NOTES : * If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Author’s full name : MUHAMMAD AMIN BIN MAYUDIN

Date of birth : 03 SEPTEMBER 1985

Title : The Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Kenaf Core / Glass Fibre Polyester

Recyclate Reinforced Urea-Formaldehyde

Academic Session : 2014/2015

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose

of research only. 3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by:

 

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

850903145325 DR. SHUKUR BIN ABU HASAN

       (NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date : 05 JULY 2015 Date : 05 JULY 2015

CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)*

RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the organization where research was done)*

OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access

(full text)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/07)

  

UTM(FKM)-1/02

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

VALIDATION OF E-THESIS PREPARATION

Title of the thesis: THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HYBRID KENAF CORE / GLASS FIBRE

POLYESTER RECYCLATE REINFORCED UREA-FORMALDEHYDE

Degree: BACHELOR DEGREE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (FKM) Year: 2015

I, MUHAMMAD AMIN BIN MAYUDIN

(CAPITAL LETTER)

declare and verify that the copy of e-thesis submitted is in accordance to the Electronic Thesis and

Dissertation’s Manual, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UTM

_____________________

(Signature of the student)

______________________

(Signature of supervisor as a witness)

Permanent address:

NO. 16, JALAN SURADA 8,

TAMAN DESA SURADA,

43650 BANDAR BARU BANGI,

SELANGOR.

Name of Supervisor: Dr. Shukur bin Abu Hasan

Faculty: Mechanical Engineering

Date: 05 JULY 2015

Date: 05 JULY 2015

  

“I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in

my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and

quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering”

Signature : _________________________

Name of Supervisor : DR. SHUKUR BIN ABU HASAN

Date : _______________

ii 

  

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

HYBRID KENAF CORE /GLASS FIBRE POLYESTER RECYCLATE

REINFORCED UREA-FORMALDEHYDE

MUHAMMAD AMIN BIN MAYUDIN

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

JULY, 2015

iii 

  

I declare that this thesis entitled “The Mechanical Properties of

Hybrid Kenaf Core / Glass Fibre Polyester Recyclate Reinforced Urea-

Formaldehyde” is the result of my own study except as cited in the references. The

thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in

candidature of any other degree. 

Signature : ___________________________

Name : MUHAMMAD AMIN BIN MAYUDIN

Date : 05 JULY 2015

iv 

  

Special dedicated this work to my beloved wife, parents, brother, sister and friends

for their understanding, caring and inspired me throughout my journey of education.

v 

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to UTM for giving me a

chance to fulfill my dream of being a student here and would like to take this

opportunity to express my appreciation to all individuals whose inspiration and

constructive ideas have contributed towards the success of this thesis.

I submit my heartiest gratitude to my respected lecturer Dr. Shukur bin Abu

Hasan for his sincere guidance, instruction, critic and advice throughout my graduate

career and the accomplishment of my thesis, meanwhile a deep sense of gratitude to

FIDEC member especially Dr Loh and technician member for the facilities and

On top of that, I’m very grateful to my family who given me full support

moral support and encouragement throughout my studies here. Special thanks to all

the technicians from Faculty of Mechanical Engineering for their patience and

guidance during preparation of samples and conducting experiment.

Last but not least, for those who have contributed directly or indirectly in

producing this project, your help are very much acknowledged. Thank you.

vi 

  

ABSTRACT

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) core / Glass Fibre Polyester Recyclate

Reinforced urea-formaldehyde(UF) resin were produced with two different samples,

100% kenaf core particle board and the 70% kenaf core + 30% Glass Fibre Polyester

Recyclate hybrid particle board. The boards produced were evaluated for their

mechanical properties comprising of modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of

elasticity (MOE) and internal bond (IB) in British Standard. Particle boards were

found to have performance values superior than the British-European standard

requirement values for MOR [BS EN 310:1993] and MOE [BS EN 310:1996]. For

the bonding strength according the standard requirement value for IB [BS EN

319:1993]. It was found that 70% kenaf core + 30% Glass Fibre Polyester Recyclate

hybrid particle board had better properties in terms of MOR and IB.

vii 

  

ABSTRAK

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) teras / Glass Fibre Polyester Recyclate

Reinforced urea-formaldehyde(UF) telah dihasilkan dengan dua sampel yang

berbeza, 100% papan partikel teras kenaf dan 70% kenaf teras + 30% Glass Fibre

Polyester Recyclate papan partikel hibrid. Papan yang dihasilkan telah dinilai untuk

sifat-sifat mekanikal mereka yang terdiri daripada modulus of rupture (MOR),

modulus of elasticity (MOE) dan internal bonding (IB) dalam Standard British.

Papan partikel didapati mempunyai nilai-nilai prestasi unggul daripada nilai

keperluan British-European standard untuk MOR [BS EN 310: 1993] dan MOE [BS

EN 310: 1996]. Untuk ujian nilai IB mengikut standard IB [BS EN 319: 1993].

Secara keseluruhanya, ia telah mendapati bahawa 70% teras kenaf + 30% Polyester

Glass Fibre Recyclate papan partikel hibrid mempunyai ciri-ciri atau nilai yang lebih

baik dari segi MOR dan IB.

viii 

  

TABLES OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

TITLE ii

DECLARATION iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEGEMENT v

ABSTRACT vi

ABSTRAK vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

xix

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Project Objective 3

1.4 Scope Of The Study 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 Composite 4

2.2.1 Type Of The Composite 5

2.2.2 Advantage and Disadvantage of Composite 7

ix 

  

2.2.2.1 Advantage 7

2.2.2.2 Disadvantage 9

2.3 Natural Composite 10

2.3.1 Particle Boards 12

2.3.1.1 Consumers and Uses 13

2.3.1.2 Particle Board Density 14

2.3.2 Properties of Plant Fibres 15

2.4 Kenaf Fiber 17

2.4.1 Characteristic And Properties Of Kenaf Fibre 17

2.4.2 Woody Core and Core Fibres 19

2.5 FRP Fabricator In Malaysia 23

2.5.1 Recycling Technology For FRP 26

2.5.2 Mechanical Recycling of FRP 27

2.6 Products Based On Recycled Glass Fibre 30

2.6.1 Products by Fiberlite ,UK 30

2.6.2 Products by American Fiber Green 31

2.6.3 GRP Reinforced Wood Particleboard 32

2.7 Matrix 33

2.7.1Types of Matrix Resin 33

2.7.2 Matrix Characteristics 33

2.7.3 Urea Formaldehyde Resin (UF) 34

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 35

3.1.1 Methodology Flow Chart 36

3.2 Material and Instrumentation 37

3.2.1 Material 37

3.2.2 Kenaf Core Fibre 38

3.2.3 Glass Fibre Recyclates (rGFRP) 40

3.2.4 Urea-Formaldehyde Resin (UF) 43

3.3 Samples Testing Preparation and Formulation 44

3.3.1 Raw Material Preparation 44

x 

  

3.3.2 Particle Board Parameter 46

3.3.3 Particle Board Sample Making 48

3.4 Hot Press Technique 50

3.4.1 Sample Result 51

3.5 Sample And Cutting 52

3.5.1 Sample labelling 53

3.5.2 Conditioning 54

3.6 Sample Testing Type 55

3.7 Sample Testing Analysis 56

3.7.1 Flexural/Bending Test BS EN 310 Wood-

based panels testing

56

3.7.1.1 Principle 57

3.7.1.2 Modulus of elasticity (MOE) 58

3.7.1.3 Modulus of rupture (MOR) / Bending

Strength

59

3.7.2 Internal Bonding BS EN 319 (IB Testing) 60

3.7.2.1 Principle 60

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 63

4.2 Result Testing Bending and Internal Bending 64

4.2.1 The softcopy result from Universal Testing

Machine

64

4.2.1.1 Flexural/Bending Test BS EN 310 Wood-

based panels testing

65

4.2.1.2 Internal Bonding BS EN 319 (IB Testing) 67

4.2.2 Graph comparison for the MOR and MOE 69

4.2.3 Density Sample Testing 72

4.2.4 Image Analyzer Result 73

4.2.4.1 100% Kenaf Core Fiber Cross section 73

4.2.4.2 70% Kenaf Core + 30 % Fiber Cross section 74

xi 

  

4.3 Gantt Chart For This Research 75

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 76

5.2 Recommendation 77

REFERENCES 78-80

Appendices A-H 81-88

xii 

  

LIST OF TABLES

TABLES TITLE PAGE

Table 2.0 Estimated Raw Natural Fibres Capacity Available

In Malaysia

10

Table 2.1 Different types of natural plant fibres and their

properties relative to glass fibre

11

Table 2.3 Characteristic and properties of kenaf stems in

Malaysia

18

Table 2.4 Properties of plant and synthetic fibres 21

Table 2.5 Fibreglass fabricators in Malaysia 24

Table 2.6 Water tank fabricator in Malaysia 25

Table 2.7 FRP products produced locally 25

Table 2.8 Tensile properties of recovered glass fibre through

mechanical recycling

28

Table 2.9 Elastic modulus and strengths of different blends

of virgin and reprocessed

29

Table 3.0 The highlighted total weight data for each

material preparation 1st sample (100% Kenaf Core

particle Board)

46

Table 3.1 The highlighted total weight data for each

material preparation 2nd sample (70% Kenaf Core

+ 30% rGFRP Particle Board)

47

Table 3.2 The Parameter for process Hot Press Moulding 51

xiii 

  

Table 3.3 The list labeling for sample bending testing 53

Table 3.4 The list labeling for sample internal bonding

testing

53

Table 3.5 The list for the testing analysis 55

Table 4.0 Data result for the testing 64

Table 4.1 Data comparison average 69

Table 4.2 Result data density for 100% Kenaf core sample 72

Table 4.3 Result data density for 70% Kenaf core + 30%

rGFRP sample

72

xiv 

  

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.0 Types of composite 6

Figure 2.1 Types of Fibre reinforced 6

Figure 2.2 Particle boards sample 12

Figure 2.2.1 Particleboard Shipments by Downstream Market,

1997. Source Composite Panel Association

13

Figure 2.2.2 Theoretical distribution of density in a

compressed particle board mat for four types of

particles

14

Figure 2.3 Concept of hydrogen bond joining together the

cellulose chains

15

Figure 2.4 Cellulose is the main building blocks of plant

fibre

16

Figure 2.5 Exposed physical appearance of kenaf 18

Figure 2.6 Core fibre material; small (left), medium (second

from left), large (third from the left), and

compresses into a square cube.

19

Figure 2.7 Kenaf Plant 20

Figure 2.8 Cross-section of a Kenaf stalk. 20

Figure 2.9 Structural constitution of a plant fibre cell 22

Figure 2.9.0 FRP Wastes 26

xv 

  

Figure 2.9.1 Recycling of thermoset composites using thermal,

chemical, and mechanical methods

27

Figure 2.9.2 Trench Cover by Fiberlite UK 30

Figure 2.9.3 AFGP product base on the recycled fibre glass 31

Figure 2.9.4 Ground GRP/wood flake blend particleboard 32

Figure 2.9.5 Crosslinking of thermoset molecules during

curing

34

Figure 3.0 Research methodology flow chart 36

Figure 3.1 Kenaf Core stalk without kenaf bast 38

Figure 3.1.1 Hammer Mill Machine for crush the kenaf Core 38

Figure 3.1.2 Screening machine to segregate the size for kenaf

Core (3.0~5.0mm)

39

Figure 3.1.3 The Kenaf Core after screening (3.0~5.0mm) 39

Figure 3.2 Glass fibre composites waste (Water Tank Fibre) 40

Figure 3.2.1 Process flow of mechanical recycling of GFRP

waste.

41

Figure 3.2.2 Sizing filter for hammer mill machine 41

Figure 3.2.3 Recyclates of 5mm sizing 42

Figure 3.2.4 Sieve Shaker for filter the coarse size

(2.3~5.0mm)

43

Figure 3.2.5 After filter recyclate size (2.3~5mm) 43

Figure 3.2.6 The Urea-Formaldehyde Resin UL-7100 43

Figure 3.3 Oven set temperature in 70 ° Celsius 44

Figure 3.3.1 Sample of raw for moisture content checking 45

Figure 3.3.2 Moisture content checking process 45

Figure 3.3.3 Material preparations before blended in the auto

mixing machine

48

Figure 3.3.4 Auto mixing machine and mixing process 48

xvi 

  

Figure 3.3.5 The raw material ready to blended 49

Figure 3.3.6 Prepare Mould for pre compress 300mm x

300mm

49

Figure 3.4.1 The blended material in the Pre Compress Mould before Hot Press.

50

Figure 3.4.2

The mould will put in the machine with the 10mm

stopper.

50

Figure 3.4 100% Kenaf Core Particle Board 51

Figure 3.4.1 70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP Particle Board 51

Figure 3.5 Particle Board cut by cutter machine industrial 52

Figure 3.5.1 Cutting sample (250mm x 50mm / pc) 52

Figure 3.5.2 Room conditioning wood base panel for testing 54

Figure 3.5.3 Specimens (BS EN 310& 319) wood base panel

for testing inside the room

54

Figure 3.7 Universal Testing Machine (Go Tech-Taiwan) 56

Figure 3.7.1 Arrangement of the bending apparatus 57

Figure 3.7.2 Cross Section of tubular boards 58

Figure 3.7.3 Load-deflection curve within the range of elastic

deformation

59

Figure 3.7.4 Bending Testing for 100% kenaf sample 60

Figure 3.7.5 Each test piece been bonded by epoxy resin +

hardener (F-6100)

61

Figure 3.7.6 The Specimen was loaded in the Hounsfield UTM

testing preparation

62

Figure 3.7.8 Sample IB testing after failure 62

Figure 4.1 Result data for 100% Kenaf core Particle Board

sample

65

xvii 

  

Figure 4.1.1 Result graph for 100% Kenaf core Particle Board

sample

65

Figure 4.2 Result data for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP

Particle Board sample

66

Figure 4.2.1 Result graph for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP

Particle Board sample

66

Figure 4.2.3 Result data IB for 100% Kenaf core Particle

Board sample

67

Figure 4.2.4 Result graph IB for 100% Kenaf core Particle

Board sample

67

Figure 4.2.5 Result data IB for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP

Particle Board sample

68

Figure 4.2.6 Result graph IB for 70% Kenaf core + 30%

rGFRP Particle Board sample

68

Figure 4.2.7 Different data of MOR for both Particle board 70

Figure 4.2.8 Different data of MOE for both Particle board 70

Figure 4.2.9 Different data of Bending strength for both

Particle board

71

Figure 4.2.10 Image cross section for sample #3 595.31kg/m³ 73

Figure 4.2.11 Image cross section for sample #4 523.27kg/m³ 73

Figure 4.2.12 Image cross section for sample #4656.60kg/m³ 74

Figure 4.2.13 Image cross section for sample #5684.39kg/m³ 74

Figure 4.3 The Schedule of PSM1 75

Figure 4.3.1 The Schedule of PSM2 75

xviii 

  

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% Percentage

min minute

Spec Specification

Kg Kilogram

N Newton

Sec Second

°C Degree Celsius

g Gram

PB Particle Board

MC Moisture Content

UF Urea- Formaldehyde

MPa Mega Pascal

E Young modulus

A Cross-section area

L Length, Stress or strength

W Width of specimen

T Thickness of specimen

f Flexural stress

f Flexural strain

D, d Diameter

MOR Modulus of rupture

MOE Modulus of elasticity

IB Internal Bonding

xix 

  

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Experiment 1: Result data for 100% Kenaf core

Particle Board sample

81

B Experiment 1: Result data for 70% Kenaf core +

30% rGFRP Particle Board sample

82

C Experiment 2: Result data IB for 100% Kenaf

core Particle Board sample

83

D Experiment 2: Result data IB for 70% Kenaf core

+ 30% rGFRP Particle Board sample

84

E Experiment 3: Result data density for 70% Kenaf

core + 30% rGFRP sample 

85

F Experiment 3: Result data density for 100%

Kenaf core sample

86

G The parameter of total weight data for each

material preparation 1st sample (100% Kenaf Core

particle Board)

87

H The parameter of total weight data for each

material preparation 2nd sample (70% Kenaf Core

+ 30% rGFRP Particle Board)

88

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

In this century, the growing environmental awareness throughout the world has

triggered a paradigm shift towards designing environmental-friendly materials.

Nowadays, as we know the number of wastage natural fibre and the fiberglass is

increasing from day to day and there is a growing interest in the use of bio fibres as

reinforcing components for thermoplastics and thermosets. Until now there are no

studied have been done for the hybridization for natural fibres and the recycle synthetic

fibre which fiberglass recylates. Thus, on this research will create a new material

hybrid make by two combinations of natural fibre and synthetic. The demand for

particle board representing 57% of the total volume of wood-based panels has recently

increase dramatically throughout the world, especially for housing construction and

furniture manufacturing. Worldwide demand for particle board has been steadily

growing since then at a rate between 2 and 5% per annum [13].

Hybrid composite is well known because it uses more than one kind of

reinforcement in the same matrix. The idea of this study is to get the synergistic effect

on the properties of reinforcement on the overall properties of hybrid composites it is

believed that hybrid composites can achieve a more favourable balance between the

2

advantages and disadvantages inherent in any composite material. Hybrid composites

offer three main advantages over conventional composites. First, they provide

designers with a new freedom of tailoring composites to achieve required properties.

Second, a more cost effective utilization of expensive fibres such as carbon and boron

can be obtained by replacing them partially with less expensive fibres such as glass

and aramid. Third, they provide the potential of achieving a balanced pursuit of

strength, stiffness and ductility [5] [6].

Usually, the mechanical properties of natural fibre composites are improved by

hybridizing them with another synthetic or natural fibre of superior mechanical

properties. The synthetic fibre mostly used for this purpose is glass fibre. Although the

biodegradability of the composite is reduced, this can offset the advantages gained by

the increase in mechanical properties [16].

In 2000, the output of composites was at 7 million tonnes and estimated to

reach 10 million tonnes in 2006. In 1992 (Ehrig), approximately 10%, or 12.6 million

tonnes of waste generated by the United States, is plastic with only 1% being recycled.

Thermoset scrap material in the US sent to landfill sites was estimated to be

approximately 920,000 tonnes [1].

The overall target of this research project was to investigate the closed-loop of

natural fibre composites and recycling glass reinforced in particle board standard. In

significant, to investigate the possibility of using these alternative materials as a green

project with a new composite formulations.

3

1.2 Problem Statement

The basic mechanical properties of hybrid GFRP recyclate/kenaf core has not

yet been studied upon and the particle board density made of natural fibre reinforced

polymer can be manipulated by composite density.

1.3 Project Objective

To determine the Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Kenaf Core/Glass Fibre

Polyester Recyclate Reinforced Urea-Formaldehyde.

1.4 Scope of Study

Ten samples of Kenaf Core and hybrid kenaf core/rGFRP reinforced Urea-

Formaldehyde were prepared and mechanically tested in this project. Bending and

Internal bonding tests were performed to determine the bending strength, modulus and

bonding strength (BS Standard) of respective samples. Test samples were prepared

using Hot Press technique following as standard for the particle board manufacturing

standard.

4

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter covers the literature studies on the development of Natural fibre

composite and the FRP industries in Malaysia. In general the composite materials

consist of a matrix reinforced with particles or fibres. Special emphasis is given to the

impact assessment methods on the fibre-matrix in particle board interface as it plays

an important role on the mechanical properties of composites.

2.2 Composite

Composites generally consist of two or more different materials or phases,

which are combined exhibit a combination of both properties making them better than

each of its individual constituents. Reinforcement will be in the form of short or

continuous fibres or particulates.

5

Composite material is a combination of ingredients from a macro to a

composite material can be defined as a material system composed of a mixture or

combination of two or more of the elements that are different in the macro or the shape

and material composition basically inseparable. Composite formed from two different

compilers components namely amplifier (reinforcement) that have formed confidential

nature but more rigid and stronger and generally malleable matrix but has the strength

and stiffness of the lower [17].

However the demand for the new material in the global composite industry is

increasing from time to time and steady supply are becoming highly crucial. Current

research finding show that the performances of natural fibres over synthetic fibres like

glass and carbon include biodegrability, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, low

energy consumption, low cost, low density and acceptable specific strength properties.

2.2.1 Type of the Composite

From the Figure 2.0, the types of composites can also be classified based on

the geometry as particle reinforced, fibre reinforced, and sandwich or laminated. The

very first known application of fibre composites was in construction. Nowadays, the

construction industry is the field of greatest application of fibre composites. The

property of composites of being strong and resistant to environmental impacts makes

them good building material.

Composite usage has increased enormously mainly due to the advantages of

lightweight, specific strength and stiffness, dimensional stability, tailor-ability of

properties such as coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity.

6

Environmental effects on these properties may compromise a structure and must be

considered during the design process [11].

Figure 2.0 Types of composite, Adapted from fig 16.2 Cailister 7e [11].

Figure 2.1 Types of fibre reinforced, Adapted from fig 16.2 Cailister 7e [11].

7

Fibre reinforced composites consists of the long fibre of one material that is

embedded in the matrix of another material which turns out to be extremely strong.

This type of composite FRC can used as bulletproof vests which uses crisscross system

of fibre. FRC is also used in concrete by reinforcing element like carbon fibre, aramid

fibre, grid type reinforcement element, etc. Add reinforcing steel rods, wires and bars

(rebar) to uncured concrete to enhance mechanical strength. [11].

2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantage of composite

2.2.2.1 Advantages

Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of

significant use in aerospace industry are as follows:

• High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.

• High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio. As enumerated above, weight

savings are significant ranging from 25-45% of the weight of conventional

metallic designs.

• Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.

• Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre

pattern can be laid in a manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain

the applied loads. • Fibre to fibre redundant load path.

• Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not

sustain damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.

• It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction.

Complex double curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in

one manufacturing operation.

8

• Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling

speeds, reduced number of intermediate bearings and supporting structural

elements. The overall part count and manufacturing & assembly costs are thus

reduced.

• High resistance to impact damage.

• Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high

volume commercial applications that traditionally have been the domain of

sheet metals. Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.

• Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.

• Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity

and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored

to comply with a broad range of thermal expansion design requirements and to

minimise thermal stresses.

• Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration

(joint/fastener reduction) thereby reducing cost.

• The improved weather ability of composites in a marine environment as well

as their corrosion resistance and durability reduce the down time for

maintenance.

• Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.

• Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built

to shape rather than machined to the required configuration, as is common with

metals. • Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-

Carbon, combined with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft

brakes.

• Improved friction and wear properties.

• The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed

new approaches to the design of aeroelastic flight structures.

The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common

implements and equipment such as a graphite racquet that has inherent damping,

and causes less fatigue and pain to the user. [11]

9

2.2.2.2 Disadvantage

Disadvantage of Composites some of the associated disadvantages of advanced

composites are as follows:

• High cost of raw materials and fabrication.

• Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily

damaged.

• Transverse properties may be weak.

• Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.

• Reuse and disposal may be difficult.

• Difficult to attach.

• Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:

o Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited

shelf life.

o Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.

o Hot or cold curing takes time.

• Analysis is difficult.

• Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.

However, proper design and material selection can circumvent many of the

above disadvantages. New technology has provided a variety of reinforcing fibres and

matrices those can be combined to form composites having a wide range of exceptional

properties. Since the advanced composites are capable of providing structural

efficiency at lower weights as compared to equivalent metallic structures, they have

emerged as the primary materials for future use. In aircraft application, advanced fibre

reinforced composites are now being used in many structural applications, viz. floor

beams, engine cowlings, flight control surfaces, landing gear doors, wing-to-body

fairings, etc., and also major load carrying structures including the vertical and

horizontal stabiliser main torque boxes. Composites are also being considered for use

in improvements to civil infrastructures, viz., earthquake proof highway supports,

power generating wind mills, long span bridges, etc.[11].

10

2.3 Natural Composite

Various types of natural fibres are obtained from plants. The properties of these

fibers and the applications for them may vary as a function of the part of the plant they

originate from. Table 2 summarizes the types of fibres extracted from various plants

and their mechanical properties as compared to glass fiber.

The current supply of timber is proving to be insufficient, and Malaysia is now

trying to use other natural fibres to produce high value added biocomposit products.

Huge amounts of natural fibre material are available in Malaysia. Each year, an

estimated 10 million m3 are produced from wood residues, 46 million m3 from

agricultural residues such as oil palm, and 3,200 metric tons from coconut stems.

Malaysia produces more than 30 million metric tons of oil palm biomass palm trunk

(OPT), oil palm frond (OPF) and empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibres. The below table

shows that the estimate amount of alternative raw natural fibres available in Malaysia

is provided in table 1.0 [10].

Table 2.0 Estimated Raw Natural Fibres Capacity Available In Malaysia [10].

11

All of these have excellent mechanical and physical properties, and a potential

for use in the production of composite products for various end uses, especially in the

building & construction and automotive sectors.

Table 2.1 Different types of natural plant fibres and their properties relative

to glass fibre Source: Kozlowski, 2006

Fibre type

Properties E-glass Kenaf Flax Hemp Jute Ramie Coir Sisal Abaca Cotton

Density g/cm3

2.55 1.5 1.4 1.48 1.46 1.5 1.25 1.33 1.5 1.51

Tensile strength* 10E6 N/m2

2,400 350-600

800-1,500

550-900

400-800 500 220 600-700

980 400

E-modulus (GPa)

73 40 60-80 70 10-30 44 6 38 - 12

Specific (E/density)

29 27 26-46 47 7-21 29 5 29 - 8

Elongation at failure (%)

3 2.5-3.5

1.2-1.6

1.6 1.8 2 15-25

2-3 - 3-10

Moisture absorption (%)

- - 7 8 12 12-17 10 11 - 8-25

Price/kg ($), raw (mat/fabric)

1.3 (1.7/3.8)

0.33-0.88

1.5 (2/4)

0.6-1.8 (2/4)

0.35 (1.5/0.9-2)

1.5-2.5

0.25-0.5

0.6-0.7

1.5-2.5

1.5-2.2

12

2.3.1 Particle Boards

Particle board is a panel product made by compressing small particles of

natural fibre such as wood while simultaneously bonding them with an adhesive. Most

European countries use the term particle rather than chip and therefore particle board

as a term for chipboard. To avoid confusion over whether the text is referring to

particle board in the generic sense or particle board in the specific product sense, the

name chipboard is being used in this text for the specific product. Another aspect of

particle boards is that the wood particles are bonded together by adding a synthetic

adhesive and then pressing them at high pressures and temperatures. This is important

as the manufacture of these panel products has a marked influence on their subsequent

properties [25]. Particle board resin Urea-formaldehyde (UF-amino based) adhesives

are the most commonly used resin to hold the particles together and the boards with

UF are intended for interior use only

Figure 2.2 Particle boards sample

13

2.3.1.1 Consumers and Uses

Particle board consumption is predicted to climb over the forecast period due

to the expected growth in furniture production and residential construction. Although

particle board consumption is headed in a positive direction, it should be noted that

demand will nevertheless remain well below pre-recession peaks. Output of plywood

and veneer goes mainly to the construction sector, primarily to the residential housing

and repair industries. Almost one third of plywood goes to the manufacturing sector,

part of which is used as an input for other plywood production, and part of which goes

for furniture and other durable goods manufacturing. The “Other” category is made up

of foreign trade, inventory change, and wholesale trade. The outputs for reconstituted

wood products, including particle board, are more evenly split between construction

and manufacturing, The “Other” category for reconstituted wood products is made up

of sales to state and local government, foreign trade, and services (Gale Business

Resources, 1999). The below table shown the particle board downstream market

overview.

Figure 2.2.1 Particle board Shipments by Downstream Market, 1997. Source

Composite Panel Association

Household Furniture    

23%

Kitchen & Bath         20%

NEC                   15%Office 

Furniture        8%

Custom Laminators     

7%

Flooring Products      

7%

Door Core              5%

Stocking Distributors   

5%

All Other Categories   

10%

2000 Particle board Downstream Markets

14

2.3.1.2 Particle Board Density

The most important strength properties of particle board are MOE, MOR, and

internal bond. Uniform density is desirable if a high internal bond strength is needed

or if the edges are to be exposed in use (the edge of a uniform-density board is less

porous than one with a high contrast between face and core). The higher the overall

density of particle board from a given raw material, the greater the strength. However,

other properties such as dimensional stability may be adversely affected by increased

density. To assure uniformity, density should be the same through-out the area of a

particle board panel. Screw-holding strength is also critical for uses in furniture and

cabinets. Screw-bolding strength is determined largely by board density, although

resin content has an effect.

To produce a board of the highest possible bending strength, at any given board

density, the surface layer is made more dense than the core. It is difficult to produce

boards with truly uniform density profiles, that is, equal face and core density, because

as the press is closed, the surface layers of the mat heat first and to a higher temperature

than the core. This softens the surface particles and allows them to become more

densified than the core.

Figure 2.2.2 Theoretical distribution of density in a compressed particle

board mat for four types of particles

15

2.3.2 Properties of Plant Fibres

Plant fibres or lignocellulosic fibres are made up with the basic components of

cellulose and lignin. The cellulose existence in plants was first discovered by Anselm

Payen in 1838. Cellulose is a natural polymer with the repeating formula of (C6H10O5)n.

It consists of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousands repeating units

(n) or degree of polymerization. Three hydroxyl groups contained in the repeating

units have the ability to make a hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond plays a major role

in directing the high-ordered packing and also governs the physical properties of

cellulose. Solid cellulose forms a microcrystalline structure with regions of high order,

called crystalline regions and regions of low order, named amorphous regions. The

high crystallinity of cellulose makes it highly resistant to strong alkali and oxidising

agents. Nevertheless, cellulose is easily hydrolyzed by acid to water-soluble sugars.

The reinforcing efficiency of plant fibre in composite is related to its crystallinity and

the configuration of the cellulose chain.

Celluloses are built through the effect of hydrogen bonds (H-bond). Cellulose

molecules or chains interact to each other by H-bonding and formed microfibril. While

at the same time, the arrangement of microfibrils creates a single plant fibre. Cellulose

fibres usually contain over 500,000 cellulose molecules and developed 2.5 billion H-

bonds. Even if an H-bond is about 1/10 the strength of a covalent bond, the cumulative

bonding energy provides the high tensile strength of cellulose. Figure 2.3 shows H-

bond holding together thousands of cellulose chain to form a single microfibril.

Figure 2.3 Concept of hydrogen bond joining together the cellulose chains.

16

The wordfibre refers to a bundle of individual cells with adequate strength,

length, and fineness. Each individual cell or elementary fibre, normally has a length

from 1 to 50 mm and a diameter of around 10-50 μm. Within the elementary fibre there

are microfibrils which have a diameter of around 10-30 nm and made up from a

collection of 30-100 cellulose chain molecules. Figure 2.4 shows an example of flax

bast fibre anatomy dissected into the smallest unit, the cellulose chain.

Figure 2.4 Cellulose is the main building blocks of plant fibre.

Natural fibre can be assumed as homogeneous for the purpose of analysis.

From the microstructure point of view, natural fibre seems to be inhomogeneous due

to the size and arrangement of cells. However, the gross structure of natural fibre may

be treated mathematically as homogeneous at the macroscopic level. Every type of

plant fibres are structurally multicellular in nature, consisting of a number of

continuous cells with mostly are cylindrical honeycombs which have different sizes,

shapes, and arrangements for different types of fibres.

17

2.4 Kenaf Fibre

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is a traditional crop which is very potential to

be developed apart from wood. Kenaf are living in tropical season and is very suitable

for planting in Malaysia. It is a fibrous plant, consisting of core fibres (75-60 %), which

produce low-quality pulp, and outer bast fibres (25-40 %), which produces high-

quality pulp, in the trunk. The plant grows to a height of 2.7-3.6m and harvested stem,

from which the fibre is extracted [18].

Kenaf is an alternative material to wood in pulp and paper industry. The

purpose is to prevent forest destruction if trees in the forest are used in the production

of paper [19] and the kenaf industry also makes mats automotive [20]. In the United

States, kenaf is a commercial plant to be planted every year and can live in a variety

of kenaf weather. If previously very useful in the production of rope and canvas, but

now there various products that can be produced because it is the main reason kenaf

considered very environmentally friendly. The kenaf gather carbon dioxide at a rate

significantly higher and kenaf absorb nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil [21].

2.4.1 Characteristic and Properties of Kenaf Fibre

Kenaf bast fiber which has contains 75 % cellulose and 15 % lignin and offers

the advantages of eco-friendly and safe environment. Kenaf in Malaysia is made up of

two different fibers, bast and core, with makeup about 35 % and 65 %, respectively

(Figure 1.0.1 and Table 2.2). Each fiber has its own use; thus, separation of

fibersproduce higher financial returns kenaf whole stalk. The main factors involved in

the separation of kenaf into two fractions include: the size and amount of each share;

types and number of separation equipment; processing rate through separation

equipment; whole stem kenaf moisture content; humidity ambient air [22].

18

Table 2.3 Characteristic and properties of kenaf stems in Malaysia [18].

Characteristics/properties

Bast

Core

Stem

Dimension(cm)

Height (range)

Diameter

Perimeter

1.52(0.095)

5.73(0.131)

145-250

1.74(0.212)

6.60(0.101)

Proportion (%)

Cross-section area

Weight propotion

21.96(2.03)

32.2

78.04(2.51)

68.5

Density(g/cm3) - 0.21(0.038)

Acidity (pH) 7.13 5.21

Figure 2.5 Exposed physical appearance of kenaf [22].

19

2.4.2 Woody Core and Core Fibres

Chemical pulping of the woody core will yield about 41% core fibre from the

original woody portion of a kenaf stalk. The core fibres make up from 20% to 40% of

the entire stalk by weight. The average length of the core fibres range from 0.49 to

0.78 mm long with a mean length of 0.6 mm and an average diameter of 37.4 mm. The

core pulp, compared to hardwood pulps, has a lower tear strength, but greater tensile

and burst strength [23].

Due to the high absorbency of the woody core material, researchers have

investigated the use of kenaf as an absorbent, as a poultry litter and animal bedding,

as a bulking agent for sewage sludge composting, and as a potting soil amendment. In

addition to the above core products, which are all now available in the market place,

several kenaf core products are available which are successfully used for toxic waste

cleanup, oil spills on water, and the remediation of chemically contaminated soils [23].

Figure 2.6 Core fibre material; small (left), medium (second from left), large (third

from the left), and compresses into a square cube.

20

Figure 2.7 Kenaf plant.

Figure 2.8 Cross-section of a Kenaf stalk.

21

Table 2.4 Some properties of plant and synthetic fibres

Fibre Density g/cm3

Diameter (µm)

Tensile Strength (MPa)

Young’s Modulus

(GPa)

Elongation at Break

(%) Flax 1.5 40-600 345-1500 27.6 2.7-3.2

Hemp 1.47 25-500 690 70 1.6

Jute 1.3-1.49 25-200 393-800 13-26.5 1.16-1.5

Kenaf - - 930 53 1.6

Ramie 1.55 - 400-938 61.4-128 1.2-3.8

Nettle - - 650 38 1.7

Sisal 1.45 50-200 468-700 9.4-22 3-7

Henequen - - - - -

PALF - 20-80 413-1627 34.5-82.5 1.6

Abaca - - 430-760 - -

Oil palm EFB 0.7-1.55 150-500 248 3.2 25

Oil palm mesacorp

- - 80 0.5 17

Cotton 1.5-1.6 12-38 287-800 5.5-12.6 7-8

Coir 1.15-1.46 100-460 131-220 4-6 15-40

E-glass 2.55 <17 3400 73 2.5

Kevlar 1.44 - 3000 60 2.5-3.7

Carbon 1.78 5-7 3400a-4800b

240a-425b 1.4-1.8

a Ultra high modulus carbon fibres b Ultra high tenacity carbon fibres

The physical structure of plant fibres are bundles of elongated thick walled

dead plant cells. Each and every single plant fibres are a single cell with a length from

1-50 mm and a diameter of around 10-50 µm. The centre of the surrounding cell walls

there is a lumen which makes plant fibres are like microscopic tubes. The lumen

functions as a medium for water uptake through the plant fibres [23].

22

Figure 2.9 Structural constitution of a plant fibre cell

The structural constitution of the plant fibre cell is shown in Figure 2.9

Underneath the primary layer is the secondary layer which consists of three sub layers,

namely S1, S2, and S3. In this layer, the molecular chain of cellulose are synthesised

by enzymes, each chain containing about 40 molecules. These cellulose chains are

grouped together to form microfibrils and surrounding the microfibrils are

hemicelluloses. These hemicelluloses function as a connection between the

microfibrils, as a basis of its structural network.

This model of plant fibre cell represents the hierarchy of the microstructures

and the spiral angle of the cellulose microfibrils. The diagram also shows the layers of

the primary and secondary cell wall of plant fibre cell. As shown in figure 2.9, the

secondary cell wall makes the most of the total thickness of the plant fibre cell. The

primary wall makes up only a small portion of the total thickness of the plant cell,

while the secondary wall (S) makes up 80% of the thickness, hence the secondary wall

(S) acts as the main load bearing component. The secondary wall S2 has the dominant

depth among the three layers of secondary wall [23].

23

2.5 FRP Fabricator in Malaysia

There is increasing public interest in the current environmental concerns with

increasing landfill taxes and a major push from the European Union on the disposal of

fibre reinforced polymers. Therefore it is important for manufacturers to ensure that

they are disposing of their waste in the most efficient and sustainable way without

causing unnecessary damage to the environment or human health.

It is important for manufacturers to develop strategies to meet the impending

legislation that will prohibit the disposal of composites in landfill sites as well as a

decrease in the volume of FRP that can be incinerated. These issues will obviously put

more pressure on the need to increase the recycling and reuse of FRP. The waste

management scheme has been introduced in order to give targets for the manufactures

to achieve [8].For the FRP current waste management in modern countries such as in

Europe, the available technology for FRP recycling, and previous research on

mechanical recycling of glass fibre composites.

Most of the findings from the study indicated that the use of the GFRP products

in Malaysia was mainly in the area of non-structural applications. Quite a number of

local manufacturers are actively involved with the manufacturing of the GFRP

products. According to the local manufacturers, from discussion during the visit, most

of the raw materials including the fibre sand resin are imported from overseas such as

China, Japan, Europe and the USA. Thus, the cost of the current GFRP products may

be slightly higher when compared with the other conventional materials. However, in

the coming years when the demand for the GFRP products increase, the price will

obviously start to decrease. In general, most of the local manufacturers are using glass

fibre to manufacture their products. Table 2.5 shows the number of fibreglass

manufacturers or fabricators in Malaysia collected to date from the study. A wide range

of GFRP products were recorded including water tank, pultruded sections, plates,

domes, gratings, partitions, ceiling, door, signboard, pipes, and many others. The result

24

of the study shows that most of the GFRP fabricators are found in the states where the

industrial areas are located such as in the state of Johor, Selangor, and Kuala Lumpur.

Table 2.5 Fibreglass fabricators in Malaysia

The use of GFRP water tanks has been known quite sometime in the Malaysian

construction industry. The water tanks, either rectangular or cylindrical, can be

manufactured to accommodate different capacity of water ranging from hundreds to

thousands gallons. In relation to that, it is important that an engineer who involved in

such project must have adequate knowledge in terms material properties and the design

process to ensure the safety and serviceability of the water tanks.

For the exposed water tank, the outer surface should bagel coated to protect

from ultraviolet effect from the sunlight. Table 2.6 shows the distribution of water tank

fabricators in Malaysia gathered in this study. Unlike the number of fibreglass

manufacturers, which include all type of products, the state of Selangor shows the

highest water tank fabricators compared to other states. From the discussion with the

manufacturers, some of the manufacturer not only produced water tank for local use

but also to be exported to Middle East countries.

25

There is a big demand from those countries due to various environmental

problems if the water tank is made of pressed steel. This shows a good sign for the

future use of the GFRP products in the construction industries. Table 2.7 shows the

percentage of GFRP products for different applications produced by local

manufacturers.

Table 2.6 Water tank fabricator in Malaysia

Table 2.7 FRP products produced locally

In the earthquake prone countries the use of FRP products can also play an

important role in minimizing the total damage. As an example, currently the use of

glass as partitions, widows or walls for high-rise buildings will pose a great danger

26

once the glass breaks due to earthquake. Thus, the use of GFRP panel will generally

be able to reduce the risk of injuries to public during the event of earthquake. The visit

to one company that produced artistic GFRP panel, which is difficult to break as

compared to glass, revealed that the use of such panel in Malaysia is still very limited.

In the UK, 2.8 million tonne of plastics waste was produced every year and

156,000 tonne are composites waste [7]. In Malaysia, 12 million tonne of solid waste

was produced in 2012 and 24% (2.88 million tonne) are plastics waste [7]. This

hybridization have environmentally harmless and also comparable mechanical

properties with synthetic fibre composites.

Figure 2.9.0 FRP wastes 2.5.1 Recycling Technology for FRP

Recycling of FRP composites are mostly focused on industrial waste streams.

Meanwhile, post-consumer recycling will only be effective when a collection system

is established. As depicted in Figure 2.9.1, the recycling options available for FRP

composites waste include thermal, chemical, and mechanical methods[2].

27

Figure 2.9.1 Recycling of thermoset composites using thermal, chemical, and mechanical methods [2].

2.5.2 Mechanical Recycling of FRP

Mechanical recycling techniques have been investigated for both glass fibre

and carbon fibre reinforced composites, but the most extensive research has been done

on glass fibre [6]The technique used is usually to initially size reduce the scrap

composite components in some primary crushing process. This would typically

involve the use of a slow speed cutting or crushing mill to reduce the material to pieces

in the order of 50–100 mm in size. This facilitates the removal of metal inserts and, if

done in an initial stage where the waste arises, the volume reduction assists transport.

The main size reduction stage would then be in a hammer mill or other high speed mill

where the material is ground into a finer product ranging from typically 10 mm in size

down to particles less than 50 mm in size. Then a classifying operation, typically

comprising cyclones and sieves, would be employed to grade the resulting recyclate

into fractions of different size.

In the mechanical recycling process, all of the constituents of the original

composite are reduced in size and appear in the resulting recyclates which are mixtures

28

of polymer, fibre and filler. Typically the finer graded fractions are powders and

contain a higher proportion of filler and polymer that the original composite. The

coarser fraction send to be of a fibrous nature where the particles have a high aspect

ratio and have higher fibre content. A number of companies have been involved in

developing the recycling activity at an industrial scale, among them ERCOM in

Germany and Phoenix Fibreglass in Canada [6]

Palmer (2009) used the single fibre tensile testing method to compare the

strengths of virgin and recycled fibres. This author used mechanical recycling of

injection moulded products, which involved grinding and separation of the recycled

products. More than 50 specimens were prepared and tested at 5, 10, and 15 mm gage

lengths, for both virgin and recyclate fibres. As shown in Table 2.8, for gage length

5mm, the tensile strength of recovered glass fibre dropped 18% and Young modulus

dropped 3.8%. [9]

Table 2.8 Tensile properties of recovered glass fibre through mechanical recycling

(Palmer, 2009).

A study had been done on the possibility of reusing short fibres obtained from

the recycled thermoset composite to develop new composite materials (Kouparitsas et

al., 2002). Recycled glass fibres were produced from the glass polyester composites

using the mechanical grinding method. After the grinding process, the recovered fibres

were incorporated (40% weight concentration) into the virgin matrix (polypropylene)

to make new generations of composites. The tensile strength of the new thermoplastic

29

composites reinforced by recycled fibres is slightly greater (25 MPa) than the virgin

fibre composites (24 MPa). The modulus of elasticity of the new generation of

thermoplastic composites (PP/glass) reinforced by recycled fibre is 1600 MPa, which

is slightly lower than virgin fibre composites (1680 MPa). The strain of the new

generation thermoplastic composites reinforced by recycled fibres is 2.5%, while that

of the virgin fibre composite is 3%.

Bernasconi et al. (2007) investigated the effects of mechanical recycling on the

tensile strength of an injection moulded polyamide 6, 6 reinforced glass fibres

composite. The virgin glass fibre used in this study is E-glass short fibre of 10.5 µm

average diameter. The result of the experiment is shown in Table 2.9 [3].

Table 2.9 Elastic modulus and strengths of different blends of virgin and reprocessed

PA66 GF 35 [3].

It has been reported that the performance of ground composite materials, when

added as reinforcement, improved the strength in epoxy-moulding compounds (Clean

Washington Centre Report). The strength of the epoxy resin was increased by 16%

with the addition of 1% recycled fibres lengths less than 0.5mm. The fibres with length

less than0.5mm produced not only higher strengths when compared to fibres greater

than 0.5mm, but also produced a lower viscosity resin with the same percentage

addition.

30

2.6 Products Based On Recycled Glass Fibre

2.6.1 Products by Fiberlite ,UK

A company in the UK (Fiberlite) recently introduced a new product based on

recycled glass fibre for trench cover. The composite trench covers provide an

alternative to metal and concrete accesses covers and are suitable for access to sewage

systems, underground pipework and drainage networks. The covers are inert so they

will not corrode, are not electrically conductive and have low thermal conductivity,

according to the manufacturer. The covers have a guaranteed "lifespan of 15

maintenance free years" and are fully lockable.

Figure 2.9.2 Trench Cover by Fiberlite UK

31

2.6.2 Product by American Fiber Green.

One of America Company, American Fiber Green Products (AFGP) has been

increasing their effort to utilize the composite wastes to make them useful the general

public. Figure 2.9.3 shows some products that are derived from AFGP’s ingenuity

and commitment to recycled composite waste.

Figure 2.9.3 AFGP product base on the recycled fibre glass

2.6.3 GRP Reinforced Wood Particle board

Two panels were manufactured at BRE:

A 13 mm thick panel with a core of 70% GRP and an outer face of wood flake.

A 11 mm thick panel of 50% ground GRP with 50% wood flake

32

The product has similar properties to P5 grade commercial chipboard used in

domestic flooring figure 2.9. The 13 mm thick panel was tested in 3 point bending to

give the following properties:

Modulus of elasticity (MOE) Em = 2777 N/mm²

Bending strength Fmax = 35 N/mm²

Density = 1035 kg/m³

Ground GRP has the advantage of requiring no drying before use (unlike

woodchip) and this reduces the overall energy input of production.

Figure 2.9.4 Ground GRP/wood flake blend particle board [7].

33

2.7 Matrix

2.7.1 Types of Matrix Resin

The common matrix used for fibre reinforced plastic/thermoset composite

process such as Epoxy, Unsaturated Polyester (UP), Vinylester, Urea Formaldehyde,

Urethanes, Melamine, Phenolics, etc. In this experiment require to use, Urea

Formaldehyde thermosetting as the matrix. Roughly description of resin compound is

given which may assist in understanding of resin used for reinforcement.

2.7.2 Matrix Characteristics

One definition of resin is any class of solid, semi solid or liquid organic

material which generally the product of natural or synthetic origin with high molecular

weight and with no melting point. The 10 basic thermosetting resins all have able to

expose to the elevated temperature bottommost to attaining of 232.22 ºC or 450 ºF. It

has family members which each member has its own set of individual chemical and

based upon their molecular makeup and their ability to either homopolymerize,

copolymerize or both. The other significant beneficial factor here to consider is their

characteristic is their physical, thermal and chemical properties cross linking

polymerization reaction which contributes to their ability to maintain and retain the

properties when exposed to environmental conditions.

34

Thermoset material once cured cannot be re melted or reformed. During

crosslinking, they form three dimensional molecular chains, called cross linking as

shown in the Figure 2.6.1. Due to these crosslinking, the molecules are not flexible

and cannot be re melted and reshaped. The higher the number of crosslinkings, the

more rigid and thermally stable the material will be.

Figure 2.9.5 Crosslinking of thermoset molecules during curing

2.7.3 Urea Formaldehyde Resin (UF)

Urea Formaldehyde Resin is a liquid-state thermosetting Urea Formaldehyde

Resin (UFR) which meets all the requirements for MDF and the particle board. Urea

formaldehyde resin is a highly crosslinked thermosetting polymer primarily made up

of urea and formaldehyde with formaldehyde acting as the crosslinker. Urea resins are

noted for their fast cure, high strength and cost effectiveness. Due to their reactive

nature, UF resins are some of the fastest curing resins available.The resin is used in

the production of an adhesive for bonding particle board (61%of the urea-

formaldehyde used by the industry), medium density fibreboard (27%), hardwood

plywood (5%), and a laminating adhesive for bonding (7%), for example, furniture

case goods, overlays to panels, and interior flush doors. Urea-formaldehyde resins are

the most prominent examples of the class of thermosetting resins usually referred to as

amino resins. Urea-formaldehyde resins comprise about 80% of the amino resins

produced worldwide [36].In the use of UF resins, water solubility, good adhesion, high

curing rate, and low cost are the attractive properties

35

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explains in detail the methodology in material preparation,

specimen preparation and fabrication of particle board method of the composites.

Other than that, experimentation to determine the mechanical properties and

morphological properties of the composites will be presented in this chapter. This

chapter also describes the methods and techniques used in manufacturing process of the

hybrid composite according to the BS ES standard. The research methodology flow chart

was summarized in Figure 3.0

36

3.1.1 Methodology Flow Chart

Figure 3.0 Research methodology flow chart

Start

Preliminary Study

Material and Mould Preparation

Sample Preparation

Sample Testing

Result and Discussion

Conclusion

End

Data Analysis

37

3.2 Material and Instrumentation

3.2.1 Material

In this study, the kenaf fibres and resin were obtained from The Fibre and

Biocomposite Development Centre (FIDEC – Banting) and the material GFRP

recyclate material is from Water tank fibre industries (Atostech - K.Terengganu).

Kenaf Core by FIDEC (Fibre & Biocomposite Centre –Banting)

GFRP recyclate from Atostech Sdn Bhd.

o Coarse rGFRP (2.36mm ~ 5.00mm Max)

Urea-Formaldehyde, UF Resin (UL 7100)

All fabricate specimen utilities and instrument were fabricated at the FIDEC

workshop.

The equipment that has been used for the study as follows:

1. Oven - To dry up the material for keep the moisture < 5 %

2. Moisture Control Machine – To measure the material moisture content

3. Weighing Machine – To measure the weight material follow as the parameter

4. Auto Mixing Machine - To mix the material for the specimen

5. Hot Press Machine – Compress machine of the particle board specimen (10mm

thickness

6. Cutting machine – To cut the particle board for the specimen of testing analysis

7. Universal Testing Machine – Testing analysis for the Bending test and Internal

bonding test

38

3.2.2 Kenaf Core Fibre

The kenaf core will go through some further process to get the kenaf core

(coarse) fibre. Kenaf natural fibre stick core as in figure 3.1 will be processed / crushed

by a Hammer mill machine.

Figure 3.1 Kenaf Core stalk without kenaf bast

Figure 3.1.1 Hammer Mill Machine for crush the kenaf Core

39

Figure 3.1.2 Screening machine to segregate the size for kenaf Core (3.0~5.0mm)

Figure 3.1.3 The Kenaf Core after screening (3.0~5.0mm)

40

3.2.3 Glass Fibre Recyclates (rGFRP)

Below details for the material preparation for the Glass fibre polyester wastes

at the Atostech sdn. bhd. the Glass fibre polyester wastes were cut into smaller pieces

suitable to be fed into mechanical recycling machine.

Figure 3.2 Glass fibre composites waste (Water Tank Fibre)

Figure 3.2.6 shows the process flow of mechanical recycling which consists of

crusher machine and hammer mill machine. The waste is fed into the crusher machine

to produce smaller waste and transported by screw conveyor to hammer mill machine.

The hammer mill machine can be fitted with various sizing filter as shown in Figure

3.2.7 to produce rGFRP of preferred sizes. The recyclates is then separated by air

blower into fibrous (coarse particles) and powder (fine particles). In this study, only

fibrous recyclate is used as it is provide reinforcement for composites.

41

Figure 3.2.1 Process flow of mechanical recycling of GFRP waste.

Figure 3.2.2 Sizing filter for hammer mill machine

There were two batches of GFRP recyclates produced during the recycling

process. The first batch used the 15 mm sizing filter and the second batch used the

smallest sizing filter which is 5 mm.

42

Figure 3.2.3 Recyclates of 5mm sizing

Figure 3.2.4 Sieve Shaker for filter the coarse size (2.3~5.0mm)

Figure 3.2.5 After filter recyclate size (2.3~5mm)

43

3.2.4 Urea-Formaldehyde Resin (UF)

Figure 3.2.6 The Urea-Formaldehyde Resin UL-7100

UF Resins were used for plywood and wood particle article, particle board and

hardboard production, and also as adhesive in furniture and mould pressing industries.

The polymer matrix resin used in this study was Urea-Formaldehyde (UF) resin UL-

7100. 12% of this resin is composed in each particle board sample which is standard

in commercial particle board making industry.

44

3.3 Samples Testing Preparation and Formulation

3.3.1 Raw Material Preparation

To make the good bonding and interlocking of the material, the moisture

content of material must be less than 5%, the oven dried process will be done at least

2 days before.

Oven Spec:

Temp: 70 ° Celsius

Figure 3.3 Oven set temperature in 70 ° Celsius

45

Figure 3.3.1 Sample for moisture content checking

Figure 3.3.2 Moisture content checking process

46

3.3.2 Particle Board Parameter

The table 3.0 and table 3.1 is parameter for the material preparation 100%

Kenaf Core sample and 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP particle Board formulation of

composites developed in this study. This parameter is based on the Medium Density

(650kg/m³) parameter estimation with extra 10% handling error. Size per Particle

Board is (300mm Length X 300mm Width X 10mm Thickness).

Table 3.0 The highlighted total weight data for each material preparation 1st sample

(100% Kenaf Core particle Board)

47

Table 3.1 The highlighted total weight data for each material preparation 2nd sample

(70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP Particle Board)

48

3.3.3 Particle Board Sample Making

Based on the parameter weight as stated in the Table 3.1, each material will be

checked and mixed by the Auto Mixing Machine as per figure 3.3.4.

Figure 3.3.3 Material preparations before being blended in the auto mixing machine

Figure 3.3.4 The material in the process using the Auto Mixing Machine

49

Figure 3.3.5 The raw material ready to blended

The entire preparation was then allowed to mix for 5 minutes in the rotary

mixer. After the material were completly blended and equally even, then it will be

collected and put at the pre compress mould with size 300mm x 300mm. The pre

compress will be done by hydraulic press manually before proceed to the Hot press

machine.

Figure 3.3.6 Prepare Mould for pre compress 300mm x 300mm

50

3.4 Hot Press Technique

For the composite sample using a Hot Press Mould by the Auto Hot Press

Machine. Within the hot press process, the composite parts are made by placing dry fibre

reinforcing fabrics into a single-part, open mould enclosing the mould into a pre

compressing by hydraulic manual.

The basic overall process of Hot Press Moulding is below detail:

Figure 3.4.1 The blended material in the Pre Compress Mould before transferred to

Hot Press.

Figure 3.4.2 The mould will put in the machine with the 10mm stopper.

51

Basic set time parameters for the above recommended glue mix formulation

varies on the press temperature, as follows;

Table 3.2 The Parameter for process Hot Press Moulding

Hot Press Parameter Process Time

Per Heat 50 Sec

Heating 150 Sec

Venting 2 times

Final Pressing 10 Sec

Total 360 Sec @ 6 Min

3.4.1 Sample result

Figure 3.4 100% Kenaf Core Particle Board

Figure 3.4.1 70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP Particle Board

52

3.5 Sampling and Cutting

Sampling and cutting of the test pieces was carried out according to

BS EN 326-1. Series of both transverse and longitudinal test pieces were prepared.

Figure 3.5 Particle Board cut by cutter machine industrial

Figure 3.5.1 Cutting sample (250mm x 50mm / pc)

53

3.5.1 Sample Labelling

Table 3.3 The list labeling for sample bending testing

No Samples Code UF Resin

(wt. %)

Kenaf Core

(wt. %)

rGFRP

(wt. %)

Coarse Coarse

1 K1 12 100 -

2 K2 12 100 -

3 K3 12 100 -

4 K4 12 100 -

5 K5 12 100 -

6 KF1 12 70 30

7 KF2 12 70 30

8 KF3 12 70 30

9 KF4 12 70 30

10 KF5 12 70 30

Table 3.4 The list labeling for sample internal bonding testing

No Samples CodeUF Resin

(wt. %)

Kenaf Core

(wt. %)

rGFRP

(wt. %)

Coarse Coarse

1 K1 12 100 -

2 K2 12 100 -

3 K3 12 100 -

4 KF1 12 70 30

5 KF2 12 70 30

6 KF3 12 70 30

54

3.5.2 Conditioning

The test pieces will be conditioned to constant mass in an atmosphere with a

relative humidity of (65 ± 5) % and a temperature of (20 ± 2) °C [14] [15]. Constant

mass is considered to be reached when the results of two successive weighing

operations, carried out at an interval of 24 h, it’s not differ by more than 0,1 % of the

mass of the test piece. The conditioning process was employed to ensure that the resin

in the particle board had cured uniformly.

Figure 3.5.2 Room conditioning wood base panel for testing

Figure 3.5.3 Specimens (BS EN 310& 319) wood base panel for testing inside the room

55

3.6 Sample Testing Type

The table below shows the detail of the sample testing type:

Table 3.5 The list for the testing analysis

NO Testing Name Standard name Output

1 Bending Test

BS EN 310

Determining the apparent modulus

of elasticity in flat wise bending and

bending strength of wood-based

panels of nominal thickness equal to

or greater than 3 mm.

Bending strength

Bending modulus

2 Internal

Bonding Test

BS EN 319

Determining the resistance to tension

perpendicular to the plane of the

board (internal bond) of particle

boards, fibre boards,

Bonding strength

3 Image Analyzer

Cross Section

Material Bonding

4 Density

ρ = m / υ = kg/m³

56

3.7 Sample Testing Analysis

The equipment used to do analysis were from the UTM (Go tech –Taiwan).

For Bending and Internal bending test is main testing for the particle board wood

standard industrial.

Figure 3.7 Universal Testing Machine (Go Tech-Taiwan).

3.7.1 Flexural/Bending Test BS EN 310 Wood-based panels testing

On this study analysis, the European Standard that specifies the method in

determining the apparent modulus of elasticity in flat wise bending and bending

strength was used.

57

3.7.1.1 Principle

The modulus of elasticity in bending and bending strength are determined by

applying a load to the center of a test piece supported at two points. The modulus of

elasticity is calculated by using the slope of the linear region of the load-deflection

curve; the value calculated is the apparent modulus, not the true modulus, because the

test method includes shear as well as bending. The bending strength of each test piece

is calculated by determining the ratio of the bending moment M, at the maximum load

Fmax, to the moment of its full cross section [14].

Figure 3.7.1 Arrangement of the bending apparatus.

58

Figure 3.7.2 Cross Section of tubular boards.

3.7.1.2 Modulus of elasticity (MOE)

The modulus of elasticity Em (in N/mm2), of each test piece, is calculated from

this formula [14]:

Em =

Where,

l1 is the distance between the centres of the supports, in millimetres

b is the width of the test piece, in millimetres

t is the thickness of the test piece, in millimetres

F2 – F1 is the increment of load on the straight line portion of the load-deflection

curve,(Figure 3) in N. F1 shall be approximately 10 % and F2 shall be

approximately 40 % of the maximum load

a2 – a1 is the increment of deflection at the mid-length of the test piece

(Corresponding to F2 – F1)

59

3.7.1.3 Modulus of Rupture (MOR) / Bending Strength

The bending strength fm (in N/mm2), of each test piece, is calculated from this

formula [14]:

ƒm =

Where,

F max is the maximum load, in newtons

l1, b, and t are in millimetres as defined in

Figure 3.7.3 Load-deflection curve within the range of elastic deformation.

60

Figure 3.7.4 Bending Testing for 100% kenaf sample.

3.7.2 Internal Bonding BS EN 319 (IB Testing)

3.7.2.1 Principle

Determination of resistance to tension perpendicular to the surface of the test

piece by submitting the latter to a uniformly distributed tensile force until rupture

occurs. Tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board is determined by the

maximum load in relation to the surface area of the test piece (“internal bond”) of

particle boards [12][15].

61

The Bonding of the test pieces to the loading blocks used the EPOXY &

Hardener. The tests is not to be carried out until the glue has had sufficient time to cure,

so that the rupture does not occur in the glue line, and until the test pieces have regained

an equal distribution of moisture.

By experience, approximately 24 hours will be sufficient if hot-melt or epoxy

glues are used and approximately 72 hours, if other glues are used. During this time,

the glued assembly shall be stored under controlled conditions of (65 ± 5) % relative

humidity and a temperature of (20 ± 2) °C. Test pieces shall be tested not more than 1

hour after removal from the conditioning environment [15].

Tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board of each test piece, ft,

expressed in N/mm2 to two decimals, is calculated according to the following formula:

ƒt =

where: Fmax is the breaking load, in Newtons; a, b is the length and width of the test piece, in millimetres.

Figure 3.7.5 Each test piece been bonded by epoxy resin + hardener (F-6100)

62

Figure 3.7.6 The Specimen loaded on the Hounsfield UTM testing preparation.

Figure 3.7.8 Sample IB testing after failure.

63

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction

This chapter shown the overall result of the testing. 5 samples result each

particle board type (100% Kenaf & 70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP. Therefore,

each data and result being collected during the whole experimental test will be

described and displayed in this chapter and the further discussion on each data and

result will be discussed.

64

4.2 Result Testing of Bending and Internal Bonding

Table 4.0 below is the collective data for all samples is shown below. For IB

testing hybrid sample #3 is rejected due to the interfacial failure between metal block

and specimen.

Table 4.0 Data result for the testing

Particle Boards Type 

Samples No.

MOR MOE Bonding  Strength (IB) 

Density 

(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (kg/m³)

100% Kenaf core 

1 6.85 898.03 0.398 566.48

2 6.38 894.12 0.323 581.53

3 6.95 939.75 0.291 595.31

4 4.70 687.04 NA 523.27

5 5.03 766.29 NA 570.59

70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP 

6 5.93 774.56 0.386 630.67

7 6.03 827.44 0.444 705.08

8 5.29 692.00 0.183 (rejected) 573.45

9 7.57 1010.61 NA 684.39

10 7.09 833.05 NA 656.60

4.2.1 The Softcopy Result from Universal Testing Machine

This sub title is the raw data for Bending testing and the Internal Bonding

testing by Universal Testing Machine software which are provided by FIDEC lab. This

all testing guide by the FIDEC technician follow as the standard procedure of the

British standard

65

4.2.1.1 Flexural/Bending Test BS EN 310 Wood-based Panels Testing

 

Figure 4.1 Result data for 100% Kenaf core Particle Board sample

 

Figure 4.1.1 Result graph for 100% Kenaf core Particle Board sample

The relationship between Bending Stress versus displacement is perfectly

linear up to failure. The result figure 4.1 shows mean for MOR (Modulus of rupture)

or bending strength is 5.98 MPa Mean for MOE (Modulus of Elasticity) is 0.84 GPa.

66

 

Figure 4.2 Result data for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP Particle Board sample

Figure 4.2.1 Result graph for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP Particle board sample

The relationship between Bending Stress versus displacement is perfectly

linear up to failure. The result figure 4.2 shown Mean for MOR (Modulus of

rupture) or bending strength is 6.38MPa Mean for MOE (Modulus of Elasticity)

is 0.83 GPa.

67

4.2.1.2 Internal Bonding BS EN 319 (IB Testing)

Figure 4.2.3 Result data IB for 100% Kenaf core Particle board sample

Figure 4.2.4 Result graph IB for 100% Kenaf core Particle board sample

The relationship between stress versus displacement is not perfectly linear and

at low load the curve is nonlinear, for intermediate up to failure load the curve is linear.

The figure 4.2.4 shows mean for bonding strength is 0.337MPa

68

Figure 4.2.5 Result data IB for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP Particle board sample

 

Figure 4.2.6 Result graph IB for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP Particle board sample

The relationship between Stress versus displacement is not perfectly linear and

at low load the curve is nonlinear, For intermediate up to failure load the curve is linear.

Figure 4.2.6 shown the mean for bonding strength is 0.338MPa. The sample #3 is

rejected due to the interfacial failure between metal block and specimen.

69

4.2.2 Graph Comparison for the MOR and MOE

Below table shown the comparison average and each sample. For the average

comparison it was observed that the hybrid samples mean MOR value increased

significantly with the increase of 7 % from the 100% kenaf core samples. There was

no significant difference of MOE between both samples, which only 1 % difference.

For the Bonding strength also has shown that hybrid sample is 23 % increase from the

100% kenaf core

Table 4.1 Data Comparison Average

Particle Boards Type MOR MOE Bonding Strength (IB)

(MPa) (GPa) (MPa)

100% Kenaf 5.98 0.84 0.34

70% Kenaf Core + 30% rGFRP 6.38 0.83 0.42

The figure 4.2.7 shown each sample for MOR/ Bending Strength. It shown

that the additional fibre it slightly enhance the bending strength with kenaf core due to

bonding and internal locking of fibre glass & kenaf core.

70

Figure 4.2.7 Different data of MOR for both Particle board

Figure 4.2.8 Different data of MOE for both Particle board

For the MOE shows that the 100% sample is slightly high but not significant

between the hybrids samples, which there are some sample for hybrid is achieves

1GPA, this sample has a difference in the distribution of fibers in its areas.

71

Figure 4.2.9 Different data of bonding strength for both Particle board

Based on the result shown on this data of Internal Bonding graph, there is no

apparent difference in the internal bonding strength. In other cases, where a hybrid

sample was used, the samples managed to achieve 0.44 MPA bonding strength. This

shows that there is a difference in the distribution of fibers in its areas. But still can be

concluding that the fiber is enhancing the kenaf core composite as it bonding together.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

1 2 3

MPa

Sample Test

Bonding Strength (MPa)

100% Kenaf Core IB (MPa)

70% Kenaf Core+ 30% rGFRP IB (MPa)

72

4.2.3 Density Sample Testing

This testing analysis is to see the sample density after cutting sampling process.

This data as a master reference to others tests analysis.

Table 4.2 Result data density for 100% Kenaf core sample

Samples No. Length Width Thickness Weight Density

mm mm mm g kg/m³

1 248.09 51.91 9.55 69.67 566.48

2 248.76 51.76 9.72 72.78 581.53

3 249.66 50.82 9.31 70.32 595.31

4 251.37 50.59 9.72 64.68 523.27

5 250.36 50.68 9.76 70.66 570.59

Average  249.65 51.15 9.61 69.62 567.44

Table 4.3 Result data density for 70% Kenaf core + 30% rGFRP sample

Samples No. Length Width Thickness Weight Density

mm mm mm g kg/m³

1 250.48 50.89 9.72 78.14 630.67

2 250.04 50.57 9.10 81.13 705.08

3 249.15 50.21 9.90 71.02 573.45

4 250.55 50.33 9.90 85.44 684.39

5 251.12 50.79 9.96 83.41 656.60

Average  250.27 50.56 9.72 79.83 650.04

From this result shows that the hybrid sample is better than 100% kenaf core.

Furthermore, the samples indicate the rGFRP cover each of the space under the

composite.

73

4.2.4 Image Analyzer Result

4.2.4.1 100% Kenaf Core Fibre Cross section

The Image shows the uneven cross section for 100% kenaf core. This sample

100% kenaf core sample density is less than hybrid sample. There are still have a small

hole and porosity that can be improve. The result had shown the strength also less than

the hybrid sample.

Figure 4.2.10 Image of cross section for sample #3 595.31kg/m³

Figure 4.2.11 Image of cross section for sample #4 523.27kg/m³

74

4.2.4.2 70% Kenaf Core + 30 % Fibre Cross section

The Image shows the sample cross section for 70% kenaf core and mix with

rGFRP 30%.As per picture below, that was highlighted shows that the rGFRP is bond

in this composite, It can be conclude that the fibre can be bonding or have an internal

interlock each with kenaf core and give some strength for flexural itself.

Figure 4.2.12 Image of cross section for sample #4 656.60kg/m³

Figure 4.2.13 Image of cross section for sample #5 684.39kg/m³

75

4.3 Gantt Chart for This Research

Below are the Gantt charts based on my research study planning from PSM1

to PSM2. Based on the scheduled, all the scopes were in planned and follow as the

details required.

Figure 4.3 The Schedule of PSM1

Figure 4.3.1 The Schedule of PSM2

76

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions

Composite test samples were successfully fabricated using hot press technique.

It was found that the rGFRP improved the density, bending and bonding strength

for the kenaf core reinforced urea-formaldehyde composite.

77

5.2 Recommendations

Several recommendations have been identified from this research to improvise

the composite.

Study the effect of resin/reinforcement ratio variation on the mechanical

properties of Particle Board.

Study the effect of rGFRP/Kenaf core ratio variation on the mechanical

properties of Particle Board.

Study the method for improving the processing and fabrication technique that

can overcome uneven reinforcement of rGFRP/kenaf core distribution.

Study the method for improving the density to enhance the mechanical strength

78

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