UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

ZULKIFLE MUDA

FK 2004 127

THE PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL CONCRETE USING BOTTOM ASH

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THE PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL CONCRETE USING BOTTOM ASH

ZULKIFLE MUDA GS12134

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY PUTRA MALAYSIA

SERDANG, SELANGOR

2004

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THE PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL CONCRETE USING BOTTOM ASH

BY:

ZULKIFLE MUDA GS12134

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE (STRUCT. ENG. AND CONSTRUCTION)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY PUTRA MALAYSIA

2004

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APPROVAL SHEET

This project report entitled,” The properties of Special Concrete using Bottom

Ash”, prepared and submitted by Zulkifle bin Muda in partial fulfillment of

requirement for Degree of Master of Science (Structural Engineering and

Construction) is hereby accepted

_________________________________ ____________ Associate Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd Saleh Jaafar Date

(Project Supervisor)

_________________________________ _____________ Associate Prof. Dr. Waleed A.M. Thanoom Date

(Project Examiner)

_______ ______________________ _____________ Associate Prof. Dr. Jamalodin Norzaei Date

(Project Examiner)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to initially express my gratitude especially to my project supervisor

Prof. Madya Ir. Dr. Mohd Salleh Jaafar who has been very helpful in providing

assistance, guidance, support, suggestion and words of encouragement in

completing this project.

I would like would to thank Tenaga Nasional Berhad for sponsoring and giving

me the opportunity to get enrolled for the Master Degree Program at University

Putra Malaysia. I wish to place my appreciation to Tuan Haji Riduan Abu Bakar,

Managing Director of TNB Janamanjung Sdn. Bhd. for his immediate attention

and action on my application to obtain bottom ash sample in Manjung, Perak.

I offer my special thanks to Mr. Hamdan and all the staff in TNB Research Sdn.

Bhd for letting me utilised machines and facilities, and for giving all the advice

and technical help required to perform the experiment. I would like also to thank

Mr. Mohd Halim Othman and Mr. Jaafar Baba including other technical staffs at

Civil Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia

for giving help and supports to achieve timely completion of this project.

I would like to recognise all the advice and helps given by my best friend

Mr. Siam Satimin from SIRIM toward completing the project.

Finally, I would like to thank all members of my family, especially my wife and my

kid, for their kind loving and understanding while completing the project works.

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ABSTRACT

This report presents an experimental study to determine the behavior of Special

Concrete containing Bottom Ash that was obtained from TNB Janamanjung Coal

Power Plant Sdn. Bhd. in Manjung, Perak. This study involved two phases of

experiments: 1) Chemical and physical analysis of bottom ash samples 2) The

determination of properties of hardened concrete. The properties of hardened

lightweight concrete were determined inclusive of compressive strength,

ultrasonic pulse velocity and chemical composition, microscopic aspects and

durability of hardened concrete.

In this study, bottom ash was used as partial replacement of cement and sand in

special concrete with the bottom ash being used as 10, 20, 30 and 40 percent of

normal Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Zero percent bottom ash was used as

control sample. For each mix, a total of 15 cubes (100mm x 100mm x 100mm)

specimens were prepared. All concrete specimens were subjected to Ultrasonic

Pulse Velocity Tests prior to crushing test.

Its compressive strength was tested at curing the ages of 3, 7, 14, 28 and 56

days and subsequently further analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopes

(SEMS) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Analysis were conducted.

Durability test was also conducted to monitor the effect of Iron Pyrites in the

bottom ash concrete.

The test results showed that the replacement of cement and sand in concrete

mixtures have caused the reduction in the workability of fresh concrete and also

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the compressive strength of concrete. The maximum compressive strength of

concrete occurred at 10 percent replacement with bottom ash.

In cement replacement, the results from curing in the accelerated curing tank

proved that bottom ash was an inert material and it did not help the hydration

process of concrete. Besides, the addition of bottom ash will lower the strength of

concrete due to the reduction in cement content in the concrete.

In sand replacement, the reduction of compressive strength was possibly due to

reduced density of concrete as a result of high porosity of concrete after addition

of bottom ash.

Bottom ash exhibits a long term compressive strength higher than normal OPC

concrete. The higher long term compressive strength of partially substituting

cement and sand with 10 percent bottom ash is clearly demonstrated by the

compressive strength of concretes at 56 days.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………i Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… ii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………… iii List of Tables……………………………………………………………………… iv List of Figures………………………………………………………………………v CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives 2

1.2 The Scope of Works 3

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction 5

2.1 Overview of Special Concrete 6

2.2 The material for special concrete – Coal Ash 8

2.2.1 Overview of coal 8

2.2.2 The production of coal ash from Coal-Fired Boiler 8

Power Station

2.2.3 Classification of coal ash 10

2.2.3.1 Fly Ash 10

2.2.3.2 Bottom ash 11

2.2.3.3 Pyrites 11

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2.3. Properties of Bottom Ash 12

2.3.1 Chemical Properties of Bottom Ash 12

2.3.2 Physical Properties of Bottom Ash 13

2.4 Proportioning concretes containing fly ash and bottom ash 15

2.4.1 Previous Studies on Partial Replacement Method – Fly Ash and

Bottom Ash 17

2.4.1.1 Fresh concrete containing fly ash and bottom ash 17

2.4.1.2 Properties of hardened state - cement replacement in concrete

2.4.1.2.1 Strength development of fly ash concrete 19

2.4.1.2.2 Strength development of bottom ash concrete 21

2.4.1.3 Properties of hardened state - fine aggregate replacement in

Concrete

2.4.1.3.1 Strength development of fly ash concrete 22

2.4.1.3.2 Strength development of bottom ash concrete 23

2.4.1.4 Durability of Concrete using Bottom Ash 26

2.5. Special Concrete – Lightweight Concrete 28

2.5.1 Classification of Lightweight Concrete 29

2.5.1.1 Structural Lightweight Concrete 29

2.5.1.2 Low-Density Lightweight Concrete 30

2.5.1.3 Moderate Strength Lightweight Concrete 30

2.5.2 Classification of the Lightweight Aggregates 30

2.5.2.1 Natural Aggregates 30

2.5.2.2 Artificial Aggregate from Industrial By-Products 31

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2.5.2.3 Industrial Produced Artificial Aggregate 31

2.5.3 Differences between Lightweight and other aggregates 32

2.5.3.1 Size 32

2.5.3.2 Shape 32

2.5.3.3 Specific Gravity 32

2.5.3.4 Absorption 33

2.5.3.5 Strength 33

2.5.4 Requirements for aggregates for structural concrete 33

2.5.5 Fresh Lightweight Concrete 34

2.5.6 The hardened state of the Light weight Concrete 35

2.5.6.1 Compressive Strength 35

2.5.6.2 Modulus of Elasticity 36

2.5.7 Durability of Lightweight Concrete 36

2.5.7.1 Permeability 36

2.5.7.2 Drying Shrinkage 37

2.5.7.3 Creep 37

2.5.7.4 Carbonation 38

2.5.8 Application of Bottom Ash in Lightweight concrete block 38

CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 40 3.1 Raw Materials 40

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3.1.1 Cement 40 3.1.2 Fine Aggregate 40 3.1.3 Coarse Aggregate 40

3.1.4 Water 40

3.1.5 Bottom Ash 41 3.2 Testing of the materials 41

3.2.1 Physical Properties Analysis of the natural sand and bottom ash

3.2.1.1 Sieve Analysis 41 3.2.1.2 Fineness Modulus 41

3.2.1.3 Bulk Density 42

3.2.1.4 Specific Gravity (Particle Size Distribution) 42 3.2.1.5 Water Absorption 42

3.2.1.6 The extraction of carbon in Bottom Ash Samples – 42

Washing Method

3.3. Chemical Properties Analysis of the bottom ash 43

3.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEMS) and Energy Dispersive

X-Ray Analysis (EDX) 43

3.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 43

3.3.3 Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP Analysis) 44

3.3.4 Proximate Analysis 44

3.3.5 Ultimate Analysis 45

3.4 Concrete Mix Design 45

3.5 Testing of Fresh Concrete 49

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3.5.1 Slump Test 49

3.6 Testing on hardened concrete 50

3.6.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 50

3.6.2 Compressive Strength Test 51 3.6.3 Curing in the Accelerated Tank 52 3.6.4 Scanning Electron Microstructure (SEMS) Energy Dispersive

X-Ray Analysis (EDX) 54

3.7 Testing on durability of the concrete 54

3.7.1 Leaching of Metals test 54

CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Physical Properties of the bottom ash 55

4.1.1 Particle Size Distribution of Bottom Ash 55

4.1.2 Bulk Density and Specific Gravity 59

4.2 Chemical Properties of Bottom Ash 60

4.2.1 The results of washing of bottom ash samples 60

4.2.2 The results of Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis 61

4.2.3 The results of Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX) 65

4.2.3.1 Chemical Elements of Bottom Ash 65

4.2.4 The composition of Oxide Compounds in Bottom Ash 67

4.2.5 The results of X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) 70

4.2.6 The results of Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP) Analysis 71

4.2.7 The results of Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis 73

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4.3 Properties of Fresh Concrete 75

4.3.1 Slump Tests and workability 75

4.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete 79

4.4.1 The results of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity – Direct Method 79

4.4.2 The results of Compressive Strength of concrete 86

4.4.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete – cement replaced

with bottom ash 86

4.4.2.2 Compressive strength of concrete using washed

bottom ash 87

4.4.2.3 Compressive strength of concrete from Accelerated

Curing Tank 88

4.4.2.4 Compressive strength of concrete – sand replaced

bottom ash 96

4.5 Density of concrete 103

4.6 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEMS) of hardened concrete 107

4.6.1 Microscopic Analysis 107

4.7 The results of EDX for hardened concrete 7 days and 28 days 118

compressive strength

4.8 Durability of lightweight concrete containing bottom ash – 121

Rust and stains

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CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 124

REFERENCES 129

APPENDICES

Appendix I The results of physical properties of bottom ash

Appendix II The results of chemical analysis of bottom ash

Appendix III The results of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Appendix IV Photographs of experimental works Appendix V The results of SEMS, EDX and XRD analysis for bottom ash

samples and hardened concrete

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLES PAGE

2.1 Chemical Composition of Bottom Ash 13

2-2 Particle Size Distribution Bottom Ash 14 2.3 Typical Physical Properties of Bottom Ash 14 2.4 Mix Proportions of the bottom ash & fly ash concrete 24 2.5 The compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength 25

of concrete at curing ages of 7, 28 and 60 days. 3.1 Mixture Proportions for Cement Replacement 48 3.2 Mixture Proportions for Sand Replacement 48 4.1 Sieve analysis results of the bottom ash and natural sand 57 4.2 Comparison of the Fineness Modulus between Bottom Ash 57

and Natural Sand

4.3 Physical Properties of Bottom Ash and Natural Sand 59 4.4 Distribution of chemical elements for Original Bottom Ash 66 4.5 Distribution of chemical elements for Light Grey Washed

Bottom Ash 66

4.6 Distribution of chemical elements for black particles of

washed Bottom Ash 67

4.7 Oxide Compositions of original Bottom Ash 69 4.8 Oxide Compositions of light grey washed Bottom Ash 69 4.9 Oxide and Compound Compositions of black particles of

washed Bottom Ash 70

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4.10 Main Compounds of Bottom Ash using X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 71

4.11 Trace Elements in Bottom Ash using Inductive Coupled Plasma 72

4.12 The results of Proximate Analysis of Bottom Ash Sample 74

4.13 Results of Ultimate Analysis of Bottom Ash Sample 74

4.14 The results of Slump Test for Concrete - Cement Replacement 77

4.15 The results of Slump Test for Concrete - Sand Replacement 77

4.16 The results of Pulse Velocity for Cement Replacement 81

4.17 The results of Pulse Velocity for Sand Replacement 81

4.18 Compressive Strength of Concrete mixes – Cement Replacement 88

4.19 The comparison between Compressive Strength of normal

concrete and 20% replacement of cement with bottom ash 89 4.20 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 3 days for Cement 93

Replacement

4.21 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 7 days for Cement 93

Replacement 4.22 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 14 days for Cement 94

Replacement 4.23 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 28 days for Cement 94 Replacement

4.24 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 56 days for Cement 95 Replacement

4.25 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes at 28 days for Cement Replacement(Light Grey washed Bottom Ash) 95

4.26 Compressive Strength of Concrete – Sand Replacement 96

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4.27 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 3 days 100 for Sand Replacement

4.28 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 7 days for 100 Sand Replacement

4.29 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 14 days for 101

Sand Replacement 4.30 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 28 days for 101

Sand Replacement 4.31 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 56 days for Sand Replacement 102 4.32 Compressive Strength of concrete cubes at 28 days for 102

Sand Replacement (Washed Bottom Ash) 4.33 The Density of Concrete cubes with different percentage 104

of bottom ash for Cement and Sand Replacements 4.34 Compressive strength/Density Ratio for Cement Replacement 105

4.35 Compressive strength/Density Ratio for Sand Replacement 105

4.36 Distribution of chemical Elements of Control Mix and Concrete 119 Samples (containing different percentage of bottom ash) tested at 7 Days

4.37 Distribution of chemical Elements of Control Mix and Concrete 119

Samples (containing different percentage of bottom ash) tested at 28 Days

4.38 Distribution of Oxide Compounds of Control Mix and Concrete 120 Samples (containing different percentage of bottom ash) tested at 7 Days

4.39 Distribution of Oxide Compounds of Control Mix and Concrete 120

Samples (containing different percentage of bottom ash) tested at 28 Days

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE

2.1 Classification by originating stage or products of coal ash 9

2.2 Relative rates of strength increase in plain concrete and

fly ash concrete proportioned by simple replacement of cement. 16 2.3 Influence of coarse particulate content of fly ash on the water

required for equal workability in concrete. 18 2.4 Compressive strength versus age – as fine aggregate

replacement 23 2.5 The compressive strength versus percentage of bottom ash

content 25 & 26 3.1 Forms of slump 49

3.2 The equipments of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 50

3.3 The compression machine at Civil Engineering Laboratory UPM 52 3.4 The accelerated curing tank – Curing at 82o Celsius 53

4.1 Grading Curves for the Particle Size Distribution of Bottom Ash 59 and Natural Sand

4.2 Bottom ash samples before and after washing process 60

4.3 Bottom ash samples before and after washing – top view 60

4.4 Photomicrograph of the original bottom ash (Unwashed) 62

4.5 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of original bottom ash 62

4.6 Photomicrograph of light grey particles of washed bottom ash 63

4.7 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of washed bottom ash 63

4.8 Photomicrograph of black particles of washed bottom ash 64

4.9 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of black particles- washed 64

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Bottom Ash

4.10 The comparison of the slump test results for cement and sand

replacements 78 4.11 The results of the Pulse Velocities of concrete mix at different

curing age (Cement Replacement) 82

4.12 The results of the Pulse Velocities of concrete for different percentage of bottom ash (Cement Replacement) 83

4.13 The results of the Pulse Velocities versus Curing Age for Sand Replacement 84 4.14 The results of Pulse Velocities for different concrete mixes

- Sand Replacement 85 4.15 The results of the average compressive strength at various

curing ages for the different percentage of bottom ash – Cement Replacement 90

4.16 The results of the average compressive strength for different

percentage of bottom ash – Cement Replacement 91 4.17 The relationships between compressive strength and

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocities for Cement Replacement 92 4.18 The results of the average compressive strength at various

curing ages for the different percentage of bottom ash – Sand Replacement. 97

4.19 The results of the average compressive strength for different

percentage of bottom ash – Sand Replacement 98 4.20 The relationships between compressive strength and Ultrasonic

Pulse Velocities for Sand Replacement 99 4.21 Comparison between compressive strength/density ratio and

the percentage of bottom ash for Cement and Sand Replacement. 106 4.22 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 7 days – Control Mix 108 4.23 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of Control Mix 108

4.24 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 7 days – 10% bottom ash 109

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4.25 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 10% bottom ash 109

4.26 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 7 days – 20% bottom ash 110

4.27 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 20% bottom ash 110

4.28 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 7 days – 30% bottom ash 111

4.29 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 30% bottom ash 111

4.30 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 7 days – 40% bottom ash 112

4.31 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 40% bottom ash 112

4.32 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 28 days – Control Mix 113 4.33 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – Control Mix 113 4.34 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 28 days – 10% bottom ash 114 4.35 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 10% bottom ash 114 4.36 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 28 days – 20% bottom ash 115 4.37 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 20% bottom ash 115 4.38 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 28 days – 30% bottom ash 116 4.39 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 30% bottom ash 116 4.40 Photomicrograph of concrete cured at 28 days – 40% bottom ash 117

4.41 Enlargement of Photomicrograph of concrete – 40% bottom ash 117

4.42 Concrete specimens placed inside the building – Front View 122

4.43 Concrete specimens placed inside the building – Back View 122

4.44 Concrete specimens placed outside the building–Front View 123

4.45 Concrete specimens placed outside the building– Back View 123

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background

The production of coal ash from the existing 2 x 300MW Units of TNB Coal-fired

Thermal Power Station at Kapar, Klang is about 400 tonnes a day (200,000

tonnes annually). This figure is not included the coal ash production from the

new installation of 2 x 500 MW Steam Turbines at the same place. Furthermore,

TNB Janamanjung Sdn. Bhd., a new coal power station in Malaysia, has been in

operation since 2002 will add thousand tonnes of bottom ash annually. From

200,000 tonnes of coal ash, 80% is fly ash (collecting in the Electrostatic

Precipitator) while 20% is bottom ash collecting at the boiler furnace bottom

hopper [3]. Most of the Pulverized Fly Ash products from TNB Coal-Fired

Thermal Power Stations at Kapar and TNB Janamanjung at Manjung have been

utilized by local cement companies for many years. Unfortunately, the bottom

ash is still left unattended in the ash pond without proper utilization.

The stakeholders of the electricity companies have to consider the requirement

of additional Ash Pond to cater the increasing production of bottom ash

annually. Several efforts have to be made to utilize the bottom ash since this

material is being dumped in the existing ash pond beside the power station that

requires large areas.

According to Neville, “Portland cement was considered as the best, if not

the sole, cementitious material in concrete. When other materials,

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primarily Pulverized Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag

were introduced, they were viewed as replacements or substitutes for

cement and also aggregate and their influence and performance were

judged against the standard of concrete containing only Portland

cement.”

Based on Neville statement above, bottom ash has a potential to be utilized for

replacing cement or aggregate particularly in a variety of manufacturing and

construction applications. There are many literatures available regarding

various applications of bottom ash not only in geotechnical field such as

structural landfill, roller compacted concrete and road works but also in

structural concrete works and lightweight concrete block and paving blocks.

The topic for this project is the Properties of Special Concrete Using Bottom

Ash. The bottom ash used for this project will be obtained from TNB

Janamanjung Coal Power Plant Sdn. Bhd. in Manjung, Perak.

1.1 Project Main Objectives

The objectives of this project are:-

a).To study chemical and physical properties of Bottom Ash

b).To study its use in Lightweight Concrete

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1.2 The Scope of Works

This study can be divided into two stages as the followings:-

1. To conduct various analysis and testing in order to determine chemical and

physical properties of bottom ash sample.

2. To determine the physical properties of the fresh and hardened concrete

containing bottom ash and compared with control mix concrete.

The first stage is a feasibility study shall include chemical analysis using

modern facilities at TNB Research Sdn. Bhd. and subsequently physical

analysis of bottom ash sample at Ikram Research Centre Sdn. Bhd., and

University Putra Malaysia. There are six types of chemical analysis will be

conducted such as Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis (SEMS) and

Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX),

X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD), Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP), Proximate

Analysis and Ultimate Analysis to determine various chemical composition of

the original and washed bottom ash samples. The physical properties of the

bottom ash are obtained based on various testing such as Sieve Analysis,

Fineness Modulus, Specific Gravity, Bulk Density and Water Absorption

according to British Standard.

In the second stage, bottom ash will be used as a replacement for cement and

sand in concrete ranged from 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% with a fixed

water-cement ratio of 0.50. The control mix without bottom ash will be

proportioned as per normal OPC concrete.

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The trial mixes will be conducted for each type of mix in order to obtain the

respective workability or slump and compressive strength of the design mix

prior to the actual mixing of concrete. The slump tests will be carried out for

each fresh concrete to determine and monitor the workability of the concrete.

The accelerated curing tank will be used to study the behavior of bottom ash in

the hydration process.

The hardened concrete samples will be subjected to Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Test and Compressive Strength Test in complying with British Standard

accordingly. Furthermore, the photomicrographs and chemical composition of

the hardened concrete at various curing age for each mix will be obtained

using Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis (SEMS) and Energy Dispersive

X-Ray (EDX), at TNB Research Sdn. Bhd and SIRIM Bhd.

There are about 180 samples of concrete cubes to be cast, which consist of

15 samples of cubes, 6 cylinders for each concrete mix. The tests on

hardened concrete cubes will be carried out at the age of 3, 7, 14, 28 and 56

days respectively.

The potential of converting this coal ash into valuable concrete products will be

evaluated through the chemical and physical analysis of bottom ash and its

utilization in the special concrete. Therefore, this research will add some

knowledge and information regarding the utilization of bottom ash which will

benefit not only the coal ash producer but also the concrete industry in

Malaysia.

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REFERENCES

1. A.M. Neville, Concrete with Particular Properties, Properties of

Concrete, Prentice Hall, 2002, pg. 649. 2. Hamdan Hassan, Coal Blending Technique for Large Scale Coal Fired

Power Station (Stage II), TNB Research Sdn Bhd., August 2001. 3. Hamdan Hassan,Coal Utilization for Commercial Development (Stage I)

Tenaga Nasional Research and Development Sdn. Bhd. pg. 8-22. 4. Syamsul Kamal, Lightweight concrete using bottom ash as a

replacement to cement, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 2002, pg 31- 42.

5. A.M. Neville, Concrete with Particular Properties & Factors governing the selection of mix proportions, Properties of Concrete, Prentice Hall, 2002, pg.688-701 & pg.739-770.

6. P.J.M Bartos, Workability of Special Fresh Concretes, Special

Concretes Workability and Mixing, Proceedings of the International RILEM Workshop, No 24, E & FN Spon, 1988, pg. 1-6.

7. P.S Toth, H.T Chan and C.B Cragg, Coal Ash as structural fill, with

special reference to Ontario experience, Civil Research Department, Ontario Hydro Research Division, 800 Kipling Avenue,Toronto, Ont, Canada M8Z 5S4, June 16, 1988 pg. 694-704.

8. Amir Eghhlimi, Liming Lu, Veena Sahajwalla, David

Harris,Computational Modeling of Char Combustion based on the

structure of char particles, Second International Conference on CFD in the Minerals and Process Industries CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia, 6-8 December 1999, page 141- 144.

9. Justin Edwards, Bottom Ash as an Aggregate in Structural Concrete,

University of Houston, pg.4-12 10. Portland Cement Association, Special Concretes, Mortars, and

Products, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1980. pg. 3-15 11. Chai Jaturaphitakkul, Raungut Cheerarot, Utilization of Bottom Ash as a

Pozzolanic Material, ACI Material Journal, 2003. 12. Peter C. Hewlett, Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete,

Butterworth Heineman, 4th Edition, pg. 980.

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13. Harold N. Atkins, Highway Materials, Soils and Concrete, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, pg.305.

14. WE Energy, Commercial Applications of We Energies Bottom Ash, Coal

Combustion Products Utilization Handbook. Pg. 123-144. 15. V.M Maholtra & E.E Berry, Fly Ash in Concrete, Supplementary

Cementing Materials for Concrete, Canada Centre for mineral and Energy Technology, CANMET, 1987, pg 37-99.

16. Rafat Siddique, Effect of fine aggregate replacement with Class F fly

ash on the mechanical properties of concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 16 Sept. 2002, pg.540-547.

17. Sanjeev Kumar, Field utilization of Illinois PCC fly ash and bottom ash

in deep foundations, Illinois Clean Coal Institute, USA, 18. Syamsul Kamal, Lightweight concrete using bottom ash as a

replacement to the cement, Department of Civil Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, pg 81 & App. A (2002)

19. Nader Ghafoori and Jeffrey Bucholc, Properties of High-Calcium Dry

Bottom Ash Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, V.94, No.2, March-April 1997, pg. 91, 98.

20. Nader Ghafoori and Yuzheng Cai, Laboratory-Made Roller Compacted

Concretes Containing Dry Bottom Ash: Part 1 – Mechanical Properties, ACI Materials Journal, No.2, March-April 1998.

21. http://www.tfhrc.gov/hnr20/recycle/waste/chabs1.htm 22. M. Venuat, Lightweight aggregates – an updating survey of material,

production technology, innovations and inventions, France. Pg.1-5 23. Furnace Bottom Ash in Lightweight Aggregate (LWA) Concrete Blocks,

United Kingdom Quality Ash Association. Pg. 1-2. 24. Hilmi Mahmud, Lim soon Teik, Foong Chin Wei, Suitability of Malaysian

Fly Ash as a cement replacement material in concrete, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, pg. 36 – 42.

25. A.M. Neville, Concrete with Particular Properties, Properties of

Concrete, Prentice Hall, 2002, pg. 581-599.

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26. Justin Edwards, Bottom Ash as an Aggregate in Structural Concrete, University of Houston, pg. 2-10.

27. Jamli, Penggunaan Bottom Ash Dalam Konkrit Ringan, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 2001, pg.38-43. 28. British Standard Institution - BS 882: 1983. (Sieve Analysis) 29. British Standard Institution - BS 1377: Part 2: 1990 (CL.8). (Specific

Gravity)

30. British Standard Institution - BS 812: Part 2:1975. (Bulk Density) 31. British Standard Institution - BS 1377: Part 2: 1990(CL.3). (Moisture

Content)

32. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 102: 1983 (Slump Test)

33. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 103: 1993 (Compacting Factor Test)

34. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 108: 1983 (Compressive

Strength Test)

35. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 116: 1983 (Compressive

Strength Test – loading) 36. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 117: 1983. (Tensile Splitting

Test)

37. British Standard Institution - BS 1881: Part 118: 1983 (Flexural Strength Test)

38. British Standard Institution – BS 1881: Part 112:1983 (Methods of accelerated curing of test cubes)

39. British Standard Institution – BS4408: Part 5:1977(Non-destructive

Methods of test for Concrete-Measurement of the Ultrasonic Pulses

Velocity in Concrete)