UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS FOR DETECTION OF SINKHOLE

DISTRIBUTION AND CHANGE IN KINTA VALLEY, MALAYSIA

OMAR MAHMOUD SULEIMAN ALKOURI

FK 2009 45

0

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS FOR DETECTION OF SINKHOLE DISTRIBUTION

AND CHANGE IN KINTA VALLEY, MALAYSIA

By

OMAR MAHMOUD SULEIMAN ALKOURI

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in

Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

February 2009

i

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my family members and my

Wife who are always giving me encouragement

and support

ii

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment

of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS FOR DETECTION OF SINKHOLE

DISTRIBUTION AND CHANGE IN KINTA VALLEY, MALAYSIA

OMAR MAHMOUD SULEIMAN ALKOURI

February 2009

Chairman: Associate Professor Husaini Omar, PhD

Faculty : Engineering

The geospatial study of Karst over 25 years uncontrolled use and the resulting

environmental impact in Kinta Valley area-Malaysia is described. The geo-hazard map

for sinkholes distribution was developed and the changes of limestone topography were

analyzed as well as the relative importance of geological and geo-morphological factors.

Due to intensification of human activities the Karst has suffered several environmentally

relevant changes. An assessment of the degree of hazard was conducted by utilizing 10

m2 cell dimension. The results showed that the land use in terms of urbanization and

industrialization has a direct influence on the Karst features development. The geo-

hazard map indicated that 93 % of sinkholes occurrence were located in the high and

very high potential hazard areas in contrast to the areas in the middle and southwest of

the Kinta valley. The highest sinkhole occurrence was recorded in January 2005 which

was attributed to the earthquake on 26th December, 2004. The sinkhole formation was

further aggravated by heavy rainfall and surface mining. Fortunately, our spatial

iii

temporal data model facilitated the delineation of the changes in Karst topography. A

geo-statistical investigation was carried out on the nature of topographic variation and its

roughness to ascertain the nature of Karst and its distinctiveness from non-Karst

landscapes. Bukit Merah village was preferentially selected for a case study. The

condition of the mining site from 1991 to 2007 was revealed by False color composites

of land-observing satellites the Thematic Mapper and Satellite Pour l'Observation de la

Terre, the mining activities at the site increased by 383 % over the study period. The

area of the water body increased progressively from 0.972 km2 in 1991 to 3.726 km2 in

2007. Given the current degradation scenario of the limestone resources in Kinta Valley

and associated environmental impacts, the study emphasizes the need for conservation

of these valuable resources.

iv

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

ANALISIS GEOSPATIAL BAGI PENGESANAN TABURAN DAN

PERUBAHAN LUBANG-TENGGELAM DI LEMBAH KINTA, MALAYSIA

Oleh

OMAR MAHMOUD SULEIMAN ALKOURI

Februari 2009

Pengerusi : Profesor Madya Husaini Omar, PhD

Fakulti : Kejuruteraan

Suatu kajian geospatial Karst merangkumi 25 tahun penggunaan tanah tidak terkawal

dan kesannya terhadap persekitaran di Lembah Kinta di Malaysia dihuraikan di sini.

Peta geo-hazard bagi taburan lubang tenggelam telah dikembangkan dan perubahan

topografi batukapur juga telah dianalisa, selain daripada kepentingan relatif faktor-

faktor geologi dan geomorfologi. Oleh kerana peningkatan kegiatan manusia, Karst telah

mengalami beberapa perubahan yang relevan terhadap persekitaran. Suatu penilaian

darjah bahaya telah dijalankan menggunakan sel berdimensi 10 m2. Hasil penyelidikan

menunjukkan bahawa penggunaan tanah dari segi urbanisasi dan pengindustrian

mempunyai kesan secara langsung terhadap ciri-ciri pembangunan Karst. Peta geo-

hazard menunjukkan bahawa 93% kejadian lubang tenggelam berlaku di kawasan

berpotensi hazard yang tinggi dan sangat tinggi berbanding di tengah dan di Barat Daya

lembah Kinta. Kejadian lubang tenggelam yang tertinggi dicatat pada bulan Januari

2005 yang diakibatkan gempa bumi pada 26 Disember 2004. Kejadian lubang tenggelam

ini diburukkan lagi oleh hujan yang lebat dan perlombongan permukaan. Mujurnya,

v

model data spatial-temporal kami telah mempermudahkan penentuan perubahan pada

topografi Karst. Suatu kajian geo-satistikal telah dijalankan ke atas sifat perbezaan

topografi dan kakasarannya untuk menentukan sifat-sifat Karst dan perbezaannya

berbanding mukabumi bukan Karst. Kampung Bukit Merah telah dipilih khusus untuk

kajian kes. Keadaan tapak perlombongan dari tahun 1991 hingga 2007 telah ditunjukkan

oleh imej komposit false-colour daripada satelit-satelit kajibumi Thematic Mapper dan

Satellite Pour l‟Observation de la Terre. Kegiatan perlombongan di tapak tersebut

bertambah sebanyak 383% sepanjang tempoh kajian tersebut. Luas k awasan air kian

bertambah dari 0.972 km2 pada tahun 1991 kepada 3.726 km

2 pada tahun 2007. Dengan

ternyatanya senario pemburukan sumber-sumber batukapur di Lembah Kinta serta

kesannya terhadap persekitaran, kajian ini menggariskan perlunya pemuliharaan sumber-

sumber yang bernilai ini.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, all praise to supreme almighty ALLAH (S.W.T.) the only creator, for

giving me the strength, ability and patience to complete this research.

I would like to thank my professors and staff of the Department of Civil and Engineering

for their guidance, support and assistance. Special thank would be extended to my

Supervisor Assoc Professor Dr Husaini Omar and my committee members Associate

Professor Dr Ahmad Rodzi Mahmud, Prof Dr Shattri Mansor, and Dato Prof Dr Ibrahim

Komoo for advice and help for encouragement. I am very grateful for the support of my

friends in particular Dr Mohammed Abu Shariah, Abdulah Ali, Mohmmed Al-Habshi,

and my colleagues, especially Shaleah Daqamesah, Akif and Samy for their advise, help

and knowledge contributed throughout the development of the study.

I would like to express my gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Bin

Mohamed Shariff for his timely advices and encouragement, and also the Director of the

Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA) Universiti Putra Malaysia for providing me

the use of the Spatial Numerical Modelling Laboratory (SNML).

We appreciate the support of E-Science Fund (No. 06-01-04-SF0552) by Ministry of

Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia for providing the research grant for

research of “Modeling of Karst Landform for Engineering Purpose”.

vii

APPROVAL SHEET

I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 23 February 2009 to conduct the

final examination of Omar Mahmoud Suleiman Alkouri on his Doctor of Philosophy

thesis entitled “Geospatial Analysis for Sinkholes Change Detection in Kinta Valley,

Malaysia” in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980

and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee

recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Members of the Examination Committee were as follows:

Abang Abdullah b. Abang Ali, PhD

Professor

Civil Engineering

Faculty Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Bujang Kim Huat, PhD

Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Internal Examiner)

Helmi Zuihaidi Mohd Shafri, PhD

Lecturer

Department of Engineering

Faculty Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Internal Examiner)

Ruslan Rainis, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Sains Malaysia

(External Examiner)

_________________________

BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date :

viii

This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Husaini Omar, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Ahmad Rodzi Mahmud, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Member)

Shattri Mansor, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Member)

Ibrahim Komoo, PhD

Professor

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

(Member)

________________________________

HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date :

ix

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except that for quotations

and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been

previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions

OMAR MAHMOUD AL-KOURI

Date:

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ii

ABSTRAK iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

APPROVAL vii

DECLARATION ix

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Usage of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies 4

1.3 Problem Statements 5

1.4 Objectives 6

1.5 Scope of Work 7

1.6 Significant of the Study 8

1.7 Thesis Organization 8

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 Geomorphology Karst 10

2.2.1 Karst Definition 11

2.2.2 Karst Processes 11

2.2.3 Karst Landforms 12

2.2.3 Karst Landscapes 14

2.3 Global Distribution of Karst Lands 15

2.4 Karst in Malaysia 16

2.4.1 Limestone Formation in Malaysia 16

2.4.2 Kinta Valley Karst and sinkhole distribution 18

2.4.3 Lithology of Kinta Valley 25

2.4.4 Limestone Hills 26

2.4.5 Kinta Valley Structures 29

2.5 Human Impacts on Karst 31

2.5.1. Environmental Impacts on Karst 32

2.5.2 Effect of Earthquake Intensity on Karst 34

2.5.3 The Problems of Urbanization in the Limestone 34

2.6 Karst Commercial Values 39

2.7 Geological Heritage Conservation 40

2.8 Tool for Quantitative Analysis of Karst 41

2.8.1 Geographic Information Systems 42

2.8.2 Digital Morphometry 43

2.8.3 Karst Database Development 45

2.8.4 Remote Sensing Imagery 46

xi

2.8.5 Aerial Photographs 48

2.9 Volumetric Surface Movement Model 50

2.10 Geostatistics Analysis 51

2.11 Virtual Reality for Karst 53

2.12 Hazard and Geohazard of Karst 55

2.13 Hazard and potential hazard assessment 56

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 59

3.2 Study Area 61

3.3 Climate 62

3.4 Data Collection and analysis Concept 62

3.5 Geospatial Control Factors of Sinkhole distrbution 64

3.5.1 Geospatial Database of Sinkholes 65

3.5.2 The Generation of Digital Terrain Model (DTM) 67

3.6 Land use classification 70

3. 6.1 Multiresolution Segmentation 71

3.6.2 Objects Extraction and Band colour Increasing and

Combinations

71

3.6.3 General Classes 72

3.6.4 Classify Without Related Class Based on Fussy Logic 73

3.6.5 Classification Based on Segmentations 75

3.7 Lineament Method 76

3.7.1 Pre-processing 76

3.7.2 Geometric Correction 76

3.7.3 Image Enhancement 77

3.7.4 Lineament Visual Extraction 77

3.8 Volumetric Surface Movement for Karst 79

3.8.1 Database development for volumetric surface changes 80

3.8.2 Change Detection of Surface Elevation 81

3.9 Geostatistical Investigating Analysis 83

3.9.1 Pre-Processing Methods 86

3.9.2 Normality Assessment 87

3.9.3 Bivariate Data Analysis 88

3.9.4 Geostatistical Modeling and Cross Validation 89

3.10 Three-Dimensional projection of Karst Environment 90

3.11 Geo-hazard Map Method 91

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 97

4.2 Sinkholes Formation and Distribution 97

4.2.1 The effects of Earthquake on Sinkholes Kinta Valley 100

4.2.2 Change Detection of Kinta Valley area 104

4.2.3 Lineament and Fracture Zone Analysis 107

4.2.4 Mining and Quarry Activities 110

4.2.5 Drainage Pattern and Sinkholes in the Kinta Valley 113

4.2.6 Urban area Distribution and Sinkholes Development 120

4.2.7 Ground Water Wells and Sinkholes 121

xii

4.2.8 Sinkhole Density Map of Kinta Valley 124

4.2.9 Land use Classification Analysis of Kinta Valley Area 126

4.3 Topographical Analysis Resuls 130

4.4 Limestone Hills Topography 132

4.4.1 DTM Accuracy Assessment 140

4.4.2 Zonal Analysis of Slope and Aspect 142

4.4.3 3D Visualization of Kinta Valley 146

4.4.4 Topographical Investigation Analysis 149

4.5 Geohazard Map in the Kinta Valley 156

4.6 Case Study Location at Bukit Merah 166

4.6.1 Land use Change Detection of Bukit Merah 167

4.6.2 Sinkholes Issues of Bukit Merah 170

4.7 Volumetric Surface Movement Visualization on Karst 181

4.8 Semivariogram Investigation of Karst Surface 186

4.9 Limestone Degradation and Conservation 191

5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORKS

5.1 Summary 197

5.2 Research Findings 200

5.4 Future Studies 203

REFERENCES 204

APPENDICES 220

BIODATA OF STUDENT 233

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 234

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Geotechnical issues associated with buried karst limestone

formation at Peninsular Malaysia

36

3.1 Data type in the study area 64

3.2 Sobel kernels in four principle directions 78

3.3 Statistics requirement for model fitting 89

3.4 Weighting of controlling factors influence of hazard map 94

4.1 Status of wells in Kinta Valley (Geosciences Department on 2007) 123

4.2

Land use change detection of the study area 128

4.3 Topographic description of study sites

135

4.4

Slope angle class intervals 143

4.5

Summary of geostatistical modeling for karst 2004 152

4.6 Summary of geostatistical results for karst 1981

153

4.7 Summary of geostatistical results for non- karst 2004

156

4.8 Summary of geostatistical results for non- karst 1981

156

4.9: Presentage area of geohazard map classification 163

4.10

Location of Ground Truthing Observation in Kinta Valley area 165

4.11 The area of the water body was increased since 1991 due to quarries

and open pit tin mines

177

4.12 The increasing percentage of water body was dramatically large in

Big Foot Lake since 199

177

4.13 Show the result of loading data into database system

183

4.14

Value used to the rank the heritage significance of Gunung Rapat 193

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Surface and sub-surface landform karst features modifed (Al-

Fares, 2004)

13

2.2 The distribution of karst in the south-east Asia region (Karst

News, 2006)

15

2.3 Originally flat limestone plateau dissected deeply by dissolution

(Ch‟ng, 1984)

16

2.4 Block diagram showing the types of sinkholes (Jeings, 1971) 21

2.5 Chemical reaction behind karst formation in carbonate rocks

(North Carolina Geological Survey, 2005)

22

2.6 Formations of sinkholes (Modified from Sum, 1995) Investigating

Field Work Issues of Kinta Karst

23

2.7 Limestone hill rock near to residential houses in Gunung Rapat

24

2.8 Lithology map of Kinta Valley

25

2.9 Distribution of limestone hills in Peninsular Malaysia (Fatihah,

2003)

28

2.10 Aerial photography and geological map showing limestone hills of

Gunung Rapat

29

2.11 Rose diagram of lineaments from Kinta Valley (Gobbett, 1971) 30

2.12 Environment impacts of quarry operation in Kinta Valley

31

2.13 Unattended quarry pit accumulating water to become a pond or

lake. The underlying rock is limestone

32

2.14 Locations of quarry near limestone hills of Kinta Valley 33

2.15 Foundation systems in limestone areas at peninsular Malaysia

(Abu-Shariah, 2002)

38

2.16 Cavities for recreational and tourism value in Gunung Rapat in

Kinta Valley

39

2.17 Main tasks associated with DTM (Hutchinson and Gallant, 1999)

45

xv

2.18 Basic subsystems of GIS database (Modified from DeMers, 2000) 46

2.19 Landsat TM False color composite: (a) 4, 3, 2(RGB); (b) 5, 4, 2

(RGB); (c) 4, 5, 7(RGB)

47

2.20 The concept of regionalized and random variables (Jahanshir,

2006)

52

3.1 The methodology flowchart for geohazard map 60

3.2 Study area location 61

3.3 Data collection and analysis concept 63

3.4 Dataset used in the research 64

3.5 Application interfaces of karst feature DBMS under Microsoft

Access 2003

66

3.6 Geospatial database of sinkholes sources 66

3.7 Site recognition on Bukit Merah 67

3.8 Typical grid point with XYZ generated from stereo-photo pairs 69

3.9 Land use cover classification methods 70

3.10 Enhancements of both the red (a) and green (b) tones

71

3.11 Image band combination, 1, 2, 3 and 3, 2, 1 72

3.12 Typical feature view setting 74

3.13 Class description membership function full range 74

3.14 Drag the class‟s structure group 75

3.15 Lineament extraction method 78

3.16 Transformation of point (p) within one line (Rahim et al., 2005) 79

3.17 An interface for volumetric surface surface changes determination

(Rahim et al., 2005)

81

3.18 Interpolation Process for Simulating Movement (Rahim et.al,

2005)

82

xvi

3.19 Semivariogram surface of data from Karst sample 84

3.20 Cross-validation of geostatistical parameters 84

3.21 Locations of karst DTM samle (a, b, c) and (d, e, f) the non-karst

samples generated from areail phography

86

3.22 Illustration of local outliers 87

3.23 Construction of normal QQ plot (ESRI, 2001) 88

3.24 Water Bodies density map

95

3.25 Sinkhole density map 95

3.26 Road density density map

96

3.27 The developed Geoprocessing model for Geohazard Sinkhole Map 96

4.1 Number of Sinkholes in Kinta Valley during 1955 – 2005 99

4.2 Spatial distribution of sinkholes - DTM overlaid on geological

map

100

4.3 Number of sinkholes after earthquake tsunami (2004) 101

4.4 Sinkholes locations overlaid on the earthquake intensity map 102

4.5 Relationship between number of sinkholes and earthquake 103

4.6 Location of earthquakes in Sumatra with sinkholes occournces in

Kinta Valley (1965-2005)

104

4.7 Satellite images of sinkholes formation after tsunami earthquake 106

4.8 Soil profile of the study area after earthquake 26-12-2004 (Sum,

2005)

107

4.9 Geomorphologic and geological factors distribution that influences

the sinkholes abundance

109

4.10 Dolines and wangs geomorphological features in the limestone

hills

110

4.11 Mining activities (quarries) in Kinta Valley area 111

4.12 (a) Three dimension quarry operations has inflicted limestone hills

and (b) satellite image shows quarries operation in Kinta Valley

112

xvii

4.13 Drainage density map with sinkholes formation of the study area

Photo-lithology and Alluvium layers

114

4.14 Relation of sinkholes occurrence with photo- litlogical 115

4.15 Relation of sinkholes occurrence with alluvium thickness map 116

4.16 Sinkholes and soil map draped on TIN surface in Kinta Valley 117

4.17 Sinkholes and road map draped on TIN surface in Kinta Valley 118

4.18 Sinkhole effect near Ipoh (Tan and Chow, 2006) 119

2.19 Photography shows sinkholes which damage part of houses, (Sum,

2005)

119

4.20 Sinkholes aligned with man-made structures 120

4.21 Locations of sinkholes and wells productivity in Kinta Valley 124

4.22 Sinkholes distribution density map in the Kinta Valley 125

4.23 Percentages of land use variation - 1991, 1998, and 2004 128

4.24 Land use Classifications Map with Related Class 1991, 1998 and

2004

130

4.25 Digital terrain model of Kinta Valley 132

4.26 Limestone hills distribution overlaid on of TIN surface 133

4.27 Percentage area distribution of limestone hills in Perak 134

4.28 TIN surface of Gunung Rapat, Terendum and Lanbo 136

4.29 Showing area view of limestone hills in Kinta Valley 137

4.30 Digital elevation surfaces from TIN of Kinta for 1981 and 2004 138

4.31 Limestone karst profiles generated from TIN - 1981 and 2004

(Rapat-a, Terendum b and Lanbo c)

139

4.32 Granite (non-karst) profiles for the period 1981 – 2004 140

4.33 Validation points extracted from topographical map 141

xviii

4.34 Linear regression - DTM and spot heights for Kinta Valley (2004)

142

4.35 Linear regression - DTM and spot heights for Kinta Valley (1981)

142

4.36 Slope map generated surface of Kinta Valley 144

4.37 Aspect map of Kinta Valley 145

4.38 Aspect frequency graphs of five selected study sites 146

4.39 3D visualization of the terrain in Kinta Valley area 147

4.40 3D visualization of karst features in Gunung Rapat of 1981 and

2004

148

4.41 Semivariograms of elevation data 2004 (karst area) 150

4.42 Semivariograms of elevation 1981data (karst area) 151

4.44 Semivariograms of elevation data non-karst area in 2004 155

4.45 Semivariograms of elevation data non-karst area in 1981

155

4.46 Sinkholes ocourrances overlay on geo-hazard map in the Kinta

Valley

157

4.47 Mining and urban areas overlay on geo-hazard map in the Kinta

Valley

160

4.48 Geo-hazard map in the Kinta Valley

163

4.49

4.50

Tool for determination of sinkhole geo-hazard map

Geo-hazard map validation in the Kinta Valley

164

166

4.51 Land use and study area of Bukit Merah (2005)

167

4.52 Figure 4.51: Landsat images showing changes in mining activities

in Bukit Merah from 1991 to 2004

169

4.53 Spot 5 images showing the changes in Bukit Merah

170

4.54 Sinkholes occurrences in Bukit Merah from 1981- 1998

172

4.55 (a) Rainfall map of Kinta district and (b) mean annual rainfall

between 1983 and 2006

173

xix

4.56 Bukit Merah, sinkholes distribution from 1981 to 1998

175

4.57 Gently rolling hills and shallow depressions caused by solution

sinkholes are common topographic features

176

4.58 Geohazard evaluation of sinkholes in Bukit Merah 178

4.59 Geohazard Map in Bukit Merah 180

4.60 Ground penetration radar delineate sinkholes and cavities

developed in Limestone bedrock at Bukit Merah (Jabatan Mineral

dan Geosains Malaysia, July 2001)

181

4.61 Grid point generated from stereo Ariel photo 1981 and 2004

182

4.62 Result of karst visualization of surface movement elevation data

sample a

184

4.63 Result of karst visualization surface movement elevation data

sample b

185

4.64 Result of karst visualization surface movement elevation data

sample c

186

4.65 Semivariogram surface sample (a) from 1981 to 2004 188

4.66 Semivariogram surface sample (c) from 1981 to 2004 199

4.67 Geo-hazard map samples surface investigation (a and c) area karst

190

4.68 The pavement shows almost a concordant level, downward

dissolution forming pinnacles is ongoing under the iron rich

alluvium

191

4.69 Size Limestone hills changed from 1981 to 2004 192

4.70 Limestone hills overlay on geohazard map 192

4.71 Geological heritage site of Gunung Rapat 194

4.72 Illustration of karst terrain of Gunung Rapa 195

4.73 Karst features for geological heritage values

195

xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GIS Geographic Information System

KLLF Kuala Lumpur Limestone Formation

MMCB

Malaysia Mining Corporation Berhad

VSMSTDM Volumetric Surface Movement

Spatiotemporal Data Model

RSO Rectified Skew Orthomorphic

ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute

GPS Global Positioning System

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator

DTM Digital Terrain Models

TIN Triangulation Irregular Network

NST New Straits Times

FCC False Colour Composites

RTD Rancangan Tempatan Daerah

(Location Planning Area)

MSL Mean Sea Level

Mm Magnitude Moment

MACRES Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing

CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate

MgCO3 Magnesium Carbonate

1

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Sinkholes, the most common and most easily recognized surface features of Karst

topography, are defined as or generally refer to an area of localized land surface

subsidence or collapse, due to Karst processes, which result in a closed hollow of

moderated dimensions (Beck, 1984). The term “karst” refers to a type of terrain, known

for its distinctive topography in which the landscape is largely shaped by the dissolving

action of meteoric water on carbonate bedrock. (Alexandar, 2000, and Smith, 1996) The

late twentieth century has witnessed a substantial increase in natural disasters and

awareness of environmental hazard. Gao and Alexander (2008) mentioned that, the

influences of sinkhole formation and the ability to accurately predict sinkhole hazards is

critical to environmental management efforts in the karst area. The karst landforms of

tropical regions, such as those found in Peninsular Malaysia, are distinguishable by their

mountains with steep slopes separated by broad flat valleys or plains. These tower-like

mountains with rocky overhanging cliffs are riddled with caves and are only found in

humid-tropical limestone regions (Fatihah, 2003).

Karst in the Kinta Valley takes the form of a typical tropical karst. It was renowned as

the world‟s richest tin mining area in the early 60‟s and 70‟s (Fatihah, 2003). Since then,

the heavy consumption of this mineral resource in tandem with rapid development and

urbanization has tremendous impacts on the limestone karst especially in the absence of

2

2

any plans and management practices to preserve it. Mining activities prevailed in most

of the karst‟s history, while land developers were also unaware of the karst value and its

essence in the ecological system. In addition local settlers were also looking for wealth

and higher standard of living. All these factors had essentially ignored the significance

of the karst as a distinctive feature of its own in the Kinta surroundings. Poor

management plans were implemented in the early seventies but were neither enough nor

effective since the techniques employed were traditional, costly, time-consuming and

lacking enforcement.

Geohazard (geological hazard) is a naturally occurring or man-made geologic condition

or phenomenon that presents a potential hazard or is a potential danger to life or property

(American Geological Institute, 1984). Kovach (1995) and Smith (1996) reported that

hazard is a source of danger and its evaluation encompasses three elements - potential

hazard of personal harm (death, injury, disease, stress), potential hazard of property

(property damage, economic loss) and potential hazard of environmental damage (loss

of flora fauna, pollution, and loss of amenity); Geohazard is therefore a disastrous and

unavoidable element of life.

Sinkholes, the crux of the geohazard issue in the Kinta Limestone Formation, are due to

chemical weathering of the limestone bedrock, which gives rise to cavities and

subsequently sinkholes. The formation or emergence of sinkhole is usually very sudden

and unpredictable, and its development can be catastrophic.

3

3

Many environmental problems can be predicted; especially when geohazards are

analyzed using technological advanced tools such as the Geographical Information

Systems (GIS). Hazard evaluation requires answering some questions such as; what is

hazard? Where is it going to occur? What will be its impact? How widespread is it, or

the potential of its spread? Can it be avoided? And if not, what can be done to reduce the

effect of hazard? Early identification of geohazards means that potential potential

hazards can be avoided or mitigated, often without additional cost, and is vital to the

success of development planning and its implementation (Abu Shariah, 2002). GIS

enables researchers to objectively identify the triggering factors of karst hazards and

store them in a spatial database. (Harrison., 2004). Spatial information technology is

useful in dealing with natural hazards as it strengthens coordination among multiple

programs of potential hazard management through tools for identification, analyses,

assessment, treatment and monitoring (Mansor et al., 2004).

One great challenge resides on quantifying the nature and evaluating sinkhole related

geo-hazards from space, which would lead to a better understanding of the terrain.

Fortunately, modern technology allows more complex analysis of data, which can also

be more efficiently collected in the field. From high-resolution stereo pair‟s images,

Digital Terrain Models (DTM) can be generated and this enables detail analysis of the

terrain with more sophisticated tools.

Currently Spatiotemporal Data Model lacks the understanding of the real world

phenomena. In the near future, Spatiotemporal Data Model will become a very crucial

factor in developing real-time processes in the GIS (Rahim et al., 2005). The