UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN SEAWATER,

SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER, ALGAL MAT, SEDIMENT AND GASTROPOD (Nerita lineata) IN DUMAI COASTAL WATERS,

SUMATRA, INDONESIA

BINTAL AMIN

FS 2009 25

ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN SEAWATER, SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER, ALGAL MAT, SEDIMENT AND

GASTROPOD (Nerita lineata) IN DUMAI COASTAL WATERS, SUMATRA, INDONESIA

By

BINTAL AMIN

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia

in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

May 2009

DEDICATION

to my beloved late parents Redjo Moestomo and Soemini

and

to the most patient and understanding persons that I love more than ever

Irvina Nurrachmi, Fadilla Rizki Putri, Andina Dwi Kurnia and Inayah Tria Putri

ii

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN SEAWATER, SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER, ALGAL MAT, SEDIMENT AND

GASTROPOD (Nerita lineata) IN DUMAI COASTAL WATERS, SUMATRA, INDONESIA

By

BINTAL AMIN

May 2009

Chairman: Prof. Dr. Ahmad Ismail

Faculty: Science

Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Fe in the surface seawater, suspended

particulate matter, algal mat, sediments and gastropod Nerita lineata were

determined to assess the status of heavy metal pollution in Dumai coastal waters.

Concentrations of heavy metal in sediments varied from 0.88, 6.08, 32.34, 53.89,

11.48 µg/g dry weight and 3.01 % for Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Fe, respectively.

These concentrations were comparable to metal concentrations in non polluted

coastal waters and even lower than concentrations found in the sediments from the

west coast of Peninsular Malaysia which is located just at the opposite side of the

study area by the Malacca Straits. Generally, higher metal concentrations in the

surface seawater, suspended particulate matter, algal mat, sediment and gastropod

Nerita lineata were found at the stations with more industrial and anthropogenic

activities near Dumai city center (eastern and central regions). Metal pollution index

(MPI) of N. lineata further confirm higher level of heavy metal contaminations at

iii

the eastern region of Dumai coastal waters. Cd in sediments from the eastern region

was the only metal that slightly higher than effective range low (ERL) but still

below effective range medium (ERM) values. The enrichment factor (EF) and

pollution load index (PLI) values for Cd and Pb in the eastern region were also

higher than other regions. Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) indicated that most of the

stations were categorized as class 1 (unpolluted to moderately polluted

environment) and only Cd in Cargo Port was in class 2 (moderately polluted).

More than 50 % of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Fe in sediments were accumulated in the

‘resistant’ fraction which indicated that the mobility of these metals in Dumai

coastal waters were quite low. The eastern and center regions of Dumai coastal

waters accumulated higher percentages of ‘nonresistant’ fraction of metals,

especially Pb. However, only Pb in the eastern region was dominated by

‘nonresistant’ fraction (> 60 %). For overall stations, Pb also showed the highest

percentage (45.32 %) of ‘non-resistant’ fraction, suggesting more anthropogenic

inputs of Pb in Dumai coastal waters in comparison with other metals (43.22, 40.85,

37.34, 25.93 and 18.03 % for Cd, Zn, Ni, Cu and Fe, respectively).

All biomonitor organisms analyzed in the present study showed their ability to

accumulate metals from their environment. T. telescopium accumulated the highest

concentrations of Cd, Cu and Pb, whilst N. lineata accumulated the highest

concentration for Zn. However, the difference between concentrations of Cd, Cu

and Pb in both species was not significant and T. telescopium was not widely

distributed in Dumai coastal waters as for N. lineata. Furthermore, among the

studied biomonitors, N. lineata has wider range of distribution in the study area and

iv

it also fulfilled some of the prerequisites for being indicator organisms for heavy

metal pollution.

The mean concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Fe in N. lineata were 4.14, 5.90,

44.43, 3.74, 20.73, 24.91 μg/g in shell; 4.16, 7.31, 51.78, 17.63, 23.52, 30.60 μg/g

in operculum and 0.71, 15.16, 9.34, 94.69, 5.08, 397.96 μg/g d.w in the total soft

tissue, respectively. Concentrations of Cd, Pb and Ni decreased in the order:

operculum > shell > soft tissue whilst Cu, Zn and Fe in the order of soft tissue >

operculum > shell. Metal concentrations, especially Cd in the shells and Pb in the

soft tissues of N. lineata were significantly correlated with some of the respective

geochemical fractions of metal concentrations in sediment as well as with metal

concentrations in algal mat, suspended particulate matter and seawater which

suggest that N. lineata could be used as biomonitoring agent for heavy metals

pollution in Dumai coastal waters.

Geochemical fractionation analysis and calculated pollution indices using surface

sediments and gastropod N. lineata revealed that Dumai coastal waters can be

classified as unpolluted to moderately-polluted coastal environment. Therefore,

although Dumai coastal waters is still not seriously polluted, a continuous

environment monitoring program should be implemented as the ever increasing

human activities and rapid developments in many infrastructures and industry

sectors are continuously expanding.

v

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

PENILAIAN PENCEMARAN LOGAM BERAT DI DALAM AIR LAUT, PEPEJAL TERAMPAI, HAMPARAN ALGA, SEDIMEN DAN

GASTROPOD (Nerita lineata) DI PERAIRAN PANTAI DUMAI, SUMATRA, INDONESIA

Oleh

BINTAL AMIN

May 2009

Pengerusi: Prof. Dr. Ahmad Ismail

Fakulti: Sains

Kepekatan logam berat Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni dan Fe di dalam air laut permukaan,

pepejal terampai, hamparan alga, sedimen dan gastropoda Nerita lineata telah

diukur untuk menilai tahap pencemaran logam berat di perairan pantai Dumai.

Kepekatan logam berat dalam sedimen berkisar daripada 0.88, 6.08, 32.34, 53.89,

11.48 µg/g dan 3.01 % masing-masing untuk Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni dan Fe. Kepekatan

ini adalah setara dengan kepekatan logam di kawasan perairan tidak tercemar,

malahan lebih rendah daripada kepekatan yang dijumpai di dalam sedimen daripada

kawasan barat Semenanjung Malaysia yang berada hanya bertentangan dengan

kawasan kajian ini di Selat Melaka. Secara amnya, kepekatan logam berat dalam air

laut, pepejal terampai, hamparan alga, sedimen dan gastropoda Nerita lineata yang

lebih tinggi didapati di stesen-stesen yang berhampiran dengan kawasan

perindustrian dan aktiviti antropogenik di sekitar pusat bandar Dumai (kawasan

timur dan tengah). Lebih tingginya tahap pencemaran logam berat di kawasan ini

vi

disokong oleh pengiraan nilai indeks pencemaran logam (MPI) pada N. lineata. Cd

dalam sedimen di kawasan timur adalah satu-satunya logam yang agak tinggi

daripada nilai julat efektif rendah (ERL) namun masih kurang daripada nilai julat

efektif menengah (ERM). Nilai faktor pengkayaan (EF) dan indeks beban

pencemaran Tomlinson (PLI) untuk logam Cd dan Pb di kawasan timur juga lebih

tinggi berbanding kawasan lain. Berdasarkan nilai indeks geoakumulasi (Igeo) pula,

kebanyakan stesen dikategorikan sebagai Kelas 1 (tidak tercemar sehingga

sederhana tercemar) dan hanya Cd di stesen Pelabuhan Kargo tergolong dalam

Kelas 2 (sederhana tercemar).

Analisis pecahan geokimia mendapati lebih daripada 50 % Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and

Fe dalam sedimen terkumpul di dalam pecahan ‘resistant’, di mana ia menunjukkan

mobiliti logam-logam berat itu di perairan Dumai adalah rendah. Kawasan timur

dan tengah perairan Dumai mencatatkan peratusan pecahan ‘non-resistant’ yang

tinggi terutama sekali untuk Pb. Walaubagaimanapun, hanya Pb yang mendominasi

pecahan ‘non-resistant’ (> 60 %) untuk kawasan timur perairan itu. Secara

keseluruhan, pecahan ‘non-resistant’ Pb yang tinggi (45.32 %) menunjukkan lebih

input antropogenik Pb di perairan pantai Dumai jika dibandingkan dengan logam-

logam lain (masing-masing 43.22, 40.85, 37.34, 25.93 dan 18.03 % untuk Cd, Zn,

Ni, Cu dan Fe).

Kesemua biomonitor yang dianalisis dalam kajian ini menunjukkan kebolehan

mereka untuk mengumpul logam-logam berat daripada kawasan persekitaran

mereka. T. Telescopium mengumpul kepekatan logam Cd, Cu dan Pb yang paling

tinggi sedangkan N. lineata merupakan pengumpul tertinggi untuk logam Zn.

vii

Walaubagaimanapun, perbezaan diantara kepekatan logam Cd, Cu dan Pb pada

kedua-dua spesies tersebut tidak signifikan dan T. telescopium tersebut di perairan

pantai Dumai tidaklah dijumpai sebanyak N. lineata. Terlebih lagi, daripada

kesemua biomonitor yang dikaji, hanya N. Lineata yang mempunyai julat taburan

lebih luas dan dengan itu memenuhi salah satu dari persyaratan organisma indikator

untuk pencemaran logam berat.

Purata kepekatan bagi logam Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni dan Fe pada N. lineata masing-

masing adalah 4.14, 5.90, 44.43, 3.74, 20.73, 24.91 μg/g dalam cengkerang; 4.16,

7.31, 51.78, 17.63, 23.52, 30.60 μg/g dalam operkulum dan 0.71, 15.16, 9.34, 94.69,

5.08; 397.96 μg/g berat kering dalam keseluruhan tisu lembut. Kepekatan Cd, Pb

dan Ni menyusut mengikut urutan: operkulum > cengkerang > tisu lembut;

manakala bagi Cu, Zn dan Pb pula mengikut urutan: tisu lembut > operkulum >

cengkerang. Hubungan yang signifikan telah dijumpai di antara kepekatan logam-

logam berat terutamanya Cd di dalam cengkerang dan Pb di dalam tisu lembut N.

lineata dengan sebahagian besar pecahan geokimia logam dalam sedimen dan juga

dengan logam berat dalam hamparan alga, pepejal terampai dan air laut. Oleh sebab

yang demikian maka dicadangkan bahawa cengkerang N. lineata boleh dijadikan

sebagai agen biomonitor bagi pencemaran logam berat di perairan pantai Dumai.

Berdasarkan kajian pecahan geokimia dan pengiraan indeks pencemaran

menggunakan sedimen dan gastropoda N. lineata, perairan pantai Dumai dikelaskan

sebagai kawasan tidak tercemar sehingga sederhana tercemar. Namun demikian,

meskipun perairan pantai Dumai pada masa ini tidak tercemar secara serius,

program pengawasan persekitaran berterusan seharusnya dijalankan memandangkan

viii

peningkatan aktiviti manusia dan pembangunan yang pesat dalam pelbagai sektor

infrastruktur dan industri terus berkembang.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my principle supervisor Prof. Dr.

Ahmad Ismail for his expertise and consistent constructive advice, ideas and

guidance for the successful completion of my study. My sincere thanks also go to

my co-supervisors Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aziz Arshad and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd. Salleh

Kamarudin for their professional advice and comments.

I am indebted and grateful to Dr. Yap Chee Kong for his valuable feedback and

helped to clarify the discussion, the Dean of the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine

Science and the Rector of the University of Riau Pekanbaru for the given

opportunity to pursue my study and also to the Local Government of Riau Province

for providing me with a partial financial support.

I would also like to thank all the members of Ecotoxicology Laboratory at the

Department of Biology Universiti Putra Malaysia for their warm friendship and to

the crews of the University of Riau ‘Senangin’ Research Vessel for all the help

especially during the fieldwork.

And finally I would like to thank all my family members, especially my wife Irvina,

my daughters Oki, Dina and Yaya and my father in-law for their love,

understanding, and motivation which gave me strength throughout the whole period

of my study. I can not even begin to express how much their love and continuous

support mean to me. All of you are my rock in the turbulent seas of life and you all

played an important role in my achievements and success in life.

x

I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 30 March 2009 to conduct the final examination of Bintal Amin on his thesis entitled “Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Seawater, Suspended Particulate Matter, Algal mat, Sediment and Gastropod (Nerita lineata) in Dumai Coastal Waters, Sumatra, Indonesia” in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: Hishamuddin Omar, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Nor Azwady Abd. Aziz, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Abdul Rahim Ismail, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Noor Azhar Mohamed Shazili, PhD Professor Faculty of Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (External Examiner)

__________________________ BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 21 May 2009

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The Members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: AHMAD ISMAIL, PhD Professor Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) AZIZ ARSHAD, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) MOHD. SALLEH KAMARUDIN, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

_________________________ HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date :

xii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at any other institutions.

__________________________

BINTAL AMIN Date:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DEDICATION ABSTRACT ABSTRAK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS APPROVAL DECLARATION LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER

iiiiivix

xixiiixviixxi

xxiii

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General 1.2 Objectives of the study

114

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Heavy metal pollution

66

2.1.1 Cadmium (Cd) 2.1.2 Copper (Cu) 2.1.3 Lead (Pb) 2.1.4 Zinc (Zn) 2.1.5 Nickel (Ni) 2.1.5 Iron (Fe)

89

11111313

2.2 Monitoring of aquatic environment quality 2.3 Heavy metals in sediment 2.4 Marine molluscs as biomonitors for heavy metal pollution 2.5 Gastropod Nerita lineata 2.6 Description of Dumai

1417192324

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study area and sampling locations

2727

3.1.1 Baseline study 3.1.1.1 Sediment 3.1.1.2 Biological samples 3.1.2 Main study

27272929

3.2 Collection, preparation and digestion of samples 32 3.2.1 Seawater

3.2.2 Suspended particulate matter 3.2.3 Algal mat 3.2.4 Biological samples 3.2.5 Sediment

3233333537

xiv

3.3 Sediment characteristics 42 3.3.1 Determination of sediment pH

3.3.2 Particle size analysis 3.3.2 Total organic matter analysis

424344

3.4 Determination of heavy metal concentrations 45 3.4.1 Quality control

3.4.2 Blank procedure 3.4.3 Recovery test

464647

3.5 Pollution indices 48 3.5 1 Sediment quality guideline (SQG)

3.5.2 Pollution load index (PLI) 3.5.3 Metal pollution index (MPI) 3.5.4 Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) 3.5.5 Enrichment factor (EF)

4849495050

3.6 Statistical analysis

52

4 RESULTS 54 4.1 Baseline study 54

4.1.1 Heavy metal concentrations in the surface sediments from the middle part of the east coast of Sumatra

54

4.1.2 Heavy metals in selected biological samples from Dumai coastal waters

56

4.1.2.1 Telescopium telescopium 4.1.2.2 Thais sp. 4.1.2.3 Cerithidea cingulata 4.1.2.4 Pharus sp. 4.1.2.5 Intertidal Crabs

5657585859

4.2 Main study 60 4.2.1 Sediment characteristics 60

4.2.2 Heavy metal concentrations in some environmental parameters from Dumai coastal waters

61

4.2.2.1 Heavy metal concentrations in seawater 4.2.2.2 Heavy metal concentrations in suspended particulate matter (SPM) 4.2.2.3 Heavy metal concentrations in algal mat

6163

65 4.2.3 Heavy metal concentrations in surface sediments from

Dumai coastal waters 66

4.2.3.1 Total concentrations 4.2.3.2 Metal speciation 4.2.3.3 Metal concentrations in different grain size of sediment 4.2.3.4 Correlation between heavy metals and its geochemical fractions 4.2.3.5 Correlation between heavy metals and total organic matter

666887

90

96

xv

4.2.4 Pollution indices/Sediment Quality Guidelines 98 4.2.4.1 Effective range low (ERL)/Effective range

median (ERM) 4.2.4.2 Pollution load index (PLI) 4.2.4.3 Enrichment factor (EF) 4.2.4.4 Index of Geoaccumulation (Igeo)

98

99100104

4.2.5 Heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

107

4.2.5.1 Metal concentrations in shell, operculum and soft tissue 4.2.5.2 Metal concentrations in different sizes of N. lineata 4.2.5.3 Pollution indices based on metal concentrations in N. lineata

107

112

117

4.2.6 Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata with metal concentrations in its environmental parameters

118

4.2.7 Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata with metal speciation in sediments

126

5 DISCUSSION 147 5.1 Baseline study 147

5.2 Heavy metal concentrations in some environmental parameters from Dumai coastal waters

153

5.3 Heavy metal concentrations in surface sediments from Dumai coastal waters

160

5.4 Pollution indices/Sediment Quality Guideline 181 5.5 Heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata from Dumai coastal

waters 190

5.6 Pollution indices based on the metal concentrations in N. lineata

199

5.7 Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata with metal concentrations in its environmental

parameters

200

5.8 Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in N. lineata with metal speciation in sediments

204

6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

209

REFERENCES 214BODATA OF STUDENT 242LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 243

xvi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1. Names and coordinates of the sampling stations for baseline study on the surface sediment from the middle of the east coast of Sumatra

28

2. Names of the sampling stations for baseline study on the biological samples in Dumai coastal waters

29

3. Names of the sampling stations for main study on the seawater, SPM, algal mat, N. lineata and sediment in Dumai coastal waters

31

4. Duration for sedimentation of soil type in particular temperature

44

5. Comparison of the analytical result of the CRM Soil-5 and DOLT-3 with the certified concentrations using AAS Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 800

47

6. Geoaccumulation index in relation to pollution extent 50

7. Background concentrations of sediment used in the calculation of the pollution indices

52

8. Heavy metal concentrations of heavy metals in sediments from the middle part of the east coast of Sumatra at each station

55

9. Heavy metal concentrations in soft tissue of different size of T. telescopium from Dumai coastal waters

56

10. Heavy metal concentrations in soft tissue of Thais sp. from Dumai coastal waters

57

11. Heavy metal concentrations in C. cingulata from Dumai coastal waters

58

12. Heavy metal concentrations in Pharus sp. from Dumai coastal waters

59

13. Heavy metal concentrations in crabs from Sg. Mesjid estuary in Dumai coastal waters

60

14. Characteristics of sediment from Dumai coastal waters 61

15. Heavy metal concentrations in seawater from Dumai coastal waters

62

xvii

16. Heavy metal concentrations in SPM from Dumai coastal waters

63

17. Tukey HSD multiple comparisons between stations of heavy metal concentrations in SPM from Dumai coastal waters

64

18. Heavy metal concentrations in algal mat from Dumai coastal waters

65

19. Tukey HSD multiple comparisons between metal concentrations in algal mat from Dumai coastal waters

66

20. Mean heavy metal concentrations in surface sediments from Dumai coastal waters

67

21. Mean concentrations of Cd in each geochemical fraction of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

69

22. Mean concentrations of Cu in each geochemical fraction of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

70

23. Mean concentrations of Pb in each geochemical fractions of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

71

24. Mean concentrations of Zn in each geochemical fraction of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

72

25. Mean concentrations of Ni in each geochemical fraction of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

73

26. Mean concentrations of Fe in each geochemical fractions of sediments from Dumai coastal waters

74

27. Percentages of heavy metals in each geochemical fraction for each region in sediment from Dumai coastal waters

79

28. Metal concentrations in sediments of Dumai coastal waters according to region

84

29. Differences obtained on metal concentrations for the different regions by using Mann-Whitney tests

86

30. The level of significance of comparison between nonresisant and resistant fractions for each regions

87

31. Mean heavy metal concentration in different grain sizes of sediments from Dumai coastal waters at each station

88

32. Tukey HSD multiple comparison between metal concentrations in different grain size of sediment from Dumai coastal waters

90

33. Spearman’s rank correlation matrices of heavy metal concentrations in sediments from Dumai coastal waters

91

xviii

34. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients of total concentrations with the geochemical fractions on the surface sediments

92

35. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients of non-resistant fraction with the geochemical fractions on the surface sediments

93

36. Pollution load index (PLI) values in all stations calculated based on the three different background concentrations

100

37. Mean of enrichment factors (EFs) of metals in the sediments of Dumai coastal waters based on different backgrounds

102

38. Mean of enrichment factors (EFs) of metals of sediments from Dumai coastal waters in each region

103

39. Mean of geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and its classes of metals in sediments for all stations based on average shale (Turekian and Wedephol, 1961)

104

40. Mean of geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and its classes of metals in sediments for all stations based on world average sediment (Salomon and Forstner, 1984)

105

41. Mean of geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and its classes of metals in sediments for all stations based on the lowest concentration in sediment from Dumai coastal waters (present study)

106

42. Mean of geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of metals in sediments from Dumai coastal waters and its classes for different regions

107

43. Mean length, weight and metal concentrations in the shell, operculum and soft tissue of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

108

44. Concentrations of heavy metals in N. lineata from Dumai coatal waters in decreasing order

110

45. The metal pollution index (MPI) values based on six metals in N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

117

46. Mean concentrations of heavy metals in the surface seawater, SPM, algal mat, sediment and N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

119

47. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) in N. lineata and its environmental parameters

125

48. Metal concentrations in the soft tissue of selected biomonitors from Dumai coastal waters

152

xix

49. Comparison of metal concentrations in seawater from Dumai coastal waters in the present study with others from regional studies

158

50. Comparison of metal concentrations in SPM from Dumai coastal waters with others from regional studies

160

51. Pollution load index (PLI) values in each region calculated based on the three different background concentrations

183

52. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients and comparison between direct aqua regia with SET based on mean concentration in sediment from Dumai coastal waters

186

53. Comparison between metal concentrations in sediment from Dumai coastal waters with other regions of the world

189

54. Metal concentrations in N. lineata determined in the present study in comparison with Nerita sp. and other gastropods from other studies

196

55. Comparison of heavy metal concentrations in biomonitors from Dumai coastal waters with standard quality guidelines on heavy metals for food safety set by different countries

197

56. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) values in N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters and other gastropods from other geographical areas based on the concentrations in the soft tissues

203

xx

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

1. Map of Dumai Sumatra Indonesia and the sampling stations for the main study

30

2. Sampling of algal mat in the snail’s substrate and snails substrate after being grazed by the snails

34

3. Diagram of direct aqua regia procedure 39

4. Diagram of modified sequential extraction technique (SET) procedure used in the present study

41

5. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Triangle Chart for sediment classification

44

6. Percentage of resistant and non-resistant fractions of Cd, Cu and Pb in sediment from Dumai coastal waters

76

7. Distribution of geochemical fractions of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Fe in sediment from Dumai coastal waters

80

8. Percentages of resistant and non-resistant fraction of metals in five different regions in Dumai coastal waters

81

9. Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni in the different grain sizes of sediment from Dumai coastal waters

89

10. Correlations between total metal concentrations with its geochemical fractions for Cd, Cu and Pb

94

11. Total organic matter in sediment from Dumai coastal waters 97

12. Relationships between total organic matter and metal concentrations in sediment from Dumai coastal waters

98

13. Metal concentrations in shell, operculum and soft tissue of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

109

14. Metal concentrations in shell, operculum and soft tissue of N. lineata from different regions of Dumai coastal waters

111

15. Heavy metal concentrations in shell, operculum and soft tissue for different sizes of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

113

16. Correlation between metal concentrations in the shells and lengths of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

114

17. Correlation between metal concentrations in the operculum and lengths of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

115

xxi

18. Correlation between metal concentrations in the soft tissues and lengths of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

116

19. The MPI values in shell, operculum and soft tissue of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

118

20. Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in seawater and in the N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

121

21. Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in suspended particulate matter (SPM) and in the N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

122

22. Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in algal mat and in the N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

123

23. Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in sediment and in the N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

124

24. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Cd with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

127

25. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Cu with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

130

26. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Pb with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

133

27. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Zn with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

136

28. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Ni with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

139

29. Correlation between geochemical fractions of Fe with corresponding metal concentrations in the shell of N. lineata from Dumai coastal waters

142

30. Current direction in the Rupat Straits of Dumai coastal waters

172

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation/symbols

Definition

% percentage ºC degree Celsius µg/g microgram per gram µm micrometer AAS atomic absorption spectrophotometer Anova analysis of variance BDL below detection limit cm centimeter CRM certified reference material DDW double distilled water d.w dry weight EF enrichment factor EFLE easily or freely, leachable and exchangeable ERL effective range low ERM effective range medium g gram H2O2 hydrogen peroxide HCl hydrochloric acid HClO4 perchloric acid HNO3 nitric acid Igeo index of geoaccumulation mg/L milligram per liter ml milliliter mm millimeter MΩ Mega Ohms M Molar volume MPI Metal Pollution Index NH2OH.HCl Hydroxyl ammonium chloride NH4CH3COO Ammonium acetate No. number PLI pollution load index ppm part per million SET sequential extraction technique Sg. Sungai SPM suspended particulate matter SQG standard quality guidelines Tj. Tanjung

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Heavy metal contamination of the coastal environment continues to attract the

attention of environmental researchers due to its increasing input to the coastal

waters, especially in the developing countries. As for other contaminants, heavy

metals could be introduced into the coastal environments by several pathways

including disposal of liquid effluents, runoff carrying chemicals originating from a

variety of urban, industrial and agricultural activities as well as atmospheric

deposition.

Due to their toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation problems, heavy metals

become one of the more serious pollutants in our natural environment (Phillips,

1980; Martin and Coughtrey, 1982; Luoma, 1983; Salomons and Forstner, 1984;

Rainbows, 1995; Tam and Wong, 2000; Cravo and Bebianno, 2005; Upadhyay et

al., 2006). Heavy metals in natural waters and their corresponding sediments have

become a significant topic of concern for scientists in various fields associated with

water quality, as well as a concern of the general public (Timothy, 2000; Chen et

al., 2004). The focus of this concern is direct toxicity to man and aquatic life as well

as indirect toxicity through accumulations of metals in the aquatic food chain (Tam

and Wong, 1997; Chen et al., 2000; Cravo and Bebianno, 2005).