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Unit 1: The Exam! 25/05/2011• The exam is 1 hour 20 minutes long and
you will have to answer three types of
question.
• This unit is 40% of your total AS psychology
and the paper is marked out of 60.
• There are three compulsory sections.
Cognitive
Experiments
Social
SurveysThere are three parts to the Unit 1 exam:
1.Multiple choice questions – read them carefully and make sure you read how many responses you have to give.
[15 minutes] 2.Short answer / stimulus response. Answer fully. [40 minutes] 3.Extended writing question. [25 minutes]
Study or Theory?STUDY (APRC / GRAVE)
A study is any exercise where data
is collected and analysed.
This involves a researcher
conducting an experiment of
any type. It will have an aim,
procedure, results and conclusion.
Studies
Craik and Tulvin, Godden &
Baddely, Milgram, Hofling, Meeus,
Reicher & Haslam.
THEORY
A theory is an explanation for a
psychological phenomenon.
Following a theory researchers will
conduct studies in an attempt to
support the theory and provide
evidence for it.
Theories
MSM, LoP, Trace Decay, Cue-
Dependency, Reconstructive
Hypothesis, Agency Theory, Social
Identity Theory.
APRC: Describing a STUDY
Aim – what did the psychologist want to do?
Procedure – what did they do? Who did
they do it to? Experimental design?
Sampling method? Apparatus?
Results – what did they find (raw data)?
Conclusions – so what? What does it mean?
GRAVE: Evaluating a STUDY• Generalisability - can the findings be applied to the general
population? Think about the sample, methods used & confounding
variables.
• Reliability - can the procedure be replicated and are the findings
consistent?
• Applications - do the findings have practical value? Think: So
what?
• Validity - did the study test what it set out to? Can the findings
be applied to everyday life (ecological validity)? Population
validity (sampling).
• Ethics - with reference to the BPS ethical guidelines, how ethical
was the study?
Cognitive PsychologyEdexcel Psychology: Unit 1
ASSUMPTION1: Information Processing
• Definition: The processing by which information is received by the senses, analysed and responded to. This flow of information is described using the terms input, process and output.
• Example:
Information Processing
Decision making
Memory
ASSUMPTION 2: Computer Analogy
The human mind works in a similar
way to a computer in terms of
information processing.
– INPUTS information from the senses;
– PROCESSES information in the form
of thinking, memory and language;
– OUTPUTS information in the form of
decision making, speech and action.
ASSUMPTON 3: Active
Humans actively organise and
manipulate information from the
environment. Cognitive or mental
processes mediate between stimulus
and response.
Active processing refers to sets of
procedures in which a learner acts on
instructional inputs to generate, re-
organise, self-explain, or otherwise go
beyond the encoding of material.
Evaluation of Cognitive Approach
Strengths• Adopts scientific
procedures to develop and test theories.
• Uses experimental techniques.
• Models simplify cognitive processes.
• Allows us to understand mental process that are not directly observable.
Weaknesses• Tends to ignore biology
and genetic influence also ignores individual differences.
• Provides a mechanistic view of human behaviour.
• Can such a scientific approach really tell us about how we think, feel and behave? (Humanistic psychology).
Cognitive Psychology• Define memory,
forgetting, storage & retrieval.
• Describe & Evaluate MSM Theory
• Describe & Evaluate LoP theory
• Describe & Evaluate Cue Dependent Theory
• Describe & Evaluate Trace Decay Theory
Studies in Detail • Godden & Baddeley
(1975)• Craik & Tulvin (1975)
Key Issue• Eye witness testimony• Cognitive Interview
Memory & Forgetting… The same thing?
Memory:
•The retention and
recall of previous
experience.
•Encoding -> Storage
-> Retrieval
Forgetting:
•Not been able to
remember a fact or
event because the
memory trace is
unavailable or
inaccessible.
Failure at any of these 3 stages
can lead to forgetting.
Memory involves three main Processes:
ENCODINGSTORAGE RETRIEVAL
The process of changing sensory
input into a memory trace so
that it can be stored.
The process of maintaining
a record of the memory trace so that it can be retrieved in
the future.
The process of accessing and
recovering stored information so that it can be recalled.
All 3 processes depend upon one another;
they are interdepende
nt.
Multi-Store Model [Theory]
AO2 Evaluation of Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Multi-store Model of Memory
Lot’s of evidence supporting STM and LTM being separate stores.
Problems with concept of STM:- FK shows that semantic as well as accoustic encoding
is used.- First-in-first out displacement loss disproved. - Not a single system- working memory with separate
subsystems for visual & spatial and verbal information.X HM learning new skills shows LTM not a single system- separate
episodic, semantic and procedural stores. X Rehearsal does not completely explain transfer to LTM.X Primacy-recency effect equally well explained by LOP
framework.X Supporting studies use artificial tasks therefore evidence low in
ecological validity.X ‘Capacity’ not well defined; not clear whether it refers to storage
or processing. X An additional criticism of the MSM is that it does not take into
account the strategies (other than maintenance rehearsal) used to remember information.
Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of Processing (1972)
[Theory]• Proposed as an alternative to the PROCESSES
involved in storing a memory suggested by the MSM.
• They suggested that the likelihood of remembering a
piece of information depends on how we process it.
• In this way, memory is a by-product of the
information processing that occurs when attending to
information.
Levels of Processing1. Structural
Shallow What does the word look like?Is the word in capital letters?
2. Phonetic What does the word sound like?Does the word rhyme with …?
3. Semantic Deep
What does the word mean?Does the word fit in this sentence?
Evaluation of LoP (AO2) Evidence to support- Craik & Tulving (65% sem, 37% p, 17% st). This
is incidental rather than intentional learning so ecologically valid.
Brain scanning studies show more activity when semantic processing
occurring.
Improvement on MSM
- Elaborative rather than maintenance rehearsal;
- Shows complexity of encoding process.
Useful everyday applications- education.
X Confounding variables to depth; time, effort, distinctiveness.
X Semantic does not always = better
X Circular argument
X Focuses on processes not stores
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]Aim
The aim was to test whether words that were processed for their
meaning would be better remembered than words that were
processed for information about their appearance or sound.
Procedure
Laboratory experiment- the IV (depth of processing) was manipulated
and there was a high level or experimental control in an artificial
situation.
Repeated Measures- all participants participated in all three
conditions: Structural processing, phonetic processing & semantic
processing.
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]Participants did not initially know that it was a memory test and
thought they just had to answer questions on a list of words. In
reality, different types of questions were making participants use
different levels of processing structural, phonetic and semantic.
Words were presented to participants; each word was followed
by a question which required a yes or no answer. Finally,
participants were presented with the incidental memory test-
incidental as they didn’t originally know they were going to do it.
Recall was measured through a recognition task where
participants had to choose as many of the original words as they
could amongst several others.
Is the word in capital letters? Chair
Does this word rhyme with GREEN? BEAN
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The soldier picked up his _____.’ rifle
Is this word in lower-case letters? FLOWER
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The woman _________ on the train.’ slept
Does the word rhyme with MEND? pool
Is the word in capital letters? MEANING
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘Yesterday we saw a _______.’ fence
Does the word rhyme with HOUSE? MOUSE
Does the word fit into this sentence? ‘There are _______ growing in my garden.’ DOORS
Is the word in lower-case letters? spend
Does the word rhyme with TABLE? GENERAL
Is this word in capital letters? article
Does this word fit this sentence? ‘The _____ should not be more than 1000 words.’ castle
Does this word rhyme with STOOL? POND
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]Results
65% semantic 36% phonetic and 17% of structurally
processed words were recalled.
Conclusion
This study shows that depth of processing affects how
well words are remembered. Semantic processing, that
is thinking about the meaning of the words, leads to
their being remembered best.
Craik and Tulvin (1975) A02G: Problems as participants were all students (good memories?) and
the task was artificial and not representative of things we remember.
R: As it is a lab experiment we can replicate the experiment easily to
check the reliability of the study.
A: Shows that students (or anyone wanting to remember something)
must attach meaning to it. When things are processed semantically
we remember them better. Could develop revision techniques.
V: Artificial task so might not be measuring how we actually
remember words. However, Pps. didn’t know it was a test of memory
that removes some confounding variables. Poor population validity –
all students.
E: Participants could have been embarrassed if they didn’t do well.
Trace Decay TheoryTrace-decay theory can be used to explain forgetting from either STM or LTM. It proposes that forgetting occurs due to information not being available so there is nothing to retrieve thus recall cannot occur.
This theory is based on the idea that information creates a neurological (physical) trace in the brain when it is encoded which disappears over time. Without the rehearsal of information, engrams decay over time thus the memory disappears and forgetting occurs.
Forgetting therefore occurs from STM due to the stores limited duration if maintenance rehearsal does not take place. Equally, despite having a potential life-time duration, it has been suggested that if knowledge and skills in LTM are not practiced, then the engram will decay causing a structural change in LTM thus forgetting.
AO2 STRENGHTS Trace Decay Theory A study conducted by Peterson and Peterson (1959)
supports the idea of trace decay in STM. They found that the number of trigrams recalled by participants decreased as the length of distraction task increased. This finding suggests that forgetting in STM is due to trace decay since the distraction task prevented rehearsal- the function of which is to replenish the trace before it decays completely.
This theory is also supported by physiological evidence showing that memories do create a physical trace in the brain.
The theory also has mundane realism as it is consistent with the forgetting demonstrated by people with Alzheimer’s disease who seem to lose memories (a physical process) rather than be unable to retrieve them. This suggests that trace decay may be a valid theory of forgetting.
AO2 LIMITATIONS Trace Decay Theory
X Furthermore, Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924) tested whether time between encoding and recall led to forgetting. They found that participants who remained awake between learning and recall forgot more than those who slept. This suggests that interference rather than trace-decay causes forgetting as the lower recall in the awake group must have resulted from events between learning and recall interfering with the engram.
X Another limitation of trace-decay theory is that it cannot explain why some long-term memory engram’s, such as flashbulb memories, seem to be resistant to decay.
X Trace decay also has difficulty explaining why material which cannot be remembered at one time can be remembered at a future time, even though no additional presentations have been made. If the trace has decayed it should never be available.
Cue Dependent Theory
Tulvin (1975)Tulvin claims two events are necessary for recall:
a) A memory trace
b) Retrieval cue
Context (environmental) Cues
These are cues in the environment which aid our ability to retrieve a
memory at a later date. Forgetting occurs as the situation or context
is different from that at encoding.
State Cues
This is the emotional state you are in at time of encoding. Forgetting
occurs as the person’s state or mood is different from that at
encoding.
Cue Dependent Theory (AO2)
Tulvin (1975) Strengths
•The theory accounts for forgetting in different tasks. There are many
supporting studies.
•The idea is testable because the retrieval environment can be
replicated.
•The Cognitive Interview is based on the theory that by providing cues
to a person it will aid their ability to recall information.
Weaknesses
•The tasks used in the supporting studies are artificial so the results
may lack ecological validity and validity.
•It may only account for some forms of forgetting.
•Only applies to forgetting from the LTM.
Godden & Baddley (1975) [Study]
Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of environmental
encoding cues on the ability to recall.
Procedure: The 18 participants were randomly divided into four groups and
all participants took part in all 4 conditions (repeated measured design).
Participants were to learn list comprised of 36 unrelated words, 2-3 syllables
long then recall in either the same or different context. During the experiment
each participant undertook one condition per day: dry-dry; dry-wet; wet-wet;
wet-dry.
Conclusion: Godden and Baddeley concluded that their results do support
the claims of cue-dependency theory.
Godden & Baddley (1975) AO2
G: Only trained SCUBA divers were used therefore it may not apply
to all people. The environment and the tasks were artificial –
learning does not usually take place like that.
R: The experiment can be replicated to test the reliability of the
results. We could replicate in more ecologically valid situations
(classroom vs. exam hall).
A: We can apply the findings to students learning in one
environment and recalling in another. Better to sit exams in a
classroom not hall.
V: Word list was artificial – not real learning. Poor population validity.
E: No ethical issues were broken. Not an issue.
Key Issue: EWT & MemoryReconstructive Hypothesis Loftus & Palmer
Our perception of the event.
How does it help us explain the issues with eyewitness testimony?
Multi-Store ModelAtkinson & Shiffrin
Information is only passed into the STM from the SM is we attend to it. If we are not attending to an event in the environment information about it will decay from the SM and will not be processed further (encoded) – no memory.
Levels of ProcessingCraik and Lockheart
We remember things well when they have been deeply processed, that is anaylsyed for meaning rather than for structural or phonetic information. Most questions following an event usually refer to apperance (structural processing).
Cue-dependency Tulvin
Research has shown that both our internal state and our surroundings when we store a new memory serve as memory cues. If these cues are not present at recall we will be unable to recall the event accurately.
Reconstructive MemoryLoftus & Palmer
The active process of reconstruction takes place as we retrieve memories. We tend to include post-event information when reconstruct memories. Therefore, memories can be easily distorted by using leading questions.
The Cognitive InterviewFisher & Geiselman (1992)
The four main techniques that the CIT uses to aid retrieval are:
•Recreating the context: It is well established that memory is context
dependent and so asking a witness to think about how they were
feeling just before and during the event to be recalled, perhaps
evoking the sounds and smells relating to the event, should facilitate
retrieval.
•Focused concentration: Persuading the witness to concentrate very
hard on the task.
•Multiple retrieval attempts: Encouraging a witness who feels they
have recalled everything about an event to have another attempt
can unlock previously un-recovered detail.
•Varied retrieval: Witnesses will often recall events in chronological
order but if they are asked to recall details in a different order, or
from a different perspective, this may trigger additional information.
46% Increase !
How Science Works: EXPERIMENTS
Edexcel Psychology: Unit 1
Experiments
Three types of experiments:
• Laboratory experiments
– Highly controlled / artificial
• Field experiments
– Controlled variables in a natural environment
• Quasi (natural) experiments
– We have no control over the independent variable –
it’s ‘naturally’ occurring (eg Gender)
Experiments
Independent Variable
(IV)
Dependent Variable
(DV)
Confounding Variable: a variable that effects the DV
Extraneous Variable: a variable that could affect the DV but has been controlled for so it doesn’t.
Experiments
Extraneous Variables
Participant Variables
• Independent Measures = Individual Differences
Situational Variables
• Any feature of the experiment that could
influence a participants behaviour
Single Blind – Double Blind – Control Groups
Experiments
• Independent Measures
• Participants are only in
one condition.
Repeated Measures• The same
participants repeat the two conditions
Condition 1 Condition 2Condition 1 Condition 2
Counter balancing – alter order of Pp’s
ExperimentsMatched Pairs – make two groups of
participants as similar as possible.
Condition 1 Condition 2
Male21IQ = 105
Male21IQ = 105
Female25IQ = 115
Female25IQ = 115
Strength Weakness
Independent Measures
No Order Effects Fewer Demand Characteristics
Individual Differences
Repeated Measures
No Individual Differences
Order Effects(counter balancing)
Matched Pairs
Controls for Individual
Differences
Can be difficult and costly.
Evaluation of Experimental Designs.
Experiments – Hypotheses
Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction.
Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction.
How are we measuring memory?
What’s better or worse? Higher / Lower? More /
Less?
What is the distraction? How
are we manipulating it?
Operationalising your hypothesis
How have you manipulated your IV?How have you measured your DV?
Experiments – Hypotheses
Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction.
Participants will remember significantly more words from a list of 20 presented for 60 seconds when they are in a room with no distractions than participants who are in a room where rock music is playing in the background.
Experiments – Hypotheses
Participants who [do something] will be significantly [faster/better/quicker etc] at [something] than participants who [do something else].
There will be no significant difference between participants who [do something] and those who [do something else]. Any difference will be down to chance.
Alt
ern
at
eN
ull
Experiments – Hypotheses
Participants who [do something] will be significantly [faster/better/quicker etc] at [something] than participants who [do something else].
There will be a significant difference between participants who [do something] and those who [do something else].
1Tailed
2Tailed
Key Terms - Experiments• Laboratory Experiment
• Field Experiment• Quasi Experiment• Independent Variable• Dependent Variable• Confounding Variable• Extraneous Variable• Replication• Cause and Effect• Ecological Validity• Alternate Hypothesis
• Demand Characteristics• Ethics• Independent Measures• Repeated Measures• Matched-Pairs• Individual Differences• Order Effects• Counter Balancing• Operationalising
Hypothesis• Null Hypothesis
Data Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
• Summary of data to illustrate patterns and
relationships – BUT can’t infer conclusions
Inferential Statistics
• Statistical tests that allow us to make
conclusions in relation to our hypothesis.
eg. Mann-Whitney or Spearman’s Rho.
Data AnalysisNominal - measure of central tendency: modeData in categories (finished, fell, started)
Ordinal - measure of central tendency: median Data which are ranked or in order (1st 2nd 3rd)
Interval - measure of central tendency: meanPrecise and measured using units of equal
intervals (1m54s, 1m59s, 2m03s)
Measure of dispersion = range (Highest – Lowest)
Measure of central tendency = average
Strength Weakness
Mean Makes use of all the values in a
data set.
Not good for ordinal or nominal
data. Can be distorted
by extreme values.
Median
Unaffected by extreme values.
Not good for nominal data.
Ignores extreme outliers.
Mode Can be used with any data type.
Isn’t useful for small data sets.
Ethics
• Consent
• Withdrawal
• Debriefing
• Deception
• Confidentiality
• Observation
• Protection
• Advice
• Colleagues
• Competency
Social PsychologyEdexcel Psychology: Unit 1
Social Psychology• Define obedience,
prejudice & discrimination
• Describe & Evaluate Agency Theory
• Describe & Evaluate Milgram (1963)
• Describe & Evaluate a variation of Milgram’s (Bridgeport)
• Describe & Evaluate a study of obedience from another country (Meeus)
• Describe & Evaluate Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory.
Studies in Detail• Hofling (1966) • Reicher & Haslam
(2006)
Terms You Need• Destructive obedience:
Following orders that lead
to the harming of another
person or people.
• Compliance occurs when
an individual goes along
with what someone tells
them to do whilst not
necessarily agreeing with
it.
• Internalising is obeying
with agreement.
• Conformity: doing what
everyone else is doing.
• Obedience: doing
something because you’re
told to.
• Moral Strain: when you
have a conflict with an
authority figures instructions
and your morals.
Agency Theory (1974)
Agentic State
This may involve an element
of moral strain as the
participants own moral code
conflicts with the behaviour
that they find themselves
enacting.
Autonomous State
The individual feels
responsible for the
consequences of his or her
behaviour and that his
behaviour is under his or her
own free will.
Milgram coined the term ‘agentic state’ to explain the obedience seen in his famous experiments; the individual acted purely as agent, or on behalf of the authority figure, ‘the experimenter’, and absolved himself of his moral responsibility to protect the learner.
Agency Theory AO2Strengths
One strength of this theory is that
is supported by a fairly reliable
raft of research evidence
including the findings of Milgram’s
own obedience studies.
A further strength of this theory is
that it has been applied in the
real world and used to help
people to resist destructive
obedience in the face of
potentially malevolent authority
figures.
Weaknesses
The theory could be said to be
unfalsifiable meaning that it is
difficult for the findings of cross
cultural research to prove the theory
wrong.
The theory does not effectively
explain why some people find it
easier to resist obedience than
others. For example 35% of the
original sample of 40 men refused to
continue at 300 volts and agency
theory has little to say about the
shift back to the autonomous state.
Milgram (1963)
Aim: to test the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis
towards obedience.
Procedure: controlled observation. 40 male
participants. Self-selected. Confederate – learner.
Prods to continue.
Conclusion: participants will be obedient when a
perceived authority figure instructs you to – even if
you don’t agree with it (moral strain).
Results: 65% of the participants continued to 450
volts. All participants continued to 300 volts.
Milgram: Why so obedient?• Yale University (prestigious)
• Experiment had a worthy purpose
• Obliged because of volunteering
• Being paid increased obligation
• Novel situation, no norms were operating
• ‘painful but not dangerous’
• Learner responded up to 300v
To see which of these may be a predicting variable Milgram
conducted many different variations (replications) of his
study. The one we will look at is regarding the location.
Change of venue: run down office building
Obedient Participants: 47.5%
Bri
dg
ep
ort
Stu
dy
• Aim: Milgram conducted a variation on his baseline study
to see if obedience had been affected by the location the
study had been conducted in (Yale University).
• Procedure: Milgram manipulated the environmental
setting in which the experiment took place, moving the
experiment from Yale University to an inner city run down
office block. Milgram kept all other aspects of the procedure
constant with the baseline study so that he could make
comparisons.
• Results: 47.5% of participants delivered the full 450 volt
shock when the study was conducted in a run down office
block.
• Conclusion: Being in less prestigious location decreases
obedience in relation to the original study although the
setting seems to have the least effect out of all variables on
the level of obedience.
Milgram AO2 G: The findings are difficult to generalise to the general population
because Milgram used a fairly small and unrepresentative sample of 40
white American males aged 20-50
R: Milgram’s carefully controlled procedure was easy to replicate and
by and large replications have produced consistent results.
A: Milgram’s findings were of great value in understanding obedience.
V: Milgram’s study may lack validity: He may not have actually
measured obedience to authority if the participants were not convinced
by the research set-up and demand characteristics occurred.
E: The study broke many ethical guidelines, however, he did debrief the
participants after the experiment and the study was before the
guidelines were in place.
Meeus and Raaijmakers (1986)A: To test the reliability & validity of
Milgram’s research .
P: A laboratory experiment with
independent measures was used to test
39 Dutch male and female Pps aged 18-
55 to see how obedient they were when
asked to administer psychological harm
in the form of 15 increasingly insulting
remarks to a confederate/stranger who
is applying for a job at a university.
R: 22/24 Pps were fully obedient and
delivered all 15 insults (92%).
C: high levels of obedience are to be
expected even 20 years after the
original Milgram’s original study and that
obedience in Holland is in fact higher
than it was in the US in the 60s.
Evaluation (Ao2)
G: questionable as they used a self selected
sample.
R: supports other studies and has support
itself.
A: particularly useful as they demonstrate
that Milgram’s findings are not culture or
era bound
V: high since the majority of participants
said in follow up questionnaires that they
did believe they were causing psychological
distress.
E: highly questionable since the majority of
participants said they did not enjoy
delivering the insults and would have
preferred not to have done so
Hofling (1966)Aim: This study on obedience examined how nurses
complied with orders of medical doctors, even if they broke
rules of the hospital.
Procedure: In this study, a medical doctor who was on the staff
list, but not known personally to a nurse, called a nurse when she
was alone in her ward in the evening telling her to administer
‘Astroten‘ to a patient. The max dose should be 10mg but the Dr.
instructed her to adminiser 20mg. By giving the Astroten, a nurse
would violate several rules of the hospital.
Results: Twenty-one of 22 nurses – or 95% – complied with the
order of Doctor Smith and began with the administration of the
medication, until the observing doctor interrupted them.
Other nurses were given a detailed description of
the experimental situation and asekd whether they
would have given the medication.
•Ten of 12 respondents – or 95% – said that they they would not have given the medication, and seven said that they believed a majority would reject to give medication.
•Of 21 student nurses, all said that they would not have given the medication.
Conclusion: This suggests that in a real world situation people will be obedient even if this creates a moral strain. It also suggests that participant self-reports about their behaviour is not a valid measure.
Hofling Evaluation AO2G: As only a small number of participants were used we could
have problems. However, it was far less artificial than previous
obedience experiment (high EV) increasing our ability to
generalise.
R: Controlled method so could replicate to test reliability.
A: Useful as we need to be aware of this – policy guidelines.
V: High validity and EV as it was in a real situation and nurses
didn’t know they were part of an experiment.
E: Nurses didn’t consent, weren’t aware of RtW and may have
been upset after the experiment. All were fully debriefed
following.
A prejudice is a prejudgment (an attitude): i.e. an assumption made about someone or something before having adequate knowledge to be able to do so with guaranteed accuracy.
The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a preconceived judgment toward a people or a person because of a group which they belong to. They have three componentys.
•Affective - our feelings towards a group
•Behavioural - our actions for or against a group
•Cognitive - our beliefs and stereotypes about a group
A discrimination is an action (behaviour) which occurs as a result of a prejudice.
AL2: Activate
Social Identity TheoryTajfel & Turner (1979)
•The mere existence of difference groups causes
conflict and prejudice.
•People only act in terms of group membership if they
identify with the group.
•Individuals who belong to a group behave in relation to
the norms and values of the group.
•People see themselves as belonging to some groups
(their in-groups) and not belonging to others (their out-
groups).
AL2: Activate
The three processes involved in SIT are:
Categorisation – seeing oneself as part of a group (your in-group)
• Exaggeration of similarities and differences between the in-group
and out-group
Social Comparison – people start to see their in-group as superior
• Following social categorisation, social comparison occurs.
• Relative status is determined.
Membership / Identification - you take on the norms of the group
• Social group membership effects our self-concept and self-esteem.
Social Identity TheoryTajfel & Turner (1979)
AL2: Activate
Social Identity Theory AO2
Tajfel & Turner (1979) There are many other studies which support Tajfel & Turner’s SIT
and suggest that in-group favouritism is a cause of prejudice and
discrimination.
The theory has lots of practical applications. There are many
examples of in-group / out-group conflicts in society which can be
understood using SIT.
× There are other theories which suggest SIT is overly simplistic.
Realistic Conflict Theory states rather than just the formation of
groups leading to conflict, it is the competition towards a shared goal
that causes prejudice. Only when there is a shared goal will we see
prejudice.
× There are many other factors that could lead to prejudice and SIT
ignores these.
AL2: Activate
Zimbardo - SPE• Deterministic (we have no
control / choice over our
behaviour)
• Situational explanation – the
social roles in the prison caused
the behaviour changes.
Reicher &
Haslam• Group membership
• Identifying with group
• Social Identity Explaination – if
we identify as a group we will
internalise the norms and be
strong.
Reicher & Haslam (2006) The Aims• To provide data on the unfolding
interactions between groups of unequal power and privilege.
• To analyse the conditions that lead individuals to: – Identify with their group; – Accept or challenge intergroup inequalities.
• The examine the role of social, organisational and clinical (mood) factors in group behaviour.
• To develop practical and ethical guidelines for examining social psychological issues in large-scale studies.
For ethical reasons only people who were well-adjusted and pro-social, scoring at low levels on all social and clinical measures were included in the study.
From an initial pool of 332 applicants the researchers reduced the sample to 27 men.
Men were chosen so that the results could be compared with the SPE and because it was thought by the researchers to cause less ethical problems than using women.
The final sample of 15 was chosen to ensure diversity of age, social class, and ethnic background.
15 Males
3 m
atch
ed
particip
ants
2 p
rison
ers
1 G
uard
3 m
atch
ed
particip
ants
2 p
rison
ers
1 G
uard
3 m
atch
ed
particip
ants
2 p
rison
ers
1 G
uard
3 m
atch
ed
particip
ants
2 p
rison
ers
1 G
uard
3 m
atch
ed
particip
ants
2 p
rison
ers
1 G
uard
One prisoner was not involved at the beginning of filming and was introduced
later on in the experiment.
15 males, first divided into five matched groups of three on traits such as racism, authoritarianism and social dominance.
The InterventionsReicher and Haslam had three interventions (IVs) that they manipulated
throughout the experiment to investigate the effects of the group dynamics.
1.Legitimacy - refers to the extent to which relations and status differences
between groups are perceived to be justified or not.
This was going to be operationalised by telling the participants that they were
all equal after they initially thought that the guards were superior on tests prior
to the experiment. This wasn’t required.
2.Permeability - refers to the degree to which it is perceived to be possible to
move from one particular group into another.
This was operationalised by allowing one of the prisoners to be ‘promoted’ to
guard after day 3.
3.Cognitive alternatives - refers to group members' awareness of ways in
which social relations could be restructured in order to bring about social
change.
This was operationalised by introducing the ‘Union Representative’ as the 11th
prisoner following the promotion.
AL2: Activate
The Conclusions • Reicher and Haslam argue that unlike the prisoners,
the guards failed to identify with their role. This made
the guards reluctant to impose their authority and they
were eventually overcome by the prisoners.
• Participants then established an egalitarian social
system. When this proved unsustainable, moves to
impose a tyrannical regime met with weakening
resistance.
• They suggest that it is powerlessness and the failure of
groups that makes tyranny psychologically acceptable.
Reicher & Haslam AO2G: Only males who had never experienced prison. Self-selected
sample.
R: Supported SIT to an extent. Not a full replication of Zimbardo
so can not make direct comparisons.
A: Allows us to understand the power of groups and identification
with those groups.
V: All participants ‘internalised’ the prison. Only some of them
however actually took on the roles and believed they belonged to
those groups.
E: Some distress did come to the participants although there was
an ethics board on-site at all times throughout the experiment.
How Science Works: SURVEYS & SELF-REPORTS
Edexcel Psychology: Unit 1
Types of DataQuantitative DataNumber data, likert-type scales, scores and tallies. Easy to analyse – no meaningLess valid – individual interpretation needed
Qualitative DataThoughts and feelings, written word, elaborated
opinions. Describing meaning: difficult to analyse (content
analysis)More valid – no interpretation needed
Surveys
Questionnaires (written)• Open Questions = Qualitative Data
• Closed Questions = Quantitative Data
– Fixed Choice (yes / no)
– Rating Scales (Likert-type Scales)
Interviews (spoken)• Structured – a spoken questionnaire.
• Unstructured Interviews – scaffolding but freedom to
diverge.
Survey TypesHand Out (Q)
Face-to-face (I)Phone (I)
Email / Internet (Q)Postal (Q)
Issues to Consider (AO2)• Social Desirability: answering in a way you think
you should do as a result of people or assumptions
about those around you.
• Response Rates: who will respond? Why?
• Poor Questions: leading questions / ambiguous
questions.
• Reliability – how consistent are the findings?
• Validity – does the question measure what is claims to measure?
Split-Half Method
Improve Check
ReliabilityClosed
Questions(less ambiguous)
Split-Half Method or Replicate
ValidityOpen
Questions(no interpretation
needed)
Conduct an Observation
Reliability and Validity in Self-Reports / Survey Method