UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

EFFECTS OF WATER QUALITY ON WATERBIRD DIVERSITY IN

CONVERTED OIL PALM PLANTATIONS

PETRA SULAI

FH 2017 15

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PMEFFECTS OF WATER QUALITY ON WATERBIRD DIVERSITY IN

CONVERTED OIL PALM PLANTATIONS

By

PETRA SULAI

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfillments of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

April 2017

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COPYRIGHT All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia. Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Science

EFFECTS OF WATER BIRDS DIVERSITY TOWARDS THE WATER QUALITY IN CONVERTED OIL PALM PLANTATIONS

By

PETRA SULAI

April 2017

Chairman : Professor Mohamed Zakaria Hussin, PhD Faculty : Forestry Oil palm extension is a major driver for habitat loss in the tropics. Yet, while a number of studies have focussed on the consequences for terrestrial biodiversity, the impacts on waterbirds habitats and their associated fauna are less well described. Little information is available to guide the management of waterbirds and their habitat in oil palm production landscapes, particularly on those converted from natural wetlands such as mangrove and peat swamp forests. This study aims to determine the conservation value of flood-control drainage channels for waterbirds in oil palm plantations. This study also measured the water quality indicators (water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, water depth, conductivity, turbidity) and habitat characteristics (vegetation cover and channel width)to determine the relationships between waterbird species richness, water quality and habitat characteristics. Birds were surveyed along twenty five line transects within the peat swamp-converted and mangroves-converted oil palm smallholdings. Water quality parameter was measured in the middle of each line transects. Data was collected in seven smallholdings between March and December 2013. This study was recorded a total of 1111 waterbirds from eight resident species. Both mangrove forest-converted smallholdings and peat swamp-converted smallholdings had similar waterbirds diversity. Waterbirds species richness increased with increasing DO and decreased with water depth, temperature and conductivity. This association may be because of the suitability of the flood-control channels for aquatic invertebrates and fish, both of which are consumed by waterbirds and depend on sufficient levels of DO in the water to survive.

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The most parsimonious predictive model (minimum AIC = 476.48) explained 52.39% of the variation in the species richness. The data suggest that even man-made aquatic habitats, such as flood control channels, can be important for some conserving waterbirds in oil palm smallholdings. However, given the relatively small gains in terms of increased waterbird species richness in channels, the most successful strategy for conserving waterbirds still require the protection of intact wetlands that supported by better management of drainage channels in oil palm smallholdings.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains

KESAN KEATAS KEPELBAGAIAN BURUNG AIR TERHADAP KUALITI AIR DI LADANG KELAPA SAWIT

Oleh

PETRA SULAI

April 2017

Pengerusi : Profesor Mohamed Zakaria Hussin, PhD Fakulti : Perhutanan

Penanaman kelapa sawit merupakan antara faktor utama kehilangan habitat di kawasan tropika. Walaupun beberapa kajian telah memberi tumpuan kepada kesan-kesan ke atas biodiversiti daratan, kesan ke atas habitat tanah lembap dan fauna berkaitan, kurang diperjelaskan. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan nilai pemuliharaan saluran perparitan kawalan banjir di kebun kecil kelapa sawit ke atas burung air. Kajian ini juga mengukur penunjuk kualiti air (suhu air, pH, oksigen terlarut (DO), jumlah pepejal terlarut (TDS), kemasinan, kedalaman air,

kekonduksian, kekeruhan) dan ciri-ciri habitat (litupan tumbuhan dan lebar saluran) untuk mengenalpasti hubungan diantara kekayaan spesies burung air, kualiti air dan ciri-ciri habitat . Kajian burung dijalankan di sepanjang dua puluh lima transek garis di paya gambut dan paya bakau yang telah ditukar kepada kebun kecil kelapa sawit. Data dikumpulkan dari tujuh kebun kecil antara Mac dan Disember 2013. Kajian ini mencatatkan sejumlah 1111 burung air tergolong dalam lapan spesies burung residen telah direkodkan. Kedua-dua kawasan kajian mempunyai kepelbagaian burung air yang sama. Spesies burung air meningkat dengan peningkatan DO dan menurun dengan kedalaman air, suhu dan kekonduksian. Model ramalan paling hampir (minima AIC = 476,48) menjelaskan 52,39% daripada variasi dalam kekayaan spesies. Data kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa walaupun terdapat infrastruktur buatan manusia terhadap habitat akuatik, seperti saluran kawalan banjir, amat penting untuk pemuliharaan beberapa burung air di kebun kelapa sawit. Walaupun peningkatan spesies burung air agak kecil, ianya merupakan strategi yang paling berjaya untuk pemuliharaan burung air, disokong oleh pengurusan yang lebih baik daripada saluran perparitan di kebun kelapa sawit.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Almighty Allah, for seeing me through this work. I acknowledge with great appreciation to my supervisor, Prof Madya Dr. Mohamed Zakaria, my co-supervisor Dr Badrul Azhar and Dr Siti Nurhidayu for their constructive criticism, meticulous guidance and patience during this project. My appreciation also goes to my research partner Mr Affendi and Miss Sharifah Atikah, my colleagues and friends.

I am greatly indebted to my family for their support, my mum Hjh Jijah, My wife Saidatul Azura, my kids Aimy Nurdeeni and Muhammad Amru Firas, for assistance and their unconditional support, both financially and emotional throughout my study. The patience and understanding shown by my family is greatly appreciated. I am also indebted to those who helped me in completing this study especially my friends Miss Tuhaila for her moral support and most of all her invaluable friendship. Words are not enough to express my gratitude and appreciation for the help that everyone have provided. Thanks for everything.

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of the Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Mohamed Zakaria Hussin, PhD Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)

Badrul Azhar Md. Shariff, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

Siti Nurhidayu Abu Bakar, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

________________________

ROBIAH BINTI YUNUS, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:

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Declaration by graduate student

I hereby confirm that: this thesis is my original work; quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced; this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any

other degree at any other institutions; intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-

owned by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti PutraMalaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office ofDeputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis ispublished (in the form of written, printed or in electronic form) includingbooks, journals, modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers,manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture notes, learning modules or anyother materials as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)Rules 2012;

there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, andscholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia(Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the UniversitiPutra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergoneplagiarism detection software.

Signature: ________________________ Date: __________________

Name and Matric No : Petra Sulai, GS35473

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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that: the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our

supervision; supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.

Signature: Name of Chairman of Supervisory Committee: Professor Dr. Mohamed Zakaria Hussin

Signature: Name of Member of Supervisory Committee: Dr. Badrul Azhar Md. Shariff

Signature: Name of Member of Supervisory Committee: Dr. Siti Nurhidayu Abu Bakar

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i ABSTRAK iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv APPROVAL v DECLERATION vii LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 General Introduction 1 1.2 Background of the study 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem 2 1.4 Objectives of the study 6

1.4.1 General Objective 6 1.4.2 Specific objective 7

1.5 Research questions 7 1.6 Research hypothesis 7 1.7 Significance of the Study 7 1.8 Limitations of the Study 8 1.9 Definition of terms 8

1.9.1 Oil Palm 8 1.9.2 Waterbirds 8 1.9.3 Peat Swamp 8 1.9.4 Drainage 9 1.9.5 Biodiversity 9 1.9.6 Hydrogical process 9 1.9.7 Water quality 9

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11 2.1 Waterbirds communities in oil palm plantation 11

2.1.1 Aquatic biodiversity 13 2.1.2 Tropical Aquatic Habitat (TAH) 13

2.2 Oil palm production 14 2.3 Effects of oil palm plantation on biodiversity 15

2.3.1 Tropical Peat Swamp Forest 16 2.3.2 Drainage 16 2.3.3 Excessive use of fertilizer, pesticides and irrigation 16

2.4 Biodiversity Conservation in Oil Palm Production Landscapes

16

2.4.1 Loss of Habitat 17 2.4.2 Effects of peat swamp development 17

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2.5 Bird Species Richness 18 2.5.1 Feeding Guilds 25 2.5.2 Microhabitats 32 2.5.3 Water Level 36 2.5.4 Water Depth 38

2.6 Water Quality Research in Oil Palm Plantations 38 2.7 Research Methods Used in Waterbirds Studies 40

3 METHODOLOGY 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Research Design 44 3.3 Study Area 44

3.3.1 Micro-Climate of Study Area 46 3.3.2 Temperature 47 3.3.3 Rainfall Distribution 47 3.3.4 Daily Sunshine 47 3.3.5 Justification 47

3.4 Research method 48 3.5 Sampling 49 3.6 Data Collection Procedure 50

3.6.1 Water birds Sampling 50 3.6.2 Measurement of Water Quality, Vegetation and

Channel Morphology 51

3.7 Data Analysis 52 3.7.1 Shannon diversity index 53 3.7.2 Brillouin Evenness 54 3.7.3 Unbalanced ANOVA and One-Way ANOVA 54 3.7.4 Bootstrap Estimation 55 3.7.5 Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance 55 3.7.6 Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) 56 3.7.7 Poisson distribution with log-link function 56

3.8 Summary 56

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 57 4.1 Assessing Birds’ Abundance through Line Transect Survey 57 4.2 Comparison of Water Quality, Channel Morphology and

Vegetation between Sites 59

4.3 Predictive Models of species richness 62 4.4 Mangrove Converted and Peat Swamp Converted Forest

Differential 63

4.5 Water Quality Relationship with bird species Richness 64 4.5.1 Dissolve Oxygen 64 4.5.2 Total Dissolve Solids (TDS) 65 4.5.3 Salinity 65 4.5.4 Turbidity 65 4.5.5 Water Level 66 4.5.6 Temperature 66 4.5.7 pH 66 4.5.8 Water Conductivity 67

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4.5.9 Vegetation 67

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68

70 75 76

REFERENCES BIODATA OF STUDENT PUBLICATION

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 2.1 Yearly deforestation of peatland in Sarawak, Malaysia (2005-

2010) 18

2.2 Environmental and Social impact of oil palm cultivation on

tropical peat at 5 January 2015 from year 18

2.3 Bird studies conducted in different habitats at various localities

of Malaysia by different authors 24

2.4 Food resources consumed by different bird species as reported

by different authors 28

2.5 Habitat resources used by different bird species as reported by

different authors 33

2.6 Research techniques used for different bird studies in various

habitats by different authors 41

4.1 Resident water birds principally recorded at flood-control drains

in oil palm landscapes 57

4.2 Habitat and water quality variables measured at 50 sampling

sites in oil palm landscapes (Mac–December 2014) 60

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

3.1 Map of study area in Peninsular Malaysia 45

3.2 Tanjung Karang sampling sites 46

3.3 Research Metholodogy. 49

4.1 Species richness (mean ± S.E.) per site was greater in MFC smallholdings than in PSFC smallholdings. However, bird observation i.e. relative abundance (mean ± S.E.) per site between MFC and PSFC smallholdings was similar

58

4.2 The differences of water quality variables (mean ± S.E.) in flood-control drains between MFC and PSFC smallholdings

62

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Anova Analysis of variance

AIC akaike information criterion

DO dissolve oxygen

cm centimeter

etc. et cetra, and the rest

et al., at alli and other people

m meter

mg milligram

CMF converted mangrove forest

CPSF converted peat swamp forest

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction Oil palm expansion is the main cause of habitat loss in the tropics. A number of studies have been carried out on the extensiveness of the damage to terrestrial biodiversity. However, the impacts on wetland habitats such as peat lands and associated fauna are less well described hence, this study aims to determine the value of conserving flood-control drainage channel in oil palm smallholdings for water birds. 1.2 Background of the study Throughout the history of birds’ migration, many birds migrate in response to biological requirement, such as the need to find a suitable location for breeding and raising their young, and to be in a favorable area for feeding at other times of the year. In certain cases, these specific requirements are fulfilled in location separated by distance of thousands of kilometers. Some aspects of the ecology of water birds make them useful as bio-indicators. First, water birds have been shown to track environmental variations, at short (months) and long (years) temporal scales, and at both species and community level. Second, as many species are top predators and several contaminants often accumulate along the tropic chain, such species may be used as indicators of changes occurring at the lower tropic level. And third, either the water birds themselves or their prey is exploited by humans (e.g. hunting and fisheries), so that hunting bags of water birds may be indicator of productivity in nesting or wintering areas (Miller et al., 1998) or breeding parameters of birds may inform on fish stock. Due to the fast expansion of oil palm production areas in the tropics, peat swamps and mangrove areas have been cleared extensively to make way for economic development. Thus, an estimated 50% of the global wetland area has been lost due to human activities, including commercial agriculture (Zedler and Kercher 2005). In Southeast Asia, at least 60% of the original peat swamp forest cover and approximately 30% of the original mangrove forest cover have been lost during recent decades (Valiela et al., 2001; Posa et al., 2011).

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Previous studies have been carried out to document avian diversity in oil palm plantation estates or smallholdings (Azhar et al., 2011; Jambari et al., 2012). Azhar et al. (2013) reported that the occurrence of water birds in both large scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings due to the existence of aquatic habitats in the forms of flood-control drains and ponds. However overuse of agrochemicals (e.g. pesticides and fertilizers) may have adverse effects on waterbird populations and aquatic habitats within oil palm smallholdings (Aratrkorn et al., 2009).

Despite this situation, no previous study had reported the effects on aquatic habitat and waterbirds in oil palm agriculture. Therefore, the focus of this study is to provide baseline information with respect to the species diversity of water birds in oil palm smallholdings. Specifically, a study was conducted to compare the influence of water quality measurement and drain morphology to water birds presence in converted peat swamp forest and converted mangrove forest smallholdings.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Aquatic biodiversity, including water birds has enormous economic and aesthetic value and is largely responsible for maintaining and supporting overall environmental health. Humans have long depended on aquatic resources for food. Also, there are dependent on aquatic resources for medicines, materials, recreation and commercial purposes (fishing and tourism). In the other hand, aquatic organisms also rely upon the great diversity of aquatic habitats and resources for food and breeding grounds.

Factors including overexploitation of species, the introduction of exotic species, pollution from urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, as well as habitat loss and alteration through damming and water diversion contribute to the pollution from agricultural and urban areas, the invasion of exotic species, and the creation of dams and water diversion have been identified as the greatest challenges to freshwater environments (Allan and Flecker, 1993). . As a result, valuable aquatic resources are becoming increasingly susceptible to both natural and artificial environmental changes. Thus, conservation strategies to protect and conserve aquatic life are necessary to maintain the balance of nature and support the availability of resources for future generations. Human activities are causing species to disappear at an alarming rate. Aquatic species are at a higher risk of extinction than mammals and birds. Losses of this magnitude impact the entire ecosystem, depriving valuable resources used to provide food, medicines, and industrial materials to human beings.

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Over exploitation of aquatic organisms for various purposes is the greatest threat to marine environments, thus the need for sustainable exploitation has been identified by the Environmental Defense Fund as the key priority in preserving marine biodiversity. Other threats to aquatic biodiversity include urban development and resource-based industries, such as mining and logging that destroy or reduce natural habitats. In addition, air and water pollution, sedimentation and erosion, and climate change also pose as a threat to aquatic biodiversity. The need for maintaining and enhancing urban and suburban populations of wildlife has greatly increased in almost four decades (Washington, 1978), but planning for wildlife in urban areas is often stifled by inadequate support from resource agencies and lack of awareness and expertise in wildlife matters by urban planners (Davey, 1967; Geis, 1980). The solution to this dilemma is either to encourage greater collaboration between wildlife regulatory agencies and municipal planners or, as discussed in this study, to familiarize the planners with the wildlife resources through literature relevant to both the disciplines (Greer 1983). Man-made conservation reservoirs play an important role in sustaining both human and bird life. The population of waterfowl at artificial wetlands, mainly reservoirs and canals, was studied in Gujarat, western India, from 1988 to 2000 (reference). Habitat size and complexity were important factors influencing the species diversity, while factors contributing to waterbirds presence including abundant food supply and safe roosting sites. In addition to reservoirs, flooded set-aside farmlands were of immense importance to more than 30 000 waterbirds of 66 species, suggesting that fallow inundated fields serve as a key supplementary habitat for the waterbirds, especially during the dry period. Both site specific and broad based strategies are suggested for future management. Narda Reservoir is a 57 ha storage reservoir designed for irrigation purposes with a discharge which averages 65 CFs. The water quality is good and is used for fisheries. In summer, the reservoir becomes shallow and overgrown with aquatic vegetation. The surrounding area is agricultural landscape and the main crop grown is a paddy rice Oryza sativa. Pariej Reservoir is a 445 ha perennial water storage reservoir for the district, fulfilling the drinking water requirement of the surrounding 52 villages. The surrounding area is mostly saline and as a result, no crops are grown. Due to water seepage from the reservoir, the whole area is waterlogged and behaves as a permanent marsh with a heavy growth of the reed Typha angustata and other aquatic vegetation. Commercial fishing is practiced in this reservoir. Kanewal Reservoir, with an area of 625 ha, is the largest reservoir in the district. The land surrounding the reservoir is salt affected and remains dry during summer. During the monsoon, the whole area is inundated and migratory waterfowl enjoy a temporary wetland. The reservoir provides drinking water to 57 villages, and there is occasional fishing. Waterfowl counts were made in alternate weeks in January from 1988 to 2000. Plant composition and vegetation cover for the entire study area was

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also recorded. Paddy rice and wheat are the principal cultivated crops in the district. Undisturbed vegetation was found mostly on the banks of reservoirs. Observations of the three sites showed that the waterfowl initiated their activity in early morning about 30 min before sunrise. Most of the activities (foraging, preening, swimming and feeding) ceased within 15 min after initiation. The movements of the birds were a function of their feeding preference. Morning counts were best because they included all birds utilizing the reservoir, and there was little human disturbance. At Narda Reservoir, the waterfowl were attracted due to shallow aquatic vegetation, especially Cyperus species. Migratory waterfowl arrived in October and diversity increased significantly to between 12-36 species over the winter months. The density of ducks ranged between 0.2–15.4 per ha, and for other waterbird species was 1.7–78.2 per ha. Coots Fulica atra. We're the most abundant species. Ducks were mostly found feeding in the adjacent paddy fields because these provided secure food supplies and a relatively fixed water depth (less than 1 m). Pariej Reservoir had a comparatively higher diversity than Kanewal and Narda, with between 36 and 85 species. The Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus Crispus was attracted to this reservoir due to its abundant fish supply. However, coots were dominant all year. Gadwall Anas strepera, Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata, Northern Pintail Anas acuta, Eurasian Wigeon Anas Penelope were also common and regularly observed; the density of ducks ranged from 0.3–9.0 individuals per ha and other waterbirds between 9.6–59.1 per ha. The reservoir is a potential breeding site for Great-crested Grebe. Podiceps cristatus Carnival Reservoir, having short grass and emergent vegetation, attracted many migratory waterfowl, with densities of 1.0–9.0 individuals per ha. Ducks congregated mostly to feed on tubers of Najas minor. The number of species varied from 26 to 95 because this is the only water body in the area, and is shallow with abundant food. The density of other waterbirds was 20.0–64.0 individuals per ha. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation is seen as the major cause of the current biodiversity crisis in tropical Southeast Asia. Oil palm cultivation is becoming a more widespread worldwide despite being considered by environmental NGOs as a serious threat to forest biodiversity (Lambert and Collar, 2002; Sodhi et al., 2004; Sodhi and Brook, 2006; Fitzherbert et al., 2008; Danielsen et al., 2009; Rudel et al., 2009). As of 2008, the planted area of oil palm in Malaysia alone covered approximately 4.5 million ha and produced 18 million tonnes of palm oil per year (Malaysia Palm Oil Board, 2009).

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Over the next 50 years, rapid and widespread agricultural expansion will pose as a serious threat to natural ecosystems worldwide (Tilman et al., 2001). During the past few decades, the oil palm has become one of the most rapidly expanding equatorial crops in the world. The global amount of oil palm cultivation increased from 3.6 million ha in 1961 to 13.2 million ha in 2006 (FAO, 2007). Today, oil palm is grown in 43 countries with a total cultivated area accounting for nearly one-tenth of the world’s permanent cropland (FAO, 2007; WRI, 2007). Oil palm contributes to deforestation and biodiversity loss in several ways. First, oil palm expansion can be a direct motive to replace forests, and it is easy to attribute oil palm as the cause of deforestation and habitat destruction in this sense. However, there are also more indirect ways by which oil palm can lead to deforestation, making the quantification of the impacts of oil palm expansion difficult (Fitzherbert et al., 2008). For example, oil palm expansion may create road access into otherwise inaccessible forests, facilitating logging. Additionally, oil palm expansion may be used as an excuse to clear a patch of forest for timber, but in the end the area never gets developed into oil palm – this is especially widespread in Kalimantan, where corruption, relaxed regulations, and weak governance is prevalent (Laurance, 2007; Sandker et al., 2007). Several recent initiatives are aimed at reducing oil palms impact on biodiversity. For example, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was established as a certification scheme for palm oil, and many large palm oil companies have adopted zero-net-deforestation policies, though this is not currently enforced (Butler, 2014). Koh and Wilcove (2008), suggested that oil palm plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia have replaced forests and, to a smaller extent, pre-existing cropland. Species richness of forest birds in primary forests, secondary (logged) forests, rubber plantations, and oil palm plantations were sampled and the study exposes that the main forest conversion and logged forests to oil palm plantations decreases the species richness of forest birds by 73 and 77%, respectively, whereas the conversion of rubber plantations to oil palm plantations results in only 14% decline in species richness of the remaining forest birds. The rapid expansion of oil palm (E. guineensis) into habitats across the tropics has led to widespread concern about the consequences of this land conversion for biodiversity (Donald , 2006; Koh and Wilcove, 2008; Turner et al., 2008; Sayer et al., 2012; Savilaakso et al., 2014). Biodiversity-rich wetland ecosystems such as peat swamp forest and mangrove forest have been cleared to establish oil palm cultivation by both private businesses and small-scale farmers (Giri et al. 2008; Koh et al. 2011). Universally, wetlands cover a small portion of the earth’s surface yet provide a range of ecosystem services, including biodiversity support, water quality protection and reduction in flood risk (Zedler and Kercher, 2005). An estimated 50% of the

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global wetland area has been lost due to human activities, including commercial agriculture (Zedler and Kercher, 2005). In Southeast Asia, at least 60% of the original peat swamp forest covers approximately 30% of the original mangrove forest cover which have been lost over recent decades (Valiela et al., 2001; Posa et al., 2011). ratrakorn et al., (2006) studied the changes in bird’s communities following conversion of lowland forest to oil palm and rubber plantation in the southern part of Thailand. From his studies, bird’s communities in oil palm and rubber plantation were extremely similar and there was a strong positive correlation across species in their relative abundance in each plantation type. The results indicates high proportion of species formal present in the region which are unable to adapt to conversion of forest oil palm and rubber plantation which result in high losses of bird species and family richness and replacement of species with restricted ranges and high conservation status by those with extensive ranges and low conservation status. Also, Aromoro et al., (2009) studied the feeding interaction among functional feeding group (FFG) of macro invertebrates which are indicators of aquatic ecosystem interactions. His study provided information regarding organic matter processing habitat condition and trophic dynamics. Omnivores feeding behavior of macro invertebrates was noted for the upstream site whereas clear trophic guilds of FFGs where suggested for the wetlands affected river zones by the stable isotope results. His results showed that pollution gradient analysis and feeding interaction among FFGs revealed that the urban-impacted sites showed weaker interaction when compared to upstream and wetlands influenced site. This affirms the potential importance of feeding interactions among FFGs of macro invertebrates in water quality monitoring. From the both studies available, there has not been any study showing the relationship between water birds and water quality in oil palm vegetation. Attention has to be given to this study so as to have a better understanding on their relationships and diversifications 1.4 Objectives of the study 1.4.1 General Objective This study aims to study the aquatic habitat characteristics and their relation to water bird at oil palm smallholdings in Tanjung Karang, Selangor. As natural wetlands continue to decline worldwide, there is an urgent need to investigate the waterbirds perseverance following landscape transformation.

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1.4.2 Specific objective 1.4.2.1 To determine the conservation value of flood-control drainage

channels for waterbirds in oil palm smallholdings.

1.4.2.2 To examine the relationship between water bird richness, water quality and drain morphology.

1.5 Research questions 1.5.1 To what extent will waterbirds be able to survive in man-made

aquatic habitats associated with oil palm cultivation? 1.5.2 How does flood-control channels affect water quality index and

watebirds species richness and abundance. 1.6 Research hypothesis Based on the research questions above, the hypotheses of the research are: 1.6.1 Ho1: There is no significant evidence that the waterbirds are able to

persevere in man-made aquatic habitats associated with oil palm cultivation

1.6.2 Ho2: There is no significant evidence that the water quality influence the waterbird species richness.

1.7 Significance of the Study This study attempts to understand the effects conversion on resident waterbirds and water quality by collecting data from existing oil palm landscapes. As the ecological species response to variances in water quality differently, the use of whole communities to indicate changes in water or habitat quality is likely to be more reliable than the use of single species indicators (Ormerod and Tyler 1993). A better understanding of the associations between water quality, habitat quality and waterbird populations may assist commercial oil palm growers to preserve a wider range of waterbird species on the farms.

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1.8 Limitations of the Study This study is far from a perfect one considering several limitations of the researcher’s knowledge and also some objective and subjective limitations. 1.9 Definition of terms In this section, the researcher will define and explain the scope of studies intended in this proposed study by looking at the working definition of the keywords. 1.9.1 Oil Palm Oil palm (E. guineensis) was initially introduced to Malaysia as a decorative plant in 1870 and now is one of the quickest expanding crops in the region. The oil palm planted currently is the genera hybrid which yields about 4.0 t of palm oil per hectare, together with 0.5 t palm kernel oil and 0.6 t palm kernel cake. Oil palm has an economic life of about 25 years. The harvesting of the palm could begin 30 months after field planting. 1.9.2 Waterbirds The term water bird, waterbird or aquatic bird used to refer to birds that live on or around water. Some definitions apply the term especially to birds in freshwater habitats, though others make no distinction from birds that inhabit marine environments. In addition, some water birds are more terrestrial or aquatic than others, and their adaptations will vary depending on their environment. 1.9.3 Peat Swamp Peatlands are wetlands with a thick water-logged organic soil layer (peat) made up of dead and decaying plant material. Peatlands include moors, bogs, mires, peat swamp forests and permafrost tundra. Peat swamp forests have not been disturbed as this land is not suitable for agriculture process. However, increasing international demand on biofuel plus with lack of land and mineral soils has accelerated the conversion of peat land, into oil palm plantations. (Sheil et al., 2009; Tan et al; 2009).

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1.9.4 Drainage The drainage results in rapid peat subsidence and compaction were led to various changes in its physical properties. These were including greater bulk density and less total porosity, oxygen diffusion as capacity available water volume and water infiltration rate (Rieley et al., 2007). 1.9.5 Biodiversity Biodiversity refers to the variety of all forms of life on earth, including the different plants, animals, micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystem they form. It is considered at three main levels including species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. Relative to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the biosphere, biodiversity is vital in a number of ways including promoting the aesthetic value of the natural environment, contribution to our material well-being through utilitarian values, maintaining the integrity of the environment through; maintaining CO2/O2 balance, regulation of biochemical cycles, absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, determination and regulation of the natural world climate, protective services, e.g. by acting as wind breaks and acting as indicators of environmental changes. Despite the benefits from biodiversity, today’s threats to species and ecosystems are the greatest recorded in recent history and virtually all of them are caused by human mismanagement of biological resources often stimulated by misguided economic policies, pollution and faulty institutions in-addition to climate change. To ensure intra and intergenerational equity, it is important to conserve biodiversity. Some of the existing measures of biodiversity conservation include; zoological gardens, botanical gardens/arboretums, seed banks and national parks and game reserves. 1.9.6 Hydrogical process Hydrological process within oil palm plantations are still not fully understood, and few studies have examined how agriculture practices on terrestrial hydrological functions and water quality affect the nearby aquatic ecosystem (Ah Tung et al., 2009) despite the aspects that impact on water quality are one of the largest component of an environmental risk register amounting to an estimation of 50% of all entries in oil palm plantation (Lord and Clay, 2006). 1.9.7 Water quality Water is essential to human life and the health of the environment. As a valuable natural resource, it comprises marine, estuarine, freshwater (river and lakes) and groundwater environments that stretch across coastal and

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inland areas. Water has two dimensions that are closely linked: quantity and quality. Water quality is commonly defined by its physical, chemical, biological and aesthetic (appearance and smell) characteristics. A healthy environment is one in which the water quality supports a rich and varied community of organisms. Despite the grave situation, no studies have reported the effects of water birds’ aquatic habitat in oil palm agriculture. Therefore, the focus of this study is to have baseline information with respect to species diversity of water birds in oil palm smallholdings. This study is conducted to compare the influence of water quality measurement and drain morphology on water birds in converted peat swamp forest and converted mangrove forest smallholdings.

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