p e e c h a n d t h a t of t h e n a t i v e
l a n g u a g e s . ~ e s i d e g ; i t was o n l y r e c e n t l y t h a t O r a l
~ & l i s h w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n ~ i g e r i a n s e c o n d a r y schools
a n d b e f o r e t h a t time l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g w a s known
abou t proper ~ n ~ l i s h s p e e c h by s p e a k e r s a t t h a t l e v e l . a
Some y e a r s b a c k , oral E n q l i s h u sed t o bc an o p t i o n a l
s u b j e c t and f o r t h a t m a t t e r about 95% of t h e
i J i q e r i a n s t u d e n t s l i ad no k n o w l e d q e f:f thl-1 s u b j e c t .
Today, o r a l E n g l i s h i s p a r t of t h e E n q l i s h
language c u r r i c u l y but t h e effort is f aced w i t h
d i f f i c u l t i e s because t h e entire cons t i t u u n ts of
t h e E n g l i s h sound system a r e n o t g i v e n e q u a l
a t t e n t i o n .
T h e supra-segrnen t a l s are n o t a s emphas i zed
as t h e descrete s o m d s i n t h e curriculum. The
i m p r e s s i o n c r e a t e d i s t h a t w h e n a student masters
the vowels and consonants, t h e I n d i v i d u a l has gone
a long way b u t we know t h a t i t i s n o t t r u e .
Ignorance of t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l 5 i s a v t<ry s e r i o u s
problem i n s p o k e n E n g l i s h . Sometimes, the incorrect
s e a l i s a t i o n of t h e supra-scgmcntals c a n result i n
o u t r i g h t alteration of t h e m e a n i n q of t h e s e n t e n c e .
T h e government, t ex tbook writers, c u r r i c u l u m
d e s i g n e r s , s p e c i a l i s e d t e a c h c r s and s t u d e n t s m u s t
w o r k k o g e t h e r t o ensure t h a t p r o p e r spcc~ch p a t t e r n s l e a r n t
are taught and / - i n t h e second 1 a n q u . l q -
s i t u a t i o n .
1.4 Relevance of t h e Resea r ch
This work i s a n i n v a l u a b l e a s s e t t r y many
concerr-~ed w i t h the bus ine s s o f E n g l i s h l a ~ l q u s q e n u t
j u s t i n Nigeria hut i n o t h e r places w h e r e E n g l i s h
l a n g u a g e is s t u d i e d a s a second l a n g u a g e , The
emphasis o n the sup ra - seg rnen t a l s is well directed
t o modify o u r s t r a t e g i e s in o r a l E n q l i s h teachinq
and l e a r n i n g .
The s t u d e n t s who take: t i m e t o study t!iis work
w i l l b e n e f i t a l o t because i t p r o j e c t s b n t h t h e
problems and s o l u t i o n s f o r effective h a n d l i n g of
t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s of E n g l i s h . T e a c h e r s
a t all levels c a n a l s o g a i n a l o t of i d e , ? s f rom
t h e work. So, it is a complemen ta ry resource
m a t e r i a l . Textbook w r i t e r s c a n maktt use .-jf c u r r e n t
i d e a s i n t h e s t u d y of t h e supra-se7;rnentals a s
c o n t 2 i n e d i n t h e work. What i s more, c u ! - r i c u l u m
designers w i l l f i n d t h e w o r k v e r y r e v e a ' l i ~ l ~ .
1.5 Scope o f t h e S t u d y
T i ? i s research f o c u s e s a t t e n k i o n o n the s u p r a -
segemental f e a t u r e s o f t h e E n g l i s k l a n q u r 1 g e f o r i f
...., (and a s t u d e n t a c q u i r e s t h e k n o w l e d g e of strc.':~:
i n t o n a t i o n , t h e s t u d e n t will c e r t a i n l y a c h i e v e
p r o p e r s p e x h h a b i t s in o r a l c o m i n u n i c ; . , t i ~ n ,
The research i s l i m i t e d t o secondr-rv s c h o o l
s t u d e n t s s i n c e i t i s a t t h i s l eve l t h a t the
founciation f o r p r o p e r o r a l comrnuniic?t ion i s l a i d .
I f t h e research c a n s o l v e the prol~lerns ~ t ' o r a l
E n g l i s h a t t h i s l e v e l , t h e research w o u l d i n d e e d '.
h a v e a c h i e v e d a '101: a s w h a t e v e r i s l e a r n t a t t h i s
l e v e l i s h a r d l y f o r g o t t e n .
F u t h e r , t h e research i s l i m i t e d t o s e c o n d a r y
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n Agua ta L o c a l Government Area
because of s t r ic t l i m i t a t i o n s i n time and s p a c e .
It i s however b e l i e v a l t h a t w h a t e v e r f i r t d i n q s a r e
made i n t h i s s i t u ' a t i o n a r e likely tc be true ~f
most l e a r n e r s i n a second l a n g u a g e s i t u a t i o n
e s p e c i a l l y i n Niger ia .
CHAPTER TWO I
LITERATURE REIJIE'W
T h i s c h a p t e r r e v i e w s t h e o p i n i o n s of I
scho la r s i n t h e a r ea of stress ~ n d i n t : - l n a ? i o n ,
bout i n t o n a t i o n , O g C o n n o r (1380:109) s a y s
t h a t every language h a s melody in i t ; no l a n ~ u a g e
i s spoken o n t h e same m u s i c a l n o t e a l l t h e time.
T h e v o i c e goes u p and down a n d d i f f e r e n t notes of
t h e v o i c e combine to make t u n e s . I n some l a n q u a q e s ,
t h e t u n e m a i n l y b e l o n g s t o t h e word, b e i n g p a r t of
i t s s h a p e , a n d i f t h e t u n e o f t h e w o r d i s wrong, i t s
s h a p e i s spoiled. The C h i n e s e l a n q u a q e s . a r e like
t h i s and s o are many o t h e r s i n S o u t h - e a s t n s i a ,
~ f r i c a and America. I n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , t h e same
s o u n d s s a i d w i t h d i f f e r e n t t u n e s may make
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t w o r d s . I n C h i n e s . /;a:T s a i d w i t h - - a - l e v e l t u n e means mother b u t /za:7 w i t h ;1 r i s i n g - -
'-' tune means h o r s e ; a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e 1
I n many o t h e r i l a n q u a q e s , of w h i c h E n q l i s h is
O n e , the tune b e l o n g s n o t to t h e word hut t o t h e
word group. If y o u s a y t h e E n g l i s h word ' n o f
w i t h i ; i f fe rent t u n e s , i t i s s t i l l the same w o r d .
However, tuqe p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n E n g l i s h
as we c a n s a y a w o r d g r o u p d e f i n i t e l y or we c a n
s a y i t h e s i t a n t l y , we c a n s a y i t a n q r i l y o r k i n d l y ,
we can say i t w i t h i n t e res t o r w i t l - l o u t interest,
and these d i f f e r e n c e s a r e l a r g e l y made by t h e t u n e s
we use: the words do n o t c h a n g e t h e i r rn san ing b u t
t h e t u n e w e u s e a d d s s o m e t h i n g to t h e wor .^ ls , and
w h a t i t a d d s i s t h e s p e a k e r ' s f e e l i n g s at: t h a t
moment ; t h i s way of u s i n g t u n e s i s c a l l e d i n t o n a t i o n .
The E n g l i s h i n t o n a t i o n i s E n g l i s h : i t i s n o t same
a s t h e i n t o n a t 5 o n .of any o the r language.
From t h e f o r e g o i n g , o n e n o t i c e s t h a t :he w o r d
remains t h e same b u t t h e t u n e w o r k s t o s h d p e its
m e a n i n g . I n t o n a t i o n , one c a n c o n c l u d e , p r e s e n t s
t h e a t t i t u d e w h i c h , i n t u r n , a f f e c t s t h e meaning.
C h r i s t o p h e r s e n , (1965 :l57-8'1) has h i s own
ideas of stress a n d i n t o n a t i o n , His s u b m i s s i o n i s
t h a t E n g l i s h i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by i t s u n i q u e stress
p a t t e r n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t af a n y A f r i c a n
l a n g u a g e . Here h e d i s t i n q u i s h e s be t w e n t o n a l
l a n q u a g e s for A f r i c a n l a n g u a g e s . and a stra:ss and
i n t o n a t i o n l a n g u a g e for E n g l i s h . Not a l l t h e
s y l l a b l ~ s a r e stressed i n t h e E n g l i s h many-sy l lab ic
words. Some s y l l a b l e s must be s t r e s s e d ; scme m t i s t .
be weaicefied by t h e ef fcc t s o f stress on tlhe s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s kresscd
and t h c u n s t r e s s e d . s y l l a l > l e i s tha t : t h e s t r e s s e d
one i s l o u d and c l e a r l y h e a r d . T h e u n s t r ~ d s s e d o n e
i s f a i n t and sometimes n o t h e a r d a t a l l .
As t h e s p e a k e r moves f rom s t r e s s e d s v l l a h l t ? ~
and words t o t h e i r u n s t r e s s e d c o u n t e r p a r t s , r h y thrn
is rcalised. This i s a d i s t i n c t i v e mark of the
E n g l i s h l a n g u a q e . I t i s l i k e m u s i c and i t s
a c c o m p a n i m e n t w h i c h when h a r m o n i o u s l y m a r r i e d
r e s u l t s i n a r ise and f a l l of t h e v o i c e , The rise
and f a l l i s n o t i c e a b l e f o r i n s t a n c e i n a n u t t e r a n c e
1 'Mary i s g o i n g t o school1., / qMeri i~ 'cjeu3 t u s .ku : l / .
I. There sre t h r e e s t r e s s 2 d s y l l a b l e s i n t e r - s p a c e d by
f o u r u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . The rise i s t h e r e w h e r e
there i s stress; t h e f a l l i s t h e r e where t h e r e i s ,
no stress.
T h e s i t u a t i o n i n E n g l i s h i s i n c o n L c a d i c t i o n
w i t h w h a t o b t a i n s i n mos t A f r i c a n l a n c ~ u ~ ~ c ~ c s . I n
13
most ~ f r i c a n l a n g u a g e s , t h e s y l l s b l c s d r . 2 spoken
w i t h e q u a l stress, For this r e a s o r l , tlie n a t i v e
s p e a k ~ r transfers t h i s f e a t u r e t o L n g l i s h
l anguage . They p r o n o u n c e for i n s Lance " c a t e g o r y "
/ k a t I l ~ o r f / i n s t e a d of / k 3 2 1 1 3 q r f / ,
he way a word i s s t r e s s ; _ i d iri E n q l i s h d e t e r m i n e s
i t s g rammat i ca l f u n c t i o n . T h e word c o n ' v e r t
stressed i n the second syllable m u s t function a s
a ve rb w h e r e a s when sit.ressed i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e , i t
becomes a n o u n . So, stress i n E n g l i s h i s n o t a
d e c o r a t i v e a s s e s s o r y . It ca r r i e s m e a n i n g w i t h i t
and i s c a p a b l e of & h a n g i n g meaning.
For C h r i s t o p h e r s o n t h e r e f o r e , t h e p i t c h of the
voice of t h e i n d i v i d u a l keeps on c h a n g i n g a s h e
s p e a k s . Sometimes h i g h ; sometimes low. If t h e p i t c h
does n o t c h a n g e i n t h i s m a n n e r n o t o n l y would a n y
s p o k e n u t t e r a n c e s o u n d monotonous i n t h e extreme, ;,
b u t ones s p e e c h would be d e p r i v e d of an i m p o r t a n t
means of e x p r e s s i o n . ~ u s t a s a change of stress
may a l t e r t h e m e a n i n g o r i m p l i c a t i o n of a sentence,
s o may a change of p i t c h . I n f a c t , stress and
p i t c h work h a n d i n h a n d to give what i s s a i d i t s
speci a 1 emphas is and i m p l i c a t i o n .
14
s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a r e t h o s e u t t e r e d w i t h
greater b r e a t h e f for t . T h e o n e s w h i c h a r e n o t
u t t e r e d t h i s way a r e t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l n b l e s .
T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n is o f f e r e d by Onuirjbo, S.M.
(1999: 35 L S t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a r e c h a r i ~ c t c r i s e d by
l o u d n e z s ~ n d h i g h e r p i t c h of t h e v c i c e . aTr~e
u n s L r ~ s s s d syllables a r e n o t .
Gnu igbo h a s f o u r c a t e g o r i e s of stress: word
s t ress , s e n t e n c e stress c o n t r a s t i v e s ti--..s aqd
shifting stress. on word stress, h e c o n t ~ n d s l ike
some o t h z r writers t h a t words of rnorc ; i i . r i oni.;
stress a r c n o t e v e n l y stressed. For vi?ry; long
words , t h e r e a r e t h e p r imary and t h e s e c o n d a r y stresses.
H i s ' i d e a o f t h e shifting stress i s i n l i n e with
s t r e s s i n g a t w o - s y l l a b i c word a c c o r d i n g t o i t s
grammatical function i.e. a s a noun o r a s a verb.
,., For s e n t e n c e s tress, a s e n t e n c e i n E n g l i s h u s u a l l y
c o n t a i n s words o f d i f f e r e n t c lasses . Some of t h e m
appea r more i m p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r s and a r e s a i d t o
be the c o n t e n t words. They a r e u s u a l l y s t r e s s e d .
n r t i c l e s , p r e p o s i t i o n , con j u n c t i o n s and a u x i l i a r y
verbs a p p u ? r not t o be a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h . i c o n t e n t
words.. Tticsc a r e called t h e g rammat i ca l words w h i c h
a r e not u r j u a l l y s t r e s s e d . iJhat w? hsvc ir, a
szntence , L h e r e f o r e , i s a c o m b i n a t i o n i l Y s t r e s s e d
and u n s t r e s s e d 'words and j u s t a s an i n t e r p l a y of
stress-d and u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s s c c o u n tr; f o r
r h y t h m , s u c h a r r a n g e m e n t i n a s e n t e n c e d o c s t h e same.
Jhat Onuigbo s u b m i t s i n the a r e a ~f c o n t r a s t i v e
is not l i ke mathemat ics w h e r e one p l u s o n e i s z l w a y s
two. A s p e z k e r 1s m e s s a g e c o n s i s t s of i n f o r m a t i o n
unyts w h i c h a r e c a l l e d t o n e g r o u p s and a t o n e g r o u p
i s u s ~ ~ ~ l l y a c l a u s e . Each i n f o r m a t i o n u n i t c o n t a i n s
a word which i s u k u a l l y t h e f o c u s of t ! i ~ ~ n e s s a g e .
I n o r d i t ~ ~ r y speech, t h e l a s t stre,sed s y l l a b l e o r
word i n the c l a u s e i s t h e n u c l e u s or f o c u s of t h e
message . Depend ing on t h e c o n t e w t and t h e m e a n i n g
i n t e n d e d , any word i n t h e s e n t e n c e c a n be marked
as t h e focus of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . I r l f , I - 1 even a
g r a m m a t i c a l word w h i c h is n u t usually s t r , - ssed c,,n
. ' b e k h e ccn t r ; of i n f o r m a t i o n and , i n this c o n t e x t ,
i t becomes s t ressed and emphas ized .
k p r t f r o m e m p h a s i s i n g a word a s t h e c e n t r e
of i n f o r m a t i o n , a s p e c i a l c o n t r a s t may b.: i . i k c n d e d .
16
To b r i n g o u t t h e c o n t r a s t c l e a r l y , t h ? word w h i c h
i n d i c a t e s t h e c o n t r a s t i s stressed w h i l e t h e
s t ress o n t h e o t h e r words i s q c - . n c r a l l y r e d u c d .
The s e n t e n c e 'He . h p b t h e b o t t l e ON t h e t a b l e t
i s an exarnple (Not uricier t h e t a b l t t )
On in t o n a t i o n , O n u i q S o (1999: 34 ) si l : -mi t s
t h a t i t c o r n p l e m e n i s t h e s t ress i n g i v i n g s p e c i a l
m e a n i n g . , n d e m p h a s i s to an u t t e r a n c e . ',,Jhen o n e
s p e a k s , t h e voice c h a n g e s ; becomes h i g h o r low
d e p e h d i n y on the meaning t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d s .
The ch;~rl~-;el; i n pitch art3 i rnpp r t a n k b ? c ~ l , . i I-
t h e r e a r e 1-10 s u c h chanl-jes, t h e speech w o u l d s o u n d
m o n o t o n o u s o r e v e n m e a n i n g l e s s . I n f a c t ,
i n t o n a t i o n is u s e d m e a n i n g f u l l y i n a l l ' l ~ ? . n [ ~ u a ~ t : s
same p p e l l i n g i n many N i g e r i a l t tnyuaqes , . i t i:; u s e d i n E n q l i s h to g i v e s p e c i a l rneaninq to an
u t t e r ~ : i c e . T h e u t t e r a n c e c o u l d be a w o r d , a p h r a s e
- Onuigbo , be fo re , h i s c o n c l u s i o n , poin ts o u t t h a t
i n t o n a t i o n perfornis f u n c t i : ) n s ;IS we1 1
a s a t t i t u a i n a l f u n c t i o n . Sentences t h a t c a n bc
c 1 , s s i f i e J as s t a t e m e n t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e
a l w a y s s a i d on a f a l l i n g t u n e , w h e r e a s ques t i ons
r e q u i r i n g a yes o r no a n s w e r mus t b e s a i d on 2
risinq tune. When onc answers ' y e s r t~ . i quesL-, ion,
his a t t i ~ u d e and i n v a r i a b l y his weaning :an be
d e d u c 7 4 fram h i s ' t u n e . ' Y e s ' o n s f a l l i , r g tune
i s a p l a i n y e s , an a f f i r m a t i v e y e s b~:!: w/ien 011 a ,
rising t u n e , there i s an a t t i t u d e of n o t b e i n g q u i t e . s u r e , S t a t e m e n t s , commands, w h - q y e s t i z n s and
e x c l a m a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y s a i d on J f a l l i n g t u n e
whe rea s t a g q u e s t i o n s , u t t e r a n c e s of i n d i f f e r e n c e
and d o u b t and - ir quest ions arc a 1 1 s a i d on s
r i s i n g tune.
F o r Gimson, (1970:17, 2 4 ) s t ress and
i n t o n a t i o n h a v e a l o t t o do with t h e voc i l l c o r d s . d
H e s t a t e s t h a t i n t h e completion of an dct of
c o m m u n i c ~ t i o n , i t i s n o t u s u a l l y enough t h a t o u r
s p e e c h mechanism s h o u l d s i m p l y f u n c t i o n i n s u c h a
way a s t o p r o d u c e s o u n d s ; t h e s e s o u n d s a r e r e c e i v e d
by a h e a r i n g medium p r o b a b l y t h e a i r w h i c h is c a p a b l e
of p r o d u c i n g s o u n d s . When a c o n t i n u o u s u t t e r a n c e
i s b e i n g l i s t e n e d t o , an e v e r c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n of
sounds i s perceived b u t when i t i s o u r own
l a n g u a g e , we f a i l t o ' a r t i c u l a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s
of p a t t e r n w h i c h r e a c h o u r e a r s . We c o n s c i o u s l y
o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y t e n d to perc-c.ivc? ?fin:! i. n t e r p r e te
o n l y the s o u n d f e a t u r e s w h i c h arc- r e l e v a r l t f o r
i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y of o u r l a n g u a g e . D e s p i t e t h i s
l i n g u i s t i c s e l e c t i o n which i s u l t i m a t e l y b e i n g made,
t h i s c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n c o n s i s t s of v a r i a t i o n s o f
dif fercrlt: k i n d s . T h e r e i s t h e pi tc l l ~ p p r t 2 \ : i s t i o n
of t h t . rr~clody o r i n t o n a t i o n crf the u t t e r ~ r l c e ; Lhcr t .
i s t h e l o u d n e s s . Some sounds o r s y l l a b l e s sourld
l o u d e r t h a n o t h e r s .
percey~t ion of t h e p i t c h of a s o u n d d e p c n ~ l a d i r e c t l y
on the f r e q u e n c y of v i b r a t i o n o f t h e v o c a l c o r d s .
F'romkin a n d Rodrnan (1978:88-89) pay ten t i o n
t o t h e s u p r a - s e g m e n t a l feakures of E n g l i s h , They
a r e dL1t.1 t o d i s c o v e r t h a t two sen t:unc+s m;ly be t h e
contours >i: Lh2 u t t e r a n w s . I t i s t h i s ;,itch
c o u n t u u r t h a t i s t h e i n t o n a t i o n and i t i - i i f f e r e n t i a t e s
t h e m e a n i n g s of t h e s e n t e n c e s . They a g r e e w i t h
some o t h e r l i n g u i s t s t h a t : s t r u c t u r a l worJs s u c h as
19
I ' to, ' the', 'a ,' 'of ' e tc a r e no t stressed b u t lon.]er
t '
words w o r k w i t h t h e p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y stresses, TI!^
primary stress i s .always indic'qted ..:ith an u p p e r
s t r o k e ix:fore the s y l l a b l e w h i l e t h e secondary stress
i s i n d i c a t d w i t h a down-ward s t roke before t h e
s y l l a b l e . Under t h i s arrangement, one may d e s i g n a t ?
e a c h s y l l a b l e a s l1 + stress" or I f - Str-csx ;nd
s y l l a b l ' z s s p e c i f i e d a s "+ stressv may b e
a c c e n t u a t f ! d . These scholars a l s o h o l d t h ) t when
words' SL'C c o m b i n e d i n p h r a s e s a n d sentcnci~s , one
of t h e words receives g r e a t e r s t ress t h ~ n s t h c r s .
I n a c l u s t e r of words, one word c a r r i e s the nlrc:;sclq~:
and t h , 3 t word is normally stresstc! a t t i l t : expe~-lr;c
of t h e o t h s r s .
T h e word 'prominence@ is u s e d by i loach, (1953:
136) to discuss s t r e s s . S t r e s s e d syllables are
s a i d to be pron!inent w h e r e a s t h e unstressed opes
& a r e not. One easily u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h i s
p r o m i n e n c e is sysonymous with loudness. A stressed
syllable m u s t be l o u d e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s arld the
l e n g t h h a s a r o l e t o Play i n p r o m i n e n c e .
~ l l i:~ a l l , t h e r e i s no writer i n t h e f i e l a
of p h o n e t i c s and phonology who h a s not i i i l - I ; J to s a y
a b o u t s t i e s s a n d i n t o n a t i o n . AS h a s a l r e s d y b e e n
m e n t i o n e d s o m e w h e r e i n t h i s work, the two a r e
o f t e n u s e d c o n ~ p l e m c n t a r i l y b e c a d s o t h e y f e a t u r e I
t h a t way i n p r a c t i c a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i c n s ' . =
A s e r i o u s m i n d e d t e a c h i n g a n d l e h r . . n l ! i g of tile
s e c o n d l a n g u a g e h a s t o p l a c e e q u a l emphas - i s o n t h e
s e g n i e n t a l s a n d t h e s u p r a - s e q m e n tdls. I t a l so h a s
to s t ress i n t o n a t i o n i n t h e same p r o p o r t i o n i t d o e s
t h e stress, More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e s u p r a - s e g m c n t s l s
o f e v e r y l a n g u a g e h a s t o be s t u d i e d a s a n e n t i t y
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y o t h e r l a n g u a g e bt-c;!use t h e
s o u n d s y s t e m s of d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s d i f f e r .
CHAPTER THREE
PRESENTATION OF OCCURRENCE AND FEATIJRSS
OF STRESS AND I N T O N A T I O N IN E N S ~ L I S M .
AS s t a t e d before, stress and i n t o n a t i o n a r e
a l w a y s d i s c u s s e d t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y f u n c t i o n
toqetht i r . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y h a v e a corr , i : le i~~entary
r c l ; , t i o n s t ~ i p . I n t h i s a s well a s t h e sui : l sec juent
c h ~ p t e r r i t h e y a r c t r e a t e d t h a t way.
Stress i s e x a m i n e d a t t h e l e v e l of word s t .cess ,
s e n t e n c e stress, s h i f t i n g stress a n d c o n t r a s t i v t
stress. T h e meaning of i n t o n a t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s
i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n s , t h e p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n of
t u n e s a n d s a m p l e sentences f e a t u r i n g t h e s e a r e a l s o
3.1 Stress
Stress refers to t h e m a g n i t u d e of b r e a t h e f f o r t
a n d m u s c u l a r e n e r g y exerted d u r i n g spkech as c h c
airs s t r e a m f l o w s . AS O n u i g b o ( 1 9 9 7 : 8 5 ) h 3 s it,
stress i s a v i t a l f e a t u r e o f E n g l i s h spu?ch w h i c h
many N i g e r i a n s p e a k e r s o f t h e E n g l i s h l anguage
f i n d v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o m a n i p u l a t e . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e S e n i o r S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s t u d e n t s o f !Aqua ta
L o c a l Government: A r e a , ~ n a m ' u r a S t a t e , a r e h e l p l e s s
i n t h i s a r e a o f l a n g u a g e s t u d y . 'rhc. yrol) lern i s
m a i n l y c a u s e d Lby t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e e t h n i c l a n g u a q e
a l r e a d y i n t e r n a l i z e d i n t h e s t u d c n t s ever : j e f o r e
t h e s c h o o l age .
& e n t h e a i r s t r e a m s t a r t s f l - o w i n g , much
b r e a t ! ) e f f o r t i s p u t in l o r ;he p r o c ~ u c t i o n ~ji' some
s y l ' l a L l e s and words . Thouqh t h i s b r e a t i l e f f o r t is
p u t i n f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a l l s y l l a b l c : ~ and w o r d s ,
some r e q u i r e more w h i l e o t h e r s r e q u i r e le<is. The
' w o r d ' i s commonly u s e d and e v e n a layman u n d e r s t a n d s
t h e mean ing b u t t h e t s y l l a b l e l i s t e c h n i c a l and
n e e d s some e x p l a n a t i o n . Longer w o r d s s u c h a s
c a - t e -go- ry and un-der-s t a n - d i n g c a n be d i v i d e d
i n t o s u c h u n i t s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g . 'rh e
u n i t s a r e u s u a l l y made u p o f o n e o r a nurn te r o f
c o n s o n a n t s and a vowel . T h e vowel i s t h e o n l y
c o m p u l s o r y element i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a s y l l a b l e
and- i t forms i t s n u c l e u s o r t h e peak. S h o r t w o r d s
L i k e ' a t t , i s , ! b i t e 1 , ! p e t ' e t c bear j u s t o n e
2 3
unit a n d c a n n o t be b r o k e n i n to a n y o t h e r u n i t s .
These single words are the s y l l a b l e s a s w e l l a n d
t h a t is why t h e y a r e t e c h n i c a l l y known a s the nono-
s y l l a h i c words.
S o a s t h e p r o f i c i e n t user of t h e E n q l i s h
l anguaqe s p e a k s , t h e p i t c h o f t h ? v o i c e i s h i c r h e r
in some syllables and words; lower in o t h e r
s y l l a b l e s and words . , phonologically s p c s k i n y , t h e
first ca t ego ry i s s a i d t o be s t ressed, t h e second
unstressed. +-cPr+
n s y l l a b l e o r word i s s t r ~ , s e d bascd o n wtiat
t h e s ( : e a k e r has in mind. str::ss cor!ld f a 1 1 on the
f i r s t , m i d d l e or t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e d c p e n d i ~ c ~ o n tnc
c l a s s of t h e word. Stress u s u a l l y f a l l s c n the
c o n t c n t words b u t i t c o u l d o c c a s i o n a l l y 1'311 on the
g r a ~ r m z t i c a l w o r d s d e p e n d i rig Sn t h e i n t c n d : : c i e i n p h a s i r;
of the s p e a k e r . Experimcn ts h a v e s h o w n t ; h k w h s n
s tre:;:xr! s y l l a b l e s a r e p rc i luced , the m u s c l e s
C h s r x ter is t i c s of s t r iss b
T h e r e are. some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s conlrnon t o a 1 1
stresscd syllables and words. The most conspicous stressed
property uf t h e / - item i s p r o r n i n ~ n r x . T h a t i s
to s a y t h a t t h e stressed s y l l a b l e s o r w r J s often
stand out from o t h e r syllables or words no m a t t e r
w h e r e t h c y f e a t u r e .
B u t what accounts for prominence c n d how d o e s
one du tec t these p r o m i n e n t s y l l a b l e s and w o r d s ?
T h e b r e a t h e f f o r t ( t h e f o r c e ) is r e s p o n s i b l e for
prorpinence and aprominent syll~~ble or word is always
remarkable. It is n o t only longer and I c u d e r , the
p i t c h of t h e voice i s a l w a y s h i g h e r .
In a s i t u a t i o n where t h e r e a r e t w o 9 r rnurc?
~ y l l a l j l e s or words and one is loul-ler tlrarr t h e o thers ,
we a l r e a d y know t h a t t h e i tem I s p r o m i n e a t , tha t : i t
s t a n d s o u t from t h e o the r s . For s u c h syllable or
word to b e louder in the midst of o t h e r s , it also
h a s t o be longer a n d ; if you l i k e , d i f r e w n t i n
q u a i i ty. Stress brings i n t h e e l m ~ n t of d i f f e r e n c e
in t h e q u a l i t y of t h e vowel sounds. The ~ ~ 3 r d
' tomatoe (, stressed on t h e second syllahlc. f e a t u r e s
a weakened vowel sound ' /a/ i n tht? f i r s t s y l l a b l e ,
a p u r e l y r e a l i s s d l o n g vowel i n t h e s e c o n d s y l l a b l e
a s a r t l s u l t of t h e stress a n d s t l iphthon,:; i n the
c o n c l u t . ; i n i j s y l l a b l e .
,rile most i m p o r t a n t i f e a t u r e of :; t r ~ : ~ s i s p i t c h .
Pitch i n phrjnolorjy means increased i n I:he voice of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l d u r i n g s p e e c h and t h i s i n c ~ - u 3 s e is
due- t o t h e v i b r a t i o n of t h e v o c a l cords. '"esse
v o c a l cords, Onuiyho (1997:6) a r e t h e t i n y
p r o j e c t i o n s on t h e w a l l s of t h e l a r y n x which v i b r a t e
a l l of them i s s a i d on a h i g h e r p i t c h t h a n t h e o t h c r s ,
i t i s s a i d t o be s t r e s s e d because i t i s p r o m i n e n t . .
I n t h e word ' a - t . e n - t i o n f , t h e stress f a l l s on the
second s y l l a b l e d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t in t h e
.. p r o d u c t i o n of t h a t word, t h e second ~ y l l ~ ~ b l ~ :
is pronounced w i t h g r e a t e r muscular enerqy t h a n
i s done o n t h e o t h e r s .
'3ord Stress
. -
A lot of N i g e r i a n users of E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e
f i n d i t cumbersome t o identify t h e s y l l a b l e t h a t
bears t h e p r i m a r y stress i n a word. A s a r e su l t
of f a c t o r s s u c h a s p o o r s t a f f i n g , t h e i n f l u e n c e
of the first l a n g u a g e , l a c k o f e q u i p m e n t f o r o r a l
p r a c t i c e e kc. t h e S e n i o r S e c o n d a r y Schvol c t u c l e n t s
of Aguata L o c a l Government Area, ~ n a m b r a S t a t e are
v i c t i m s of this problem,
I t i s t r u e t h a t there are r u l e s g u i d i n g t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e r e the stress f a l l s hut these
rules are no t h a r d and f a s t , The s i t u a t i ~ n
carnplicates t h e predf camen t of t h e f o r e i g n l e a r n e r s
of t h e E n y l i s h l a n g u a g e , The s i t u a t i o n i s n o t t h e
same a s i n t h e other l anguages . I n F r e n c h for
instance, t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e 1 s u s u a l l y stressed.
I n Polish, t h e s e c o n d l a s t s y l l a b l e i s stressed
w h e r e a s i n Czech, t6e first s y l l a b l e a t t r a c t s
t h e p r i m a r y stress.
C h r i s t o p h e r s e n , (1956: 2 ) suhmi ts t h a t n o t w o
l a n g u a g e s have t h e same s o u n d s y s t e m s . I n o t h e r
words, e v e r y l anguage i s an e n t i t y of i t s own,
\a i < " * p e r c u l i a r i t i e s . 'mat i s why t h e E n g l l s h stress
;\
s y s t e m s h o u l d be s t u d i e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to t h e
stress p a t t e r n o f , a n y o t h e r l a n g u a g e .
I n a word o f two s y l l a b l e s i n E n c j l i s h , o n e
s y l l a b l e i s s t r e s s e d , t h e o t h e r i s n o t . 'The stress I
n o r m a l l y f a l l s on t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e if i t i s n o t
an a f f i x , Example i s t h e word "damaget . O t h e r s
a r e ' ' reckon ' , tally 1 a n d " c a r r y ' . ~ l s o * $ r a v e l 9 ,
' ' t a b l e , , " c o u p l e ' , s ' t r u g g l e ' a r e two s y l l a b i c words
wf t h o u t t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e a s an a f f i x . ' r h e words
main ' t a in , f o r b e t , rehain, un'less etc. feature
p r e f i x e s a s t h e f i rs t s y l l a b l e s and f o r t h a t , t h e y
a r e stressed on t h e seoond s y l l a b l e s ,
There are c a s e s i n E n g l i s h w h e r e s i n g l e words
pe r fo rm double gramrna;tical f u n c t i o n s d e p e n d i n g on
t h e sentence c o n s t r u c t i o n , I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
same word shifts in g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s a s t h e
s e n t e n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n c h a n g e s , The w o r d s ' r e w a r d @ , ' i -mpor t and ' r e b e l ' . a r e very g o o d e x a m p l e s ,
a, . He i s a 'rebel ' ( n o u n )
b, He r&b les a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r i t y ( v e r b )
c m ~ i g e r i a irnbor t s ( v e r b )
d. T h i s good i s an ' i m p o r t ( n o u n )
When t h e s e w o r d s f u n c t i o n is t he ve rbs of t h e
c e n s t r u c t i o n s , khey a r e s t r e s s e d on t h e second A .
s y l l a b l e s b u t when t h e y . > u n c t i o n as n o u n s o f t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e y a r e s t r essed o n t h e f i r s t
s y l l a b l e s . Over 90% of s t u d e n t s of ~ g u a t a H i g h
S c h o o l A g u a t a , could n o t , i n a r e a d i n g passage
exercise differentiate b e t w e e n ' a d d r e s s ( n o u n )
and a d b r e s s (verb) and b e t w e e n ' o b j e c t (noun) and ' ,
obyect (verb). They stressed t h e p a i r s a l i k e
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r : g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e ,
s e n t e n c e s w h e r e t h e y f e a t u r e .
There a r e w o r d s of more t h a n t w o s y l l a b l e s ,
seme of three, f w r , five and e v e n s i x syllables.
It i s o f t e n cumbersame te lecate t h e p r i m a r y s t ress
i n s u c h w o r d s since t h e r e a r e no f i x e d r u l e s t@
g u i d e the p l a c e m e n t o f stress. These w o r d s of
more t h a n t w o s y l l a b l e s a r e c a l l e d p o l y - s y l l a b i c
w o r d s . A l e t of them owe t h e i r e l o n g a t i o n t o
p r e f i x e s and suffixes, I n the w o r d u n - p r o - d u c - t i v e ,
the first syllable is a p r e f i x , t he l a s t a s u f f i x .
~ f f f x e s a r e n o t usually stressed b u t t h e y h e l p t o .
b
29
d e t e c t t h e s t r e s s e , d s y l l a b l e s . Based on t h i s , some
rules have been d e v i c e d :
A. For words t h a t end i n - i a l , - t o n , - i an and -ic,
the s t r e s s e d syllable s h o u l d be t h e second l a s t .
I n these words, t h e second syllables are s t ressed :
(i ) as- f c r o - b i c
(ii) dy-'na-mic
(iii) d i - ' f f u - s i o n
B. For a word t h a t e n d s i n - i t y and - a t e , t h e
stress f a l l s on t h e t h i r d syllabi? f o r t h e e n d
of t h e word:
(i, ac- ' t i -v i - ty
(ii) af-'fcc-tion-ate '
(iii ) pro- l p o r - t i o n - a t e
For a &i~-syllabled Word such as acclimalization , t h e s t ress s y l l a b l e is / z e i / . These rules, it has
to be s t r e s s e d once more are not mathematical as
exceptions t o them abound,
S e n t e n c e S t r e s s
J u s t a s some s y l l a h l c s i n woros are s t r e s s e d 9
sGme wort:s i n s e n tences a r e s t r e s z c c l . rht: s t t n t e n c e ,
e x c e p t i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u ; l t i o n , i s i:.f t e n made . u p o f a n u m b e r of w o r d s w i t h d i f f e r e n t il~.~ij~:'et-:s o f
i m p o r t a n c e a n d d i f f e r e n t q r a m m a t i c a l f i ~ n : : k i o n s .
B l g ( j c r w o r d s s u c h a s n o u n s , v e r b s , a d j e c t i v e s and
a d v e r b s a r e g e n e r a l l y more i m p o r t a n t and are known
a s t h e c o n t e n t w o r d s , C o n v e r s l y , t h e r e a r e s m a l l e r
w o r d s s u c h a s t h e a r t i c l e , t h e p r e p o s i t i c n , t h e
a u x i l i s r y v e r b a n d t h e c o n j u n c t i o n w h i c h are n o t
o n l y s m a l l e r i n p h y s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e y a r e
a l s o of less g r a m m a t i c a l v a l u e ,
O r d i n a r i l y , t h e c o n t e n t w o r d s are u s u a l l y
s t r e s s e d w h i l e t h e g r a n m a t i c a l w o r d s rernai.n uns t l - e s s t r c l
So t h a t i n t h e s e n t e n c e
' T h e b o y i s g o i n g t o s c h o o l 1
t h e c o n t e n t w o r d s , ' b o y ' , ' g o i n g ' a n d f s c h o o l f a r e
s t r e s s e d w h e r e a s ' t h e t , ' i s 1 a n d ' t o 1 a r e n o t
s t r e s s e d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s .
I n e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e s p e c i a l c o n t r a s t s
a r e i n t e n d e d by t h e s p e a k e r s or w h e r e a n e m p h a s i s
m u s t be made, a g r a m m a t i c a l word c a n be s t r e s s e d a t
' C h i k c l e f t t h e hook ON t h e t a b l e I ,
0 t h c r t :xamples are:
i. I am in need of MY book ( n c t y o u r l ; w k , n o t
his book , not t h e i r book b~i I : f N boctk).
S ii. Ile BOI7RCWZD my c a r (lie dic! n ~ t s n a t c i ~ i t, d i d
n o t d e s t r o y ilt , d i d n o t r e p a i n t i t . R a t n e r ,
SG S ' J L - ~ S S h a s a v e r y f l e x i b l e occ1.1:-st3nce .it;
stress:?d; a grammatical word can also tte s tressed,
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s p e a k e r s i n t en t ion.
of s t r e z s , i t is now necess~ l r . : to f i n d o u t t h e
problems stress poses t o t he N i 7 e r i a n u s e r s of
English s u c h a s t h e Senior Secondary School s t u d e n t s
of Aguaka Local & v t r n ~ r i c n t Area o f iin;r.irl;>rd S t a t e .
AS s t a t e d somewhere in t h e w o r k , =;trrf:ss h a s
a fie-xible occurrence i$ & n g l i s h , There l i re rules 1
Lu t t h e r e are c x o e l ) t i o n s t a n d t h i s con t~ i ~ l u t e s t o
the p l i g h t of t h e n o n - n a t i v e spcsltcrs. 'Ti.11: r u l e s
f o r p o l y s y l l i i b i c words do not accoun t f o r a l l t h e
words. ' dords t h a t e n d i n -mcnt, - - a ry , -ism mcl
-ly, d e f y tnese r u l e s : iinpl.crnent, temporsry,
unionism, c e r e m o n i o u s l y , e s t a b l i s h r w n t : , c o n t r a r y ,
t r i b a l i s m , possibility e t c .
Below a r c the p r o b l e m a t i c p o l y s y l l z ! ) i c w ~ r d s
a n d t h e stress p a t t e r n s :
- Stra-TE-gic - The s e c o n d s y 1 l ; ; ; ) l e i s
s tressed.
- Corn-PE-tencc T h c second s y l l a b l e i s
stressed.
- I ~ - p l e - m c n t - Thr first syllahlr 1s s t ressed.
- TE~-po-r3--rl)r; - T h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e i s
stressed.
k r d s o f Four S y l l a b l e s
- h d - V D R - t i s t - T l l ~ stcclnd syl 1 ~i i , 1 i~ i 5
stressed.
- in-dz-PEN-dence - The t h i r J syllzble i s
1 33
- Co-mu-mo-CX-tion A ' h e . fourth s y l la1)Ie is
. , s t ressed .
Ilords of S i x S y l l a b l e s
- si-mul-T~-heous-ly - The t h l r d syllable
is s t ressed.
- un-der-dc-VE-lop- en t - The f o u r t h s y l l a b l e I
i s s t ressed.
- res-pon-si-BI-li- ty. - T h e f o u r t h s y l l a b l e
i s s t r e s c c d .
The s t u d e n t s ' of G i r l s 1 Sccor ldd ry Schoo l ,
E z i n i f i t e , A g u a t a p l a c e t h t f r strc.;s m a r k s on t h e s e
\ w o r d s anynhere and anyhow. T h e w o r d s I redress
and ''redress t are p r o n o u n c e d w i t h the s m l r - level of
stress without m i n d i n g t h e qrav~rn.; t i e i l l f unc t i on 01-
w h e t h e r i t i s a n o u n o r a verb. i\nd w h e n t h e s e
s t u d e n t s r e z d w r i t t e n p a s s a g e s , the rise , I I - I ~ ~ f a l l *
of t h e p i t c h of t h e voice i s no t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Gne ~f t h e c h ~ r a c t c r i s t i c s of l a n q u a g e , w r i t e s
p a l m e r (1971 : lO) is t h a t language i s a p r o d u c t of
the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e tnvironrncn t h a s a c ] r c L , i t
i n f l u e n c e on l a n q u a y c . T h e Igbo langu;.;:_,:: and t h e
h g u a t a d i d l c c t i n p a r t i c u l a r i n f l u c n c c . t ! ~ ?
r e a l i s a t i o n of s t k e s s i n E n g l i s h ?r'stly. ' 0 - l k e - l k e
is P name of three s j t l l a i s l e s i n I ~ ~ O ' a n d these
t h r e e a r e e v e n l y s t r e s s e d b y t h e A g u a t s s t u d e n t
a s a l lowed 13y t h e I g b o p h o n o l o g y . : ; Jc ) r i r of t h e m
r e c e i v e s the p r i m a r y stress; n o n e t h e s e c : ~ n d a r y
stress. The same s t u d e n t stresses all t h ? w o r d s i n
t h e s e n t c n c e I1Bi.ko gnyem l i k o ' d i l n i r u 'gi.)! And
w i t h o u t k n o w i n g i t , t h e s tuden t t r s n s f c r r , t h i s
s t rcss p a t k e r n i n t o t h e E n g l i s h l a n q u i r :e w i t h
f l i s a s t r ous communicative consequences. .
The Occurrence, F e a t u r e s and a n a l y s i s of I n t o n a t i o n
I n t o n a t i o n i s an i r n p o r t h n t fcskure of E n g l i s h ,
a f e a t ~ w w h i c h i s a s i n ~ p o r t a n t a s stress. I n t o n a -
t i o n i s t h e r ise a n d f a l l of t h e w i t c h of o n e s
vo ice a s o n e s p e a k s d e p e n d i n g o n t h c s t a t ? of t h e
m i n d o r t h e m e a n i n g t h e speaker i n t e n d s to p a s s
on to !:he l i s t e n e r o r the a u d i e n c e . I;Jhcn t h e r e i s
no r i s e a n d f a l l i n t h e p i t c h of ones the
speech Secomes more o r l e s s b o r i n g a n d mean ing le s s .
E u t w h e n t h e voice r ises and f a l l s , t h e meaning IS
of t h e message both s t a t e d a n d i m p l i e d ~GL+ e a s i l y
u n d e r s t o o d . The c h d n y e s in p i t c h :Ire v e r y es:;en t i a l
and E n g l i s h cannot do w i t h o u t i t .
I t i s t r u e ' t h a t in t i n a t i o n is u s e d i n a l r o s t
all t h e l a n g u a g e s of t h e world Lut it i:cler: n o t serve
t h e same purpose. I n most rJ ig2rian lar i<~r>.t jes it
is used t o d i f f e r e n t f a k e betw2cn .words c)f the same
s p e l l i n g w h o s e meanings d i f f e r . IF Iqbo, f o r
\ \ 1' ' example, fke (bottom) h a s the same s p e l l i n q as ~ k e
( S t r e n g t h ) . Others a r e :
/ / ' a h a (cloth), akwa (er;g)
'uk'e ( g i z z a r d ) , 'ek& ( py thon )
The t c h of the speaker's voice .is zlways t h e
cen t r e of st t e n t i o n i n i n t o n a t i o n and to ~ i n a l y s e
in t o n ; ; t i o n , t h e l i s tener llas to Lie v e r y i r t ; :enkive
t r ~ thi . speaker's p i t c h a n d know w h a t thc ;r;i tch does
an6 how it; does i t; h a s t o know w h e n it is going
down 2 n d when i t is r i s i n g . XOL-E Ll~cir~ k t i?sc , 11e
5 ; ~ s tc: Frni;:.~ whc th4:r the r i s e or f a l l i n p i t x i 1 f 3 L l
i r l lit:^ wj (Ih t ;he nEss;ri.]tl- cif ':i)t? S / - J E : ! Z C ~ ~ n d S t a t 2 of
the rni:ld z f t h e spea lcc r .
T L .L I. is . g e n e r a l l y knowrl t ha t i n tor-12 t.ic!i perfsrr~rt;
two rn, jur f unc Lions: th13 c _ l r ; m n a t i r ~ ~ i func: tior] ,~n!'
t h c ;11:ti t u d i n ; l l f u n c t i o n . f ly h e l p * l i n l ~ t o inr!icat:;
36 I '.
w h e t h e r a s e n t e n c e i s a s t a t e m e n t , command,
question o r exclamation. , i t promotes grs:m;lr and
by h e l p i n g t o de te rmink$ t , h e a t t i t u d t ' s of a s p e a k e r ,
i t performs t h e a t ti t u d i n a l f u n c t i o n . T!,IUS i n tona tic12
h e l p s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e i s sarcz:;m, s u r p r i s e ,
~ ~ l o u b t , i n c l i ' f f e r e n c e , o p t i m i s m etc. i n t h z mind u f
the s p e z k e r . For e x a m p l e , t h e answer lye:;' sail-i on
a r i s i n r j t u n e i s n o t a wholesome ' y e s ' . It i s
a ' yes ' , d i t h some r e s e r v a t i o n b u t wh&n s a i . ? c.n a
f a l l i n t ] no te , i t i s a definite 'yssl.
',"')ere a r e two major i n tona t i o n p 3 t t L - ~ I S , t h "
f a 1 l i n g turlri represented wi ti1 t h e niarke?a and
t h e r i s i n g t u n e with a c o n t r a s t i c j n marker,
Some t i i ; l~s, e s p e c i a l l y i n lonqer s 2 n tet~c?,;, a
L h u f a i l ani-i the rise.
T!-re f a l l i n g tune i s ~ , : s u a l l y used in :!eclsr~tivc
s2rl tenczs ( s t a t e m e n t s ) , commands, cxs1arn ; i t ions and
wh- ques t i o n s : i .ee cluest ions w h i c h ;ic:i8icnd some
s y l l a i ~ l c s a f t e r it', t h e s e are e q u a l l y saiil an a
r i s i n c ; p i t c h i n crder t o continue t h e r i se :
i. Can 1 t we t a l k i?
ii. Did you h e a r t h e s o u n d of
p i t c h , n o t a s h a r p r ise a:; i n p o l a r qucxtion, i s
lack of involvenent.
ii. a p o l i t e request
iii . g r e e t i n g s .
i v . listing items, t:.rj.: m
.--" i. c o u l d you g i v e me your c a r ?
ii. could you s h u t t h d r ?
A corcbination of rise a n d fall in p i t c h is
possible in l o n g e r sentences:
i. c i h i l e my mother is my f a t h e r
F i n a l l y , the' t a g que:3 t i c n combine t h e f a l l
. , and t h e r i s e t u n e s .
~t is- 7 a goa ~ s n t t i g
I n t o n a t i o n and t h e H i9e r i an User
T h e d i f ference is a l w a y s c l e c ~ r hctwecn t h e
s p o k e n E n g l i s h of t h e N i g e r i a n u s e r and t h a t of t h e
n a t i v e u s e r . I n t o n ~ t i o n i s o n e major aspec t of
s o u n d system t h a t accounts for t h i s difference.
A d i s c u s s i o n sess ion an4 a passage r e a d i n g
exercise c a r r i e d o u t on t h e Senior S e c o n J a r y school
s tuden ts of Ekwulobia Girls S e c o n d ~ r y Sc!~ool shows
t h a t t h e y have not l e a r n t enough of t h e r ise a n d
f a l l of t h e p i t c h in r e l a k f o n to the- scntcrrce type.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , sentences t h a t are p o l a r q u e s ticrns
do n o t end on a s h a r p rise. Similarly, p o l i t e
request s n d . s t a t e ~en t s of s u r p r i s e ace s a i d on a
g r a d u a l rise. The tendency is f o r a l l q u e s t i o n s
and o t h e r statements to bt? e n d e d on a E ; , l 1 . T h i s
i s wrong ,3nd stems from t h c influence of t h e mother
Eongut . In the Aguata d i a l e c t of the I(!:,cJ
Y .
. . 40
! l a n g u a g e , t h e grammatical a n d a t k i k u c 1 i n ; i l I
f u n c t i o n s of i n t o n ' a t i o n do n o t f e a t u r r . ; i s they
do i n the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . T n i s e x p l a i n s t h e
r e a s c l n fcr t h c problems w l ~ i r r h s t u d e n t s L:'! ibriencr?
i n the use aE E n g l i s h as a sc -c~ r ld lantlil;l:,:.
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND A N A L Y S I S OF DATA
T h i s c h a p t e r i s for t h e p r e s e n t 4 3 t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s
of d a t a f o r t h e s t u d y .
P r m o u n c i a t i p n and r e a d i n g exercises were
designed f o r s e c o n d a r y school s t u d e n t s w h o were
r a n d o m l y selected from t h r e e different schools - G i r l s ' S e c o n d a r y School E z i n i f i te, G i r l s * ~ i g h
Ekwulobia a n d Bays' S e c o n d a r y school Uga, a l l i n
A g u a t a Local G o v e r n m e n t Area of Anambra S t a t e ,
I n t e r e s t i n g enough, one of t h e s t u d e n t s from Boys8
S e c o n d a r y School Uga has English a s h i s f i r s t
l a n g u a g e , How d i d i t h a p p e n ?
R i c h a r d ' s pa ren t s and i n f a c t the e n t i r e family
used ta l i v e i n London when h e was born. As a mat te r
of fact, i t was t h r e e years ago t h a t t h e f a m i l y came
back ta Niger i a . R i c h a r d h a d f i n i s h e d his pr imary
e d u c a t i o n and gone hal f -way i n t m t h e s e c o n d a r y
e d u c a t i o n by the time h e was e n r o l l e d a s a s t u d e n t
i n Beys ' S e c m d a r y School Uga,
The exercises are fwr i n n u m b e r a n d they are
tests o n w a r d s tress, s h i f ti!g s tress, sentence
stress and i n k w a t i o n . ' A stroke l i k e t h i s ( I - )
before and 'on t e p of a syllable shows t h a t t h e
syllable i s stressed. The arrow i n d i c a t e s
a f a l l i n g t u n e whereas t h e arrow 1 s h o w s
a r i s i n g t u n e .
T a b l e I: ~ronounciation
T h i s exercise is, o n ? r o n o u n c i a t i o n a n d i s made
u p of pairs of two-syllabic w o r d s : .
F o r t w o syllabic worcls in English, one
syllable is usually stressed while t h e ot-her i s
u n s t r e s s e d . For so& w o r d s , t h e f i r s t syllables
a r e stressed w h i l e t h e second a r e u n s t'rcssed.
For t h ? other w o r d s t h e first s y l l a l j l c - t s i;re
u n s t r e s s e d w h i l e t h e second are s t r e s s txd . I n the
p a i r s of worcls above, the stressed syllables
whether first o r second a r e w r i t t e n i n c a p i t a l l e t t e r s .
T a b l e S h i f t i n g stress -
T h e s e c o n d . exercise i s o n s h i f t i n g stress.
The students w e r e asked t o read some s e n t e n c e s
featuring four words used as n o u n s and verbs,
r e s p e c t i v e l y : IobjcCt', ' e scor t ' , t t r a n s p o r t ' a n d
'subject '. f. ( a ) I ob'ject t o the a r r a n g e m e n t (verb),
( b IZ is t h e ' gobjcct of o u r d i s c u s s i o n (noun).
ii. ( a ) He es tco~rts t h e p r e s i d e n t ( ve rb ) ,
(b) r d t is an 'escort (noun ),
iii. ( a ) J o h n t r a n s ' p o r t s t h e goods ( v e r b ) .
( b ) He i s i n t h e b u s i n e s s of ' t r a n s p o r t ( n o u n ) .
iv. ( a ) M r O k e k e sub'jects h i m t o s e r v i t u d e (verb).
(b He i s a 'subject ( n o u n ) .
Table 111: S e n t e n c e Stress
T h e t h i r d e x e r c i s e i s o n sentence stress. AS
6 i s t h e c a s e i n E n g l i s h , c o n t e n t words a r e d t r e s s e d
b u t grarnma t i c a l words r e m a i n unstressed :
i . 'rhc 'book ' is on t h e ' table .
i i .' ' ~ c n i s ' g o i n g to t h e 'cenerna. ,
iii. ,The! ' s t u d e n t s are ' w o r k i n g i n t h e ' f a rm.
i v . hiis ' b r o t h e r h a s b e e n ' r e m o v e d .
A 4 . 6
F o r t h e sentences above, t h e s t r e s s e d w o r d s
receive a stroke a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e words
but t h e u n s t r e s s e d o n e s receive n o stress d t a l l .
T a b l e I V : I n t o n a t i o n
T h i s f i n a l exercise i s on i n t o n a t i o n . '.
D i f f e r e n t i n t o n a t i o n t u n e s a r e a o p l i l ? d t o d i f f e r e n t
cs t e g o r i c s of sentences. The e i g h t sentences below
are constructed from d i f f e r e n t s e n t e n c e types. I t
i s t h e d u t y of t h e s t u d e n t s t o a p p l y the correct *
i n t o n a t i o n t u n e s t o , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e sentence types :
ii. - Whose book is-=-
iii. Is h e
iv. Come ia
V . ~h a t
vi. YOU can h c s n v t do i y o 4
vii. we n e e d some R& W a n 9 F ' d a n d a. v i l . Why s h o u l d I do. such-
T h e s t u d e n t s were taken t o these exercises
and scored according. 'to t h e p o i n t s t h e y made, The
exercise o n word stress h a s e i g h t p o i n t s r e f l e c t i n g
t h e e i q h t stressed syllables. T h e on13 ,0n s h i f t i n g
s t ress a l s o h a s e i g h t po.in ts r e f l e c t i n q the same
n u m b e r of stressed s y l l a b l e s . T h c e x ~ t r c i s e s on
sentences s t r e s s and i n k t i n a t i o n e a c h h a s tlcwen
p o i n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h stresses and i n t o n a t i o n
t u n e s . 'me perforn!dnces of the: s t ~ r i l c n t s dre r;!iown
below i n table V.
Table V: Students APcrforrr~anccs: Girls secondary schoo l , ~ z i n i f i t e .
1 s t Student: Table V ( A )
I C
The ~ u p r a s e g m e n t a l F e s t u r c s
word stress
S h i f t i n g stress
Sentence stress
w i n ts
0 / 8
3 / 8
0/11
I n t o n a t i o n
T o t a l score
C
2/11
5/38
2nd s t u d e n t T a b l e v(B)
Word stress , I 1/8
The S u p r s s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r c s
S h i f t i n g stress
P o i n t s
Sen tence stress
I n t o n a t i o n
Girls School
1st Student: Tsb lc V ( C )
The Suprascgmen tal F e a t u r e s
Word stress
S h i f t i n q stress
Sentence stress
I n t o n a t i o n
2nd student: Table V(D)
T h e Supriisegmental F c a t u r p s J Poin t s
Jord stress
I S h i f ti ntq s tress I 3/:?
S e n t t n c e stress
In t on a t i o n
' r c ~ t a l score
~ o y s 1 Second ary Schoo'l. Uga.
' . 1st S t u d e n t - l x i c h a r d : Table V ( E )
T h e Suprasegmen ta l fea t u r z s
r
Word stress
S h i f t i n q stress "
Sentence stress'
T o t a l Score
Points
2nd S t u d e n t : Table v ( F )
The S u p r a s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r - ! ~ s
word stress
S h i f t i n 9 s t r e s s
Sentence stress , .
I n t o n a t i o n
T o t a l score
P o i n t
A f u t h t r presentation is :ix!c c \ f kh? d e t a i l s
of t h e exce l l en t r e s p o n s e of R i c h a r d i n c o m p a r i s o n
w i t h t h e f i r s t s t u d e p t of G i r l s ' S e c o n d a r y School
E z i n i f i te.
Table VI ( A ) : D e t a i l s of R i c h a r d s perfromance
word Stress
I 'Never I u n t i l * 'Doctor r e m a i n I Window c a n teen K
T a b l e V I ( B ) 8 S h i f t l n q Stress -- . - - - -
I ob'ject t o t h e arrangement (verb) $-
I t i s t h e 'object of ,.our cliscussi(:in ( n o u n ) J
He eskor t s t h e p r e s i d e n t ( v e r b )
He i s an 'escort (noun ' ) . J
John t r andpor t s e h e goods ( v e r b ) . x
He is i n t h e b u s i n e s s of ' t r a n s p o r t ( n o u n ) *
M r Okeke sub'jects him to s e r v i t u d e ( v e r b ) ? J
H e i s a ' subject ( n o u n ) .
T a b l e VI (C) : Sentence Stress
iii E ~ h e ' b o o k ' s on the 'table J 2 ~ x i n t s
The 's tudents sre 'working
i n the If arm. 4,
en i s ' q o i n g to t h e enema J'
3 p o i n t s
2 p o i n t s
~ l i s ' b r o t h e r h a s been 'removed. 1 2 p o f n t s
I
T a b l e VI (D 1 : In t r o n a t i o n
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
V.
v i . v f i .
viii
We need some
1st s t u d e n t , G i r l s ' Secondary Schoo l , Z z i n i f i t e
Tab le vII(k): Word Stress
T a b l e v X I ( B ) : S h i f t i n g Stress
1
Table V I I ( C ) : S e n t e n c e Strcss
i ( a )
(b)
ii ( a )
(b)
iii ( a )
(b)
i v ( a )
, ( b )
r I lob j e c t to the ar ' r snqerner- I t (verb) X
J It i s t h e 'ob'jec t of o u r rii:;cu:<:ii(zr~ (noun)
tie 'escorts t h e p r e s i d e n t ( v e r b ) r
HC i s an'escort ( n o u n ) J
John 'transports t h e qoods (verb!, 5
He is i n t h e business of ' t r ans iPor t (noun) 4
"!r ~ k e k l 'silbjects h i m t o s e l r v i t u d e (verb
He is a'subject (noun)/
3 / 8
i.
ii,
iii.
iv.
'~he'book.'is'on'tht'table. )1C
' Ken 'is 'go ing 'to ' t h e '~enerna. x
T h e 'ktudcn ts 'arc ' w o r k i n g ! i n ' t h e 'f arm.
Iffis 'b ro ther 'has 'been 'ccriwv:-.d. )C
T a b l e VII(D): I n t a n a t i o n ,
1.
ii.
iii.
iv.
V.
v f .
v f i .
viii.
. I?
Lagos Was the d a p i t a l of
1 Whose book is t h a t ? /T\
Is he cx>y
;>b&& fa and m e a t We need s'omt Rice
i t i s i m p o r t a n t a t t h i s s t n y c to suwrrarise t h e
outcowft 1-6 t h e exe rc i se c a r r i e d ol.lt by Irhe s t u d e n t s
of t h ~ : sa~; . :p le schools i n k q ~ a t a Local G ~ ~ ~ ~ t r r I r , l e f l t
fires c ~ f i ' ir-~arbra State. T h e r e s u l t s of this exercise:
w i l l . . :el", , i t t l y h e l p to r e v e a l t h e strcel-5 a n d
in ton,+ ti8;n problems w h i c h s t u d e n t s encdun tcr and
,Iso ~ ; u i j , : l ~ z t. ways i ; T s < > l v i n i j t h e s e ,r:.h l~ . . l , s . , It iz
n e c e s s a r y t o s t a t e once more t h a t these s t u d e n t s t
and t h e i r s c h o o i ~ . are r c p r e s e n t a t i . A of o t h e r
s t u d e n t s and schools n o t j u s t i n A q u a t a and
A n a m b r a s t a t e b u t i n t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n . Llhat
a p p l i e s to them a l s o a p p l i e s i n t h e S ; ~ I I I : Z S C C U ~ I ~
lanlgrraqc s i t u a t i o n .
T h e r e i s ze ro performance i n wcrd stress and
sentence stress. Thc f o u r s t u d e n t s f rom Gi r l s t
S e c o n d a r y school Z z i n i f i t e a n d Girls H i g h S c h o o l
Ekwulob ia a l l scored zero. R i c h a r d app rc~ached
t h e exercise a s a n 'a t - ive speake r . He scored a l l
t h e p a i n t s . His fellow student from Boys1 secondary
School uqa picked j u s t one p o i n t . Se, by approxima-
t i u n , one can r i g h t l y conc lude t h ~ t excr;)t Richa rd ,
t h e r e is v i r t u a l 1 y ' : a zero p e r f o r m a n c e a s f a r a:; word
s t ress and s e n t e n c e stress arc c o n c e r n e c ? .
g e t a i l s of t h e summary show a s i n the czsc of
the f i r s t s t u d c r l t of G i r l s 1 Secondary S c h ~ o l
E z i n i f i t c , t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s a p p l y l e v e l stress t~
a l l t i l e s y l l a b l e s of t h e V J O ~ ~ S a n d a l l t h e words of
the s e n t e n c e s . They t e n d t o a d n p t t h e s t ress
p a t t e r n of t h e Igbo. l a n q u d q e .and N j u a t a d i a l e c t . ,
i n p a r t i c u l a r w h i c h does np t f e a t u r e u n s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e s . ~ l l ' t h e s y l $ a S l e s ' 2 n d w o r d s are always ' 1
stressed. But; E n g l i s h a s a l a n q u a y e i s d i f f e r e n t
since n o t w o l a n g u a g e s t h e world over l i j v t e x ~ c t l y
the same speech c h p - a c t c r i s t i c s .
I n the. area of s h i f t i n g st re:;^ and i n t o n . > t i o n ,
the five s t u d e n t s recorded some scores. bul: these
scores are too poor and v e r y f a r from p ~ s s m a r k ,
i in ally, a zero performance i n word .and s ( ? n t ~ n c e
stress ale! a p a r t i c i l succezs i n s h i f t in:i stre:-s
and i n tons t i o n c a n n o t b r i n g about : effective spokc:n
E n g l i s h . It cannot makc for r h y t h m i c a l l y i c c c a n t u a ted
h o l d s
five : ; t u ~ l t . n t s . It t ~ ~ s d i s c o v e r e d i n !:he c o u r s e of
55
t h e exercise t h & t t h e E n g l i s h fxachers of both
tcxh Z n 3 l i s h . T h e one s t G z j - n i f i k e s t u d i e d
Mass Cornmunica t i o n find according t n t h e p r i n c i p a l
i t i s 4 r e l a t e d arei. The 3t ;her a t ~ k w u l o b i a ha s
t h e :ICE i n ! Z n g l i s h but w i t h a p a s s cjrade, Their
spmken E n q l i s h is very poor, evidence sf lack of
k n b w l e d g e of E n g l i s h phonology - sf strcss and
i n t s n a t l o n t h e E n g l i s h t e a c h e r a t Uga B a y s '
Secondary School h a s a d e y r e e i n E n q l i s h b u t t h e r e
is ne language l a b e r a t o r y tor c r i n p l c m c n t his e f f o r t s .
The e t h e r t w o schaels have none . In a sccand l anyuac je
s i t u a t i e n such as eurs, i t is d i f f i c u l t t o achieve
much i n the f a c e of t h e s e d i s a d v a n t a g e s - lack sf
qualified t e a c h e r s , lack of tcac ' - . ing and l e a r n i n g
m a t e r i a l s ,
T h e case of Richard i s e x c e p t i o n a l and rare.
S t u d e n t s like h i m a r e very f e w in t h e country. HE
possesses e v e r y t h i n g i t t a k e s to sc a n a t i v e s p e a k e r
and i s , therefore, a model. T h a t i s why he cxcellcd
i n word stress, shifting stress, sen tence stress as
yell a s i n i n t o n a t i o n . Even t h e d i f f i c u l t a r c a s o f
i n t o n a t i o n .are not any p r o b l e m to him. I n l i s t i n g
the c x e r c l s c t h a t , t h e E n g l i s h . tc?achers u f b o t h
Girls1 High Schso l Ekwulobis a r e nct i l ~ i i l i f i # ? d t o
Mass C o m m u n i c a t i o n hnd a c c o r d i n g to t h e [ r i n c i p a l
it is ~1 r e l a t e d a rea . The ~ t h c r a t ~ k w u l o b i a his
t h e :iCE i n Z n , q l i s h b u t w i t h a p a s s g r a d e , T h ~ i r
s p e k e n E n g l i s h i s very ?&or, e v i d e n c e ~f lzck of
knowledge of E n g l i s h phbnelGgy - ef s t ress and
i n t o n a t i o n t h e E n g l i s h t c x h t r a t Uga 9cys1
Secondary s c h e o l h a s a d e g r e e i n E n g l i s h h u t t : hc re
i s n e language l a b o r a t o r y t o c a m p l e m e n t h i s efforts.
The other t w o schools have none. In a secand l ~ n q u a q e
s i t u a t i s n such a s *ours , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to chie eve
much i n t h e f a c e sf these d i s a d v a n t a g e s - l a c k of
q u , . r l i f i c d t e a c h e r s , l a c k of t c ~ c ing r311d l e d r n i n q
materials.
T h e case of Richa rd is exceptional and rare.
s t u d t n t s l i k e him are v e r y f e w i n t h e country. H e
possesses e v e r y t h i n g i t takes t o k e a n a t i v e speaker
and i s , t h e r e f o r e , a m o d e l . T h ~ t i s why he e x c e l l e d
i n word s t ress, s h i f t i n g stress, sentcncc stress a s
well a s i n i n t o n a t i o n , Even t h e difficult areas of
i n t o n a t i o n arc n o t a n y problem t o h i m . In l i s t i n g
i tems, f o r e x a m p l e , h e used ' r i s e r , 'rise, rise t 0
and a f a l l . He was abler/ - combing r i se and f a l l , 1
effectively. ~ i c k a r d is n o t l e a r n i n g a new
l a n y u s - e and the s l i p h e r e c o r d e d w a s c z u s e d by
Nic]eri;.n f o o t b a l l cdrnrncn t a t o r s w h o e x ~ l a i r : ~ a
i n s t e a t : of ' a 'goa&l and s i n c e R i c h a r d is a(lc!ic t c d
to soccer , tie reflected t h e w r o n g model. I t i s
t h e r e f o r e LI case of c o r r u p t i n f l u e n c e s of the media *,
T h i s a l s o shows t h a t ' i f Ri.ullard doesn t. w a t c h it,
h i s exctllcnt s p o k e n E n g l i s h ~4-11 s u f f e r f t r t h e r
c o r r u p t i o n because as earlier n o t e d , 1sn~:uacje is a
so i n L ) ) E cnvironrnrnt of n a t i v e spc.&ers.
CHAPTER FIVE
COHCLUSIONS AND R E C C M I ~ E N ~ A T I ~ N S
The performance of t h e students i n t h e
exercises i s a poin.*r t o c, c o n c 1 l : s i c n r t z c h e d by
p h a n o l o ~ i s t s over t h e yc,rs - khat t h e s t l . ~ d y o f a
second l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e s forming n e w s p c h h n b i t s
a 1 together. It a l s o means t h a k the I - ~ ~ b i t s of t h e
first l a n g u a g e s h o u l d be dropped .
Tried a s much a s the s t u d e n t s c o u l d , the spcecll
h abf tc ~:lf t h e first l c : i ~ i i j ~ ~ , r l c 5 till i n f 1 l ; :~nccc i those
~f t h e target languzqe.. T h i s i n f l u e n c e i s a lwzys
n c s g ~ t i v e and for t h i s r r a s G n , i t s d v e r s t 2 l y .3ffcct:s
t h e CCI-1.e~ t form. 'ri'hercvcr tlhr inf lucLnctl does no t
t h r i v p as i n t h e c a s e o f Richrlrti, Lhi. c ~ ~ - L - . ? c t f G r r i i
i ,- * . J ?;lzi_!.y rea l l sea . -.
, the best :::ay of l c ~ r n i n q a second
u n q u a l i f i e d t eachers i n c l u c l i n i _ l t h e certificated
ones who c a n n o t dellv- 'r t h e good, s h o u l c ! he r e - a s s i r j n c d .
spoken l a n l j u a y r i s l e a r n t essentially b y i m i t a t i o n .
T h e s t u d e n t s s h o u l d i m i t a t e s o u n d EnqlLs l1 t e a c h e r s y-=> +, 1 \ f? 1
who u n r i e r s tand t h e s u p r a - s e g r n e n t , ~ ~ kc-ache-rs of
E n g l i s h and can m a n i p u l a t e them. k n y t h i n q s h o r t of
t h i s is c o u n t e r - p r o b u c t i ve .
T ? c q u a l i f i e d E n g l i s h teachers - thn:.i- w h o h o l d
a t 1ez:;t a u n i v c r s i . % y d e g r e e i n E n g l i s h s h o u l d use
t h e c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s a s a t h e ~ r e t i c a l t e a c h i n g
me thod . Any t e ache r who d i d n o t t a k c nou ugh courses
,. i n phclnology w i l l never u n d e r s t h n d I - i s . ;y
i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r rnuc t be k n o w l ~ ? d g c a l l e i n
b o t h khc first l a n g u a g e a n d t h e t a r g e t l a n g u ~ ? q e
otherwise c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s will not . be workable:
f o r him. The k n o w l e d g e c;f t h e t w o l a r ~ ( ~ u - ~ g e s and
c o n t r a s t i v ~ a n a l y s i s w i l l e n a b l e t h ~ t e ~ c h e r to . ..
f i n d o u t the areas of probleqs. A p r ~ b l m
c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s will show the I q b ~ :; tudcnk of
in h i s own language is not so strcs?;rtcl in E n g l i s h
2nd i n E n g l i s h it is o n l y one syllable tlist i s
u s u a l l y stressed a t t h e expense of {:he other.
C c s i d e s , it is n o t riecessarily tl-ic f i r . - . - ~yllable
t h 2 . t *ttrdcts stress st the cxpei\sc: GE t h e r;ez;;nd.
sch-ools w i t h thr: eitsclltion of t h e u n i t : / s c ~ ~ o o l s
0 C r ~ r 7 , ( 1 9 6 7 ) . B e t t e r E n g l i s h p r o n o u n c i a t i o n . C a m 9 r i d c j e : C a m b r i d g e ~ n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .
anyii, P.A. I . e t a1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) . U s i n g E n g l i s h , O n i tsha:
U n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d L ~ ~ U O O ~ S .
O k o n k w o , G.N. ( 1 9 9 7 ) . U s e of E n g l i s h f o r T e r t i a r y I n s t i t u t i o n s . E n u g u : ~ l a n i c V e n t u r e s .
O n u i g b o , S.M. (1996). O r a l E n q l i s h f o r Schools a n d - C o l l c q 5 ~ . O n i t s h a : A f r i c a n a FEP P u l ~ l i s h e r s L t d ,
P a l m e r , F. ( 1 9 7 3 ) . Grammar. H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n q u i u m B o o k s L t d .
R o a c h , P. J. (1983) . En l i s h P h o n e t i c s and P h o n o l o z , C a m b r i d q e : Cambrl -$-- ge u n i v e r s i t v P r e s s .
~ d a l l , R. U d a l l , S . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . P e o ~ l ~ ~ n t i . I ~ m r n u n i c a t ion. -- ----- hnic r sham. B u c k s : H u l ton L d u c a t i o n a l P u b l i ~ a t i o n s .
