UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY...
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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY
AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR
BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
FH 2007 11
IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON
THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR
BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
2007
IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR
By
BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy
October 2007
DEDICATION
This endeavour is dedicated to my loved beloved parents - Pho Ma and Mae
Phasy Ninchaleune; my beloved wife and children - Khamnang, Bounik, Bikfa
and Chanthavisouk Ninchaleune; and my parents-in-law - Phothao Sisavath
and Maethao Xay Pouangpadith, who laid my academic career foundation. It
is also dedicated to all Ninchaleune and Pouangpadith family members for
constant moral support and inspiration.
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR
By
BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
October 2007
Chairman: Associate Professor Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, PhD
Faculty: Forestry
In Lao PDR, deforestation is mainly caused by inappropriate logging, and
shifting cultivation. These unsustainable agricultural practices and forest
utilization have resulted serious natural catastrophe in many parts of the
country.
The poverty of the three main ethnic groups namely: Lao Loum (lowlander),
Lao Theung (uplander) and Lao Soung (highlander) in the rural areas is
directly related to land degradation, limitation of agricultural land and
absence of alternative source for cash income. In addition, due to high
population growth, this people have encroached into the natural forests to
produce the food security. For example, they cleared the forest land areas for
practising of shifting cultivation. They also legally and illegally harvested the
timber forest products (TFPs), collected the non-timber forest product
(NTFPs) and hunted wildlife to generate family income, especially during the
rice shortage.
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In Vientiane Province, the hill tribes live closer to lowlander through
resettlement and land and forest allocation programs of Lao Government.
Based on this condition, Vientiane Province is suitable and meaningful for
this study. Nine villages were selected to represent the three main ethnic
groups.
The three main ethnic groups practice different agricultural practices, and
utilize the forest products. The accessibility to the study site is possible
through all-weather-road.
The general objectives of this study are to assess the impact of agroforestry
practices on socio-economic and environmental of Vientiane Province, Lao
PDR. The collection of socio-economic data applied the technique of Rapid
Rural Appraisal/Participatory (RRA/PRA). Additionally, the Braun-Blanquet
method was used for collecting of vegetation data. The main findings of this
study are summarized as follows:
There were differences in paddy rice cultivation, home garden, tree planting,
and livestock raising among these three main ethnic groups. The production
of upland rice, bananas, papaya, maize, and showed no differences. This
indicates that three main ethnic groups had similarly agricultural production.
The change in agricultural practices among three main ethnic groups was
dependent on the Lao Government Policies. The study also found that most
of Lao Theung and Lao Soung (hill tribes) preferred practicing paddy rice
cultivation. However, they still lacked capital and labour in changing their
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shifting cultivations to paddy rice cultivation. The paddy rice, home garden,
agroforestry, and fish pond are considered as good agricultural practices.
The result showed that these required relatively smaller size compared to
unsustainable practices like shifting cultivation, maize, and grazing land,
which are considered to have negative effects to the environment.
The forest utilization in terms of quantity among the three main ethnic groups
was difference of timber exploitation, and collecting of NTFPs. As a result,
Lao Soung and Lao Theung harvested more TFPs than Lao Loum. However,
utilization of bamboo, firewood, and hunting were not different. These
indicate that all three main ethnic groups utilized the NTFPs. In the 1-, 5-,
and 15-year-old fallows, logged-over and primary forests, 170, 209, 227, 236
and 237 individual species were identified, respectively. These five
vegetation types comprised of 1097 species with 909 genera and 376
families. Forty-five of relevés could be differentiated in twelve plant
communities. The natural recovery had a greater similarity to primary forests,
particularly to logged-over forests with similarity value of 0.429 (42.29%).
However, 15-, 5- and 1-year-old fallows have similarity value of 0.399
(39.90%), 0.348 (34.80%), and 0.261 (26.10%), respectively. This indicates
that three fallow types have been heavily degraded, and requires long time
for its natural recovery.
The result of regression analysis shows that the farmer’s income from agro
and non-agroforestry activities was affected by AG, EDU, FS, HLB, LS and
LEX. The AG, EDU, and LS had relationship with income. However, there
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were not statistically significant. The FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD, LLD, LTD and
LSD had relationship with farmer’s income in both models, which had
positively expected sign. Therefore, government should consider these
factors such as FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD LLD, LTD and LSD when
implementing an agroforestry project to increase farmer’s income. The result
of the regression analysis of farmer’s agricultural production function shows
that the farmer’s agricultural production function was affected by LAB, CAP,
LLD, LTD and LSD. This function also had relationship with LAB, CAP LLD,
LTD and LSD in both models, which possessed positively expected sign.
Based on this result, the Lao Government should consider LAB, CAP, LLD,
LTD and LSD when increasing the agricultural production in this study area.
In conclusion, all farmers are in need of financial and technical support to
practice permanent agriculture. In responding to this need, Lao government
should encourage them by providing financial and technical support. In
addition, degraded forestland should be rehabilitated with commercial tree
and NTFPs species through technical support of the local authorities.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
KESAN AMALAN PERHUTANAN-TANI TERHADAP SOSIAL-EKONOMI
DAN PERSEKITARAN DI DAERAH VIENTIANE, LAO PDR
Oleh
BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
October 2007
Pengerusi: Profesor Madya Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, PhD
Fakulti: Perhutanan
Pada kelazimannya, pengurangan hutan di Lao PDR adalah disebabkan oleh
ketidak sesuaian teknik pembalakan dan pertanian pindah. Ketidaklestarian
amalan-amalan pertanian dan penggunaan hutan telah menyebabkan
masalah alam sekitar yang serius di banyak tempat di dalam negara.
Kemiskinan tiga kumpulan etnik yang utama, iaitu Lao Loum (Penduduk
tanah pamah), Lao Theung (Penduduk tanah tinggi) Lao Soung (Penduduk
pergunungan) adalah berkait secara terus dengan penyahgredan tanah,
keterbatasan tanah pertanian dan ketiadaan sumber kewangan alternatif.
Tambahan pula, dengan peningkatan penduduk secara mendadak, mereka
telak mencerobohi hutan dara untuk memastikan sumber makanan terjamin.
Dalam kejadian sedemikian, mereka menebang dan membersihkan kawasan
tanah hutan untuk mengamalkan pertanian pindah. Mereka juga menuai
sumber hutan berkayu (TFPs), memungut hasil bukan kayu (NTFPs) dan
memburu hidupan liar secara sah dan tidak untuk menambahkan
pendapatan keluarga terutamanya apabila bekalan padi tidak mencukupi.
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Penduduk bukit tinggal di Wilayah Vientiane berhampiran dengan penduduk
tanah pamah melalui program-program penempatan semula dan
pembahagian semula tanah dan hutan oleh kerajaan Lao. Oleh itu Vientiane
merupakan satu kawasan kajian yang amat sesuai dan bermakna bagi kajian
ini. Sebanyak sembilan perkampungan telah dipilih sebagai sampel dalam
kajian ini. Perkampungan dalam kajian ini menggambarkan ketiga-tiga
kumpulan etnik utama ini yang mempunyai perbezaan dalam kegiatan
pertanian dan penggunaan produk hutan. Kawasan kajian ini adalah mudah
dihubungi melalui jalan yang sedia ada dapat diakses sepanjang tahun
dalam semua keadaan cuaca.
Secara amnya objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai impak amalan
perhutanan tani ke atas sosio-ekonomi dan aspek-aspek persekitaran di
wilayah Vientiane, Lao PDR. Pengumpulan data sosial-ekonomi adalah
menggunakan teknik Rapid Rural Appraisal/Participatory (RRA/PRA).
Manakala, kaedah Braun-Blanquet digunakan untuk mengumpul data
vegetasi. Berdasarkan pada hasil kajian, penemuan utama telah
diringkaskan seperti berikut:
Terdapat perbezaan di antara tiga kumpulan etnik utama dalam penanaman
padi, tanaman halaman, pokok tanaman, dan pemeliharaan ternakan.
Manakala, pengeluaran padi bukit, pisang, betik, jagung dan sayur-sayuran
di tanah tinggi tidak menunjukkan perbezaan. Ini menunjukkan ketiga-tiga
kumpulan etnik mempunyai pengeluaran pertanian yang hampir sama.
Perubahan corak penggunaan tanah dikalangan ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik
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utama ini bergantung kepada dasar kerajaan Lao. Kajian ini mendapati
kebanyakan Lao Theung dan Lao Soung lebih gemar mengamalkan
penanaman padi. Walau bagaimanapun, mereka masih kekurangan modal
dan tenaga buruh untuk bertukar dari pertanian pindah kepada penanaman
padi. Penanaman padi, tanaman halaman, hutan tani dan pemeliharaan ikan
kolam telah dikenalpasti sebagai amalan pertanian baik. Keputusan
menunjukkan amalan ini memerlukan saiz tanah yang lebih kecil secara
relatifnya berbanding kepada amalan yang tidak lestari seperti pertanian
pindah, penanaman jagung dan padang ragut. Amalan-amalan ini
dikenalpasti mempunyai kesan buruk terhadap persekitaran.
Terdapat perbezaan dalam penggunaan hutan dari segi kuantiti di antara
ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik dalam penggunaan kayu dan mengutip hasil
bukan kayu. Keputusan menunjukkan Lao Soung dan Lao Theung menuai
lebih banyak sumber kayu daripada Lao Loum. Walau bagaimanapun, tiada
perbezaan di antara kumpulan etnik dalam penggunaan buluh, kayu api dan
memburu. Ini menunjukklan ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik menggunakan
sumber bukan kayu. Sebanyak 170, 209, 227, 236 dan 237 spesies telah
dikenalpasti terdapat di dalam tanah rang 1 tahun, 5 tahun, 15 tahun, hutan
yang sudah dibalak dan hutan primer. Kelima-lima jenis vegetasi
mengandungi 1097 spesis yang tergolong dalam 909 genus dan 376 famili.
Empat puluh lima sampel vegetasi boleh dibahagi kepada dua belas komuniti
tumbuhan. Keputusan menunjukkan pemulihan semulajadi mempunyai
persamaan yang lebih dekat dengan hutan primer, terutamanya pada
masing-masing hutan yang sudah dibalak dengan nilai persamaan 0.429
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(42.29%). Walau bagaimanapun, 15 tahun, 5 tahun dan 1 tahun tanah rang
dedah masing-masing mempunyai nilai persamaan iaitu 0.399 (39.90%),
0.348 (34.80%), dan 0.261 (26.10%). Ini menunjukkan tiga jenis tanah rang
dedah ini mempunyai tahap kerosakan yang tinggi dan memerlukan masa
yang lama untuk pemulihan secara semulajadi.
Keputusan analisis regresi menunjukkan pendapatan para petani daripada
kegiatan aktiviti perhutanan tani dan bukan perhutanan tani telah dipengaruhi
oleh faktor AG, EDU, FS, HLB, LS dan LEX. Faktor-Faktor AG, EDU, dan LS
adalah berhubung kait dengan pendapatan tetapi tidak ketara dari segi
statistik. Dalam kedua-dua model, faktor FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD, LLD, LTD
dan LSD mempunyai hubung kait yang positif dengan pendapatan para
petani. Oleh itu, kerajaan haruslah mengambil kira faktor-faktor seperti, FS,
HLB, LEX, AGROD LLD, LTD dan LSD apabila melaksanakan projek
perhutanan tani untuk meningkatkan pendapatan para petani. Keputusan
analisis regresi bagi fungsi pengeluaran pertanian menunjukkan fungsi ini
adalah dipengaruhi faktor-faktor LAB, CAP, LLD, LTD dan LSD. Fungsi ini
juga mempunyai hubung kait secara positif dengan LAB, CAP LLD, LTD dan
LSD di dalam kedua-dua model. Berdasarkan keputusan ini, dalam kajian
meningkatkan pengeluaran pertanian kerajaan Lao haruslah mengambil kira
faktor LAB, CAP, LLD, LTD dan LSD. Kesimpulannya, kesemua petani ini
memerlukan sumber kewangan dan bantuan teknikal untuk mengamalkan
pertanian tetap. Kerajaan Lao haruslah memberi galakan kepada mereka
dengan menyediakan bantuan kewangan dan juga teknikal. Tambahan pula,
kawasan tanah hutan yang telah dinyahgred haruslah dipulihkan dengan
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spesis pokok komersial dan spesis tumbuhan bukan kayu dengan bantuan
teknikal daripada pihak berkuasa tempatan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present research work would not have been realized and come to a
successful completion without the strong support and valuable assistance
provided by a number of institutions and honourable persons. Throughout my
five years of hard work and long sleepless nights, I have been able (with the
support of my advisor and other advisory committee members) to accumulate
a great deal of knowledge with regards to understanding the land and forest
management and its impact through the farming practices and forest
utilization of the three main ethnic groups in Laos.
First of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and my most sincere
appreciation to the chairman of my supervisory committee, Associate
Professor Dr. Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, for his helpful and valuable advice,
comments, guidance and encouragement throughout the process of my
research study at UPM.
I am also equally grateful and sincerely thankful to my advisory committee
members - Professor Dato’ Dr. Nik Muhamad Nik Majid, Associate Professor
Dr. Awang Noor Abdul Ghani, and Mr. Ismail Adnan Abdul Malek - for their
valuable advice, suggestions and constructive comments that substantially
improved my research work. My gratitude extends to the Lao government,
GTZ and UPM for providing the financial support to enable me to complete
this PhD programme. A note of gratitude goes to the Faculty of Forestry,
National University of Laos for facility and study leave, and all officials of the
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target district and province, as well as headmen and guides to the
phytosociological field survey of nine villages, who have supported me during
data collection. A special thank you goes to all field research assistants from
Faculty of Forestry.
I also would like to express my great thanks and gratitude to all post graduate
students, the staffs at Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Lao
Ambassador, and all staffs of the Lao Embassy in Malaysia. A special thanks
to Cik Zanariah Mohd. Nor from Institute for Agricultural Extension for her
advice in socio-economic data analysing, Dr. Manohar A/L Mariapan from
Faculty of Forestry and Cik Sharifah Zainab Syd. Abd. Rahman from the
Faculty of Educational Studies, Ms. Helena Naitsuwe Amadhila and Ms.
Rattana Wongchuphan for their helps in editing my work. I would also like to
thank these particular friends: Oukham Phiathep, Savay Thammavongsa,
Manichanh Sayavong, Keomanivong Phimmasene, Bounmy Somsoulivong,
Inthavy Akkarath, Bodee Khamseekhiew, Thipsuda Tangprakhan, Arifin Bin
Abd., Zahari Ibrahim, Yip Hin Wai, Sri Rahayu, Nor Hafizah Ab. Wahab,
Duangkrai Taweesuk, Shoga’ ˚a Aldeen for helping and encouraging me
throughout the study.
Finally, I would like to express my great thanks to my family members,
especially wife Khamnang for her love, sacrifice, patience, and
encouragement, and my children Bounik, Bikfa and Chanthavisouk
Ninchaleune who have been sources of inspiration and love during my entire
study period.
I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 2nd October 2007 to conduct the final examination of Bounheuang Ninchaleune on his Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled “Impact of Agroforestry Practices on the Socio-Economy and Environment of Vientiane Province, Lao PDR” in accordance with University Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and University Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1981. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Examination Committee were as follows: Azmy Mohamed, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry University Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Anuar Abd Rahim, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture University Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Mohd Zaki HAmzah, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry University Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Khairulmaini Osman Salleh, PhD Professor Faculty of Art and Social Science University Malaya (External Examiner) _____________________________ HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School and Graduate Studies University Putra Malaysia Date: 21st February 2008
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Mohamad Azani Alias, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Dato’ Nik Muhamad Abd. Majid, PhD Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Awang Noor Abd. Ghani, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Ismail Adnan Bin Abd. Malek, M.Sc. Lecturer Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
AINI IDERIS, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 21st February 2008
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
______ _____ BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE
Date: 2nd October 2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page DEDICATION ii ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii APPROVAL xiv DECLARATION xvi LIST OF TABLES xx LIST OF FIGURES xxiii LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General background 1 1.2 Statement of problems 5 1.3 Justification of the study 9 1.4 Scope of the study 11 1.5 Objectives 12
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.1 Socio-economic aspects 13 2.1.1 Population density and trend 13 2.1.2 Ethnic and cultural diversity 15 2.1.3 Socio-economics and development 18
2.2 Utilization of land for agricultural production 31 2.2.1 Farming practices 34
2.3 Land allocation and land tenure 62 2.3.1 Land allocation 62 2.3.2 Order of precedence with respect to land and forest allocation 64
2.3.3 Land tenure 64 2.4 Resettlement programme 67 2.5 Environmental aspect 70
2.5.1 Forest utilization 70 2.5.2 Vegetation succession 75 2.5.3 Definition of succession 78 2.5.4 Natural vegetation 79 2.5.5 Economic potential of tree species density 83 2.5.6 Primary forest 85 2.5.7 Logged-over forest 87 2.5.8 Fallow 89 2.5.9 Forest conversion for agricultural production 93
2.6 Summary 95
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 97 3.1 Introduction 97
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3.2 General approach 97 3.3 Conceptual framework 98 3.4 Research design 103
3.5 Selection of study area 103 3.6 Data collection of phytosociological study 106 3.7 Forest recovery assessment 108 3.8 Collection of socio-economic data 110 3.8.1 Introduction 110 3.8.2 Information from secondary data 111
3.3.3 Preparation questionnaire 112 3.8.4 Selection of enumerators 113
3.8.5 Questionnaire pre-testing 113 3.8.6 Selection of respondents 114 3.8.7 Data collection 115 3.9 Operational definition of variables and
their measurement 119 3.9.1 Independent variables 119 3.9.2 Dependent variables 122
3.10 Environmental aspect 126 3.10.1 Introduction 126 3.10.2 Description of study site 127 3.10.3 Forest utilization 131 3.11 Statistical analysis of socio-economic data 131 3.11.1 Analysis of variance 132 3.11.2 Chi-square test 133 3.11.3 Correlation analysis 134 3.11.4 Modelling the income of ago and
non-agroforestry 135 3.11.5 Modelling the agricultural production
function 141 3.12 Analysis of environmental data 146
3.12.1 Synthesis and vegetation classification 146 3.12.2 Table of raw data 149 3.12.3 Frequency Table 150 3.12.4 Partial Table 150
3.12.5 Forest recovery assessment 153
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 154 4.1 Demographic profiles of three main ethnic groups 154
4.1.1 Background information of the nine villages 154 4.1.2 Socio-economic profiles 157 4.1.3 Cultural profile 169 4.1.4 Profile of the respondent’s families 175
4.2 Agricultural practices of three main ethnic groups 193 4.2.1 Current farm practices 193 4.2.2 Comparison of current farm practices 194 4.2.3 Influencing factors to changes of
agricultural practices 198 4.3 Forest recovery through vegetative succession 222
4.3.1 Introduction 222
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4.3.2 Forest utilization 223 4.3.3 Species composition 229 4.3.4 Common families 231 4.3.5 Profile diagram of vegetation relevés 238 4.3.6 Patterns of vegetation recovery (succession) 246 4.3.7 Phytosociological study 247 4.3.8 Comparison of vegetation species 282 4.3.9 Composition of vegetation succession 291 4.3.10 Forest structure and composition 295
4.3.11 Forest recovery assessment 303 4.4 Impacts of the agricultural practices on the
environment, income and agricultural production 332 4.4.1 Environmental degradation through
agricultural practices 332 4.4.2 Result of regression analysis for income of
agro and non-agroforestry 336 4.4.3 Result of regression analysis for agricultural
production function 349 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 354
5.1 Conclusions 354 5.2 Recommendations 354
REFERENCES 369
BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR 469
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page 2.1 Chemical fertilizer and insecticide use from 1990-1993 33
2.2 Extent of forest plantation areas from 1995-2000 in Laos (ha) 60
3.1 Vegetation layers in natural forests and secondary forests 106
3.2 Total estimates of cover and abundances 107
3.3 Sociability level 107
3.4 Climate data of 3 meteorological stations in Vientiane, Phone Hong and Paklay Districts 127 3.5 Vegetation forms 152
4.1 The distribution of the age groups of the Naphung's village in 2003 159
4.2 The distribution of the age groups of the
Phonthon's village in 2003 159
4.3 The distribution of the age groups of the Phonxay's village in 2003 160
4.4 The distribution of the age groups of the Nalé's village in 2003 161
4.5 The distribution of the age groups of the
Napaphay’s village in 2003 162
4.6 The distribution of the age groups of the Pheuntay's village in 2003 162
4.7 The distribution of the age groups of the Nanhao's village in 2003 164
4.8 The distribution of the age groups of the
Namlao's village in 2003 164
4.9 The distribution of age groups of the Nontong’s village in 2003 164
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4.10 Summary of current farm size among the three main ethnic groups 194
4.11 Result of ANOVA in farm size among three main ethnic groups 195
4.12 Comparison of difference in mean of farm size among three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 197
4.13 Frequency distribution of responses of rice production among three main ethnic groups towards labour availability 199
4.14 Rice production of the three main ethnic groups with labour availability by using Crosstab 200
4.15 Frequency distribution of responses of rice sufficiency among three main ethnic groups with expansion of land size 203
4.16 Rice sufficiency of three main ethnic groups with expansion of land size using Crosstab 204
4.17 Frequency distribution of responses for changes of Agricultural practices between and within ethnic groups among three main ethnic groups 206
4.18 Changes of agricultural practices of the ethnic groups with Lao Government Policies using Crosstab 207
4.19 Difference in means of current agricultural practices by using ANOVA 217
4.20 Comparison of agricultural outputs among three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 218
4.21 Result of ANOVA in utilization of TFPs and NTFPs 227 4.22 Comparison of utilization of TFPs and NTFPs among
the three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 228
4.23 Composition of species, genera, family of vegetation samples (relevés) at three fallows and two forest types 230
4.24 Common families in the five various vegetation types 237 4.25 Taxonomy of richness of communities at five different
vegetation types 248
4.26 Summary Table of individual species of various vegetation types 290
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4.27 Summary of canopy structure recovery 304 4.28 Result of ANOVA on canopy structure recovery 307 4.29 Result of Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) 308 4.30 Result of Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) 309 4.31 Result of the principle component analysis of
canopy structure recovery 311
4.32 Similarity matrix of the five various vegetation types 322
4.33 Dissimilarity coefficient of the recovery vegetation types 328
4.34 Result of Spearman Rho Correlation 333
4.35 Summary of statistical variables of the model 338
4.36 Result of regression analysis of OLS and WLS 340
4.37 Comparison of monthly income for agro and non-agroforestry activities within ethnic groups in the nine villages 346
4.38 Comparison of monthly income for agro and non- Agroforestry activities between ethnic groups in the nine villages 347
4.39 Summary of statistical variables of the model 350
4.40 Result of regression analysis of LLS 351
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Diagram showing a conceptual framework of agroforestry 55 2.2 This lowland rain forest at the base of the Sierra Madre Mountain of Luzon, Philippines, and home to Dumagat people who travel through the densely forested range to collect rattan 83 3.1 Conceptual framework of agricultural practices,
forest utilization and modelling of income and production 100
3.2 Reflecting relationship between governmental, socio-economic factors, agricultural practices and forest utilization and their impacts on income and production 102
3.3 Map showing the study area in Vientiane Province, Lao PDR 105 3.4 Flow chart of the entire synthesis procedure of relevé data 148 4.1 Transect of land use profile of the study area in Vientiane
Province, Lao PDR 156
4.2 Diagram showing at the organizational structure of the villages 158
4.3 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Loum (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 172
4.4 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Theung (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 173
4.5 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Soung (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 175
4.6 The bar chart showing family size of the respondents in the study area 176 4.7 The pie chart showing composition of the three main ethnic groups 178 4.8 The bar chart showing education level of the respondents
in the study area 180
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