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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCEAn Introduction to the Living Environment

(Draft)

byBarton Bookman

and Gary Carlin

Developed for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools

Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 1

The Environmental Science Curriculum Guide is a project of:

Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools

Norman Wechsler, Superintendent

Jules Levine, Deputy Superintendent

Laura Rodriguez, Deputy Superintendent

This project is an outgrowth of the implementation of the new assessment in the Living Environment. The need to update our introductory course, Environmental Science, was the result of many discussions with the Science Assistant Principals and Science teachers in the Bronx. In addition, an analysis of both courses indicated that Environmental Science needed to be better aligned with the Living Environment. The recognition of this need and the support needed to make it a happen were a direct result of input made to Dr. Wechsler by Deputy Superintendents Jules Levine and Laura Rodriguez. A special thank you to Fran Scioli, Director of Instruction, for in her insight and guidance. The support and encouragement we received helped make this document a reality.


Table of Contents

Preface ………………………………………….…………………………4

Unit 1: Science Inquiry ………………………………….…………….…5

Unit 2: Factors in our Nonliving Environment ………………………...9

Unit 3: The Living Organism in its Environment …….………………12

Unit 4: Reproduction of Living Organisms …………………………...15

Unit 5: Changes Over Time ……………………………………………18

Unit 6: Mechanisms of Change ………………………………………. 22

Unit 7: Relations Between the Living and Nonliving Worlds ……….26

Unit 8: Maintaining Life in Different Climates ………………………29

Unit 9: Changing and Modifying the Environment ………………….33

Unit 10: Protecting and Restoring the Environment ……………….. 38

Appendix…………………………………………………………………42


INTRODUCTIONThe Environmental Science course pre-dates our current Regents in the Living Environment and has been in existence since 1995. Although many of it topics and ideas are found in the Living Environment, it needs updating and a closer alignment. Since Environmental Science is an introductory course for many of our students, the topics should provide a first look at concepts that will be covered in the Living Environment. In addition, there are numerous skills that need to be developed and reinforced in order to be successful in the Regents courses. Critical thinking, writing, reading, graphing, and inquiry are incorporated into this revised Environmental Science course.

In developing this revision, we recognized that the course could not be a copy of the Living Environment and that it should contain some physical science concepts students need in order to understand environmental concepts. The first few topics focus and these and link to Standard 1 in the Living Environment Core. Cells, homeostasis and evolution are some of the new topics introduced to this revised Environmental Science course. The textbook should not be the basis for this course, since traditional textbooks may not contain the material we are covering. However, many of these books along with their teacher guides have valuables ideas for motivations, demonstrations, readings, labs, and investigations. In addition, there are many fine books with ideas for motivations and inquiry. “Invitations to Science Inquiry” by Tik Liem is an example. All of these are tools and resources not bibles.

We have developed this course as a set of complete lessons. The aims, performance objectives, motivations, activities, and questions form the basis for a full year’s course. The intent is to have teachers complete the course as written, but nothing in the course is written in stone. Teachers are free to use their judgment and professional insight to add, subtract, or modify any lesson in order to meet their students’ needs and increase their chances for success.

We also encourage teachers to make use of periodicals and newspapers in their classroom. Environmental Science is a rapidly growing and changing field, so the information in the books may become outdated. More importantly, the use of these periodicals should be tied to training students in reading, writing, critical thinking, and research skills. All of these skills are required for success in the high school assessments.

We have attached a supplement on some skills and research ideas. We have not included a lab supplement, since many labs have already been developed and there are numerous examples in the books available as well as many on-line. We will be developing a supplement with additional skills and enrichments as soon as possible.

Barton Bookman and Gary CarlinWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 4

UNIT ONE: SCIENCE INQUIRYLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 1AIM PERFORMANCE

OBJECTIVESMOTIVATIONS ACTIVITIES AND

ENRICHMENTSSUGGESTED QUESTIONS

How do we use our senses to make observations?

Define observation Describe the data collected

by each sense Compare an observation to

a procedure or conclusion Discuss limitations of our

senses

Place students in pairs. One studentis blindfolded and given two objects to identify. Student identifies them and explains how the answer was obtained.

1. Have students list the five senses and write what each sense perceives.

2. Hold up some simple objects (pencil, book, scissors, etc.) and have students describe them – size, color, shape, etc.

3. Use some optical illusions to illustrate how are senses may be fooled.

4. Use a flex cam or bioscope to project a human hair. Have students compare what they see with the unaided eye.

5. Develop a list of tools that we use to extend our senses.

What words and descriptions do we have for observations made from our senses?What senses do we depend on the most? Why?How can our senses be fooled?How can we compare our senses to the observations they provide us with? (Make a table for senses vs. types of observations)

How do instruments improve our observations?

Describe the use of the microscope

Compare the simple microscope to the compound microscope

Explain how scales, graduate cylinders, triple beam balance and rulers help our senses

Cut a small square of wax paper for each student. Place a drop of water on each. Have students observe news print and describe in writing what they see.

1. Have students make a water microscope.

2. Have students use a magnifying glass as a magnifier and a lens.

3. Have students create their own scale for a graduated cylinder.

Why can’t we trust our senses to make accurate observations?What are the limitations of our senses?How does a lens magnify an object?How can a second lens magnify an image?How can we make a table of instruments and compare it to their purpose.

How are observations different from inferences?

Define an inference Explain how observations

are used in making inferences

Describe how “good inferences” are made

Make observations from a picture, model, or the surrounding environment

Compare an inference to a conclusion

Do inverted cup demonstration. After covering with card and inverting, ask students for their observations and then to state and inference.

1. Use a cartoon or diagram to have students make at least 5 observations.

2. Do a discrepant event and have students try to infer information based on their observations.

3. Use a newspaper picture and have the students make observations. Have students discuss how they can put their observations together to make “reasonable” inferences.

How does an observation differ from an inference?How does an inference differ from a conclusion?How do we use observations in making inferences?What is a “reasonable” inference?


What are quantitative observations?

Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative observations

Identify two ways to make quantitative observations (counting and measuring) Give examples of each

type of observation Discuss how quantitative

observations are recorded List two advantages of SI

measurements

Show students a jar filled with jellybeans. Ask them to predict how many there will be.

1. Provide each student team with several items. Students examine with as many senses as possible and record their observations.

2. Note discrepancies between teams. Have students develop a method for eliminating any discrepancies (counting and measuring)

3. History of measurement activity

4. Relative vs. absolute measurement

How can visual information be inaccurate (refer back to optical illusions)?How can relative observations in size and number be changed into true quantitative observations?How can qualitative observations be changed into quantitative observations? How do scientists use quantitative observations in experiments?

How do we measure length?

List items that are determined by length

List the metric units for length

Change between at least 3 metric units

Measure 3 items with a metric ruler

Measure a student in hands, cubits, and a “foot” (someone steps on a piece of paper and you draw a line where their foot ends)

1. Have students work in pairs to brainstorm items that are determined by length.

2. Have students convert between different metric units.

Explain why the traditional of British system of measurement is difficult to use.Why id we need to standardize these measurements?Why is the metric system easy for most people to use?Why are different units needed to measure length?Why does measuring in a larger unit decrease the accuracy of measurement?How can length be estimated?

What is mass? Discuss the effect of gravity on weight

Explain the difference between weight and mass

Calculate one’s weight on the moon and Jupiter, etc.

List the metric units for mass

Use two empty balloons on an equal arm balance. Fill one with air and place back on balance.

1. Have students calculate their weight on Earth, on the moon, on Jupiter, in space. Have them account for the difference.

2. Have students calculate mass units based on prefixes.

How are known masses used to measure an unknown mass?How can mass be estimated?How can objects that are the same size have different masses?

How is mass measured?

Mass three different items Express the mass of each

item in milligrams, grams and kilograms

Discuss measuring very small masses

Use equal arm balance with known masses to weigh a bag of “gold dust (sand).”

1. Demonstrate how mass is obtained with an equal arm balance.

2. Model the use of the triple beam balance.

How can equal amount of different liquids have different masses?Why is a container needed to measure the mass of a liquid?

How is the mass of liquids measured?

Discuss the problem of massing a liquid

Develop a procedure for massing a liquid

Determine the mass of three different liquids such as oil, water, and alcohol

Place equal volumes of mineral oil and water in separate beakers. Place on equal arm balance. Why don’t they weigh the same?

1. Have students develop a solution to finding out how to weight 100 grams of a liquid.

2. Have students critique each team’s procedure.

How can the mass of a liquid be determined from the mass of a liquid in a container?


How is volume determined?

Describe how area and volume are measured

Explain the difference between volume and area

List the metric units for volume

Measure the volume of a cube and rectangular solids

Use 1 liter graduate cylinder to pour 1L of water into a 10x10x10 cm box.

1. Have students compare the calculations for volume to those for area.

2. Demonstrate the relationship between volume and area (squared vs cubed)

3. Develop a list of units of volume.

How does volume differ from area?Why does volume increase at a greater rate than area as a single cell organism grows?

How is the volume of liquid measured?

Measure the volume of three liquids

Express the volume in milliliters and liters

Show the same volume of colored water in 3 different shaped containers. Ask students to estimate which one has the greater volume. Pour each separately into a container of the same size.

1. Model how to read a meniscus.

2. Reading different cylinder scales.

Why is volume measured in graduated cylinder?Why is the meniscus rule needed?

How is the volume of irregular solids measured?

Develop a procedure for measuring an irregular solid

Calculate the volume of two irregular solids

Lab 1. Review measurement using a meter stick.

2. Review how volume is calculated.

3. Discuss how to create a procedure measure an irregular solid.

Why is it difficult to measure the volume of irregular objects?

How do scientists solve problems?

List and describe the steps in the scientific method

Describe Redi’s experiment with rotting meat OR present with an intact banana that is pre-sliced inside the peel. Have them explain how it was grown

1. Information scrambles to elicit steps in the scientific method.

Why is it important that all scientists use the same approach to solve problem?

How is a controlled experiment designed?

Distinguish between variable and control

Identify assumptions in an experiment

Explain the difference between independent and dependent variables

Find differences in two separate pictures (take from cartoon section).

1. Overhead of experiments (red eyes experiment, pupil size with reaction to light)

Why do experiments need a control?How can a variable be changed in an experiment?

How are the results of an experiment

State conclusions based upon results

Place data into tables

1. Using paired variables2. Calculating amount of

difference.

How do scientists make conclusions using data?Why must information be organized before conclusions can be made?


analyzed? Identify and describe patterns in results

Perform basic calculations for results; calculate percent error

3. Calculating percent difference.

UNIT TWO: Factors in Our Nonliving EnvironmentLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 1 – 1.1a, 1.2a, 2.2a, 3.1a; Standard 4 – Key Ideas 1.1b, 6.1bWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 8

AIM PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

MOTIVATIONS ACTIVITIES AND ENRICHMENTS

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

What are the parts of the atmosphere?

List the parts of the atmosphere

Describe the key features of each part

Discuss the importance of each part

Describe atmospheric concentration in the troposphere

Show a graduated cylinder with 4-5 different color layers. Have students observe and explain

1. Create a data chart of atmospheric gases by concentration.

2. Make a scale drawing of the layers of the atmosphere

Where do we find most of the gases in the atmosphere?Why are most of the gases in the lowest part of the atmosphere?What is the importance of the stratosphere?Why is the ozone important to life on Earth?Where is life found in the atmosphere?How does the atmosphere protect us?How does the atmosphere maintain a fairly constant temperature?

What are the different aquatic environments?

Define salinity Compare the marine to

freshwater environment Discuss estuaries,

marshes, delta Determine percentage of

freshwater versus salt water

Compare percentage of aquatic environments versus terrestrial

Use 2 large graduated cylinders. One has a super saturated salt solution, the other has tap water. Drop a golf ball in each.

1. Have students make different solutions and test for various factors including salinity.

2. Buoyancy demonstration; density demonstration.

3. Determining %age of aquatic areas using flat maps and grids.

How is the marine environment different from the freshwater environment?What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in a marine environment?Why do estuaries present problems for living organisms?

How are pie graphs used to represent data from the environment?

Set up data in a chart Draw several different

percentages on a pie chart Draw a pie chart of

different gases in the troposphere

Draw a pie chart of different aquatic environments

Have students prepare a list of their activities for a typical day. They estimate the hours spent doing each activity.

1. Use data charts prepared earlier to create a pie graph.

How is data put into pie graphs?Why can’t all data be put into pie graphs?Why are different colors used in pie graphs?Why is a key used for a pie graph?

What is weather? Determine energy sources in the atmosphere

Define wind and precipitation

Explain how precipitation forms

Have students make a list of the items found in a weather report.

1. Build weather instruments and collect local weather data for 1-2 weeks.

2. Use a radiometer to show energy conversion.

3. Demonstration of making a cloud and precipitation.

4. Write a TV or radio weather report.

5. Use a convection box to have students explain why there are currents in the air.

Why does weather change?How do landforms affect weather?

How are the Discuss role of Give students a 1. Use student-made and How are quantitative observations used in measuring Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 9

factors of weather measured?

instrumentation in recording weather

Explain simple devices for recording weather

handout on weather instrumentation. Have them determine what it is and how it measures.

professional instruments to collect data.

2. Analyze information from newspapers.

3. Show a jar barometer and ask how it works (Tik Liem, p. 78)

4. Ask them to align the instruments with their weather report written the previous day.

the factors of weather?

How does climate differ from weather?

Compare the temperature and precipitation in each season

Investigate weather from the past

Develop a definition of climate

Explain how climate may change

Have 8 students come to the board. Mark their height. Ask the class how we would find the average height.

1. Compare daily weather info to a typical climate.

2. Use daily weather info for extended time periods to write a climate.

3. Have students develop a written description of the NY weather in each season. If you only experienced one season, how would you describe the climate? Why do we need more information than a single season?

Why does weather change over the year?Why does climate change over time?

How do we find and record information on weather?

Read weather symbols from a map

Explain the meaning of each symbol

Record the data for given symbols

Give students several weather forecast symbols without any labels. Have them write what they think the symbols describe.

1. Have students collect weather information and translate it into symbols that are put on maps.

2. Make their own symbols.3. Post student-made weather

symbols for the day.

What sources do we have to get weather information from?Why don’t all sources of weather information agree on the future weather?

How are line graphs used to represent data from the environment?

Read data from a single line graph (temperature or precipitation)

Read data from a multiple line graph

Give students a line graph of a 24 - hour period of temperature. Ask them to account for the high, the low, and to explain why the graph does not start from zero.

1. Extended recording of weather data

2. Graph weather for different cities in different parts of the country.

How does the independent variable differ from the dependent variable?Why is some information graph as a line graph?How do we read line graphs?How can more than one line be put on a line graph?How can weather factors be graphed as line graphs?

How can we graph information from the environment?

Assemble data from the environment into a chart

Create a graph with a dependent and independent variables.

Present students with line graph of temperature by month and a bar graph of

1. Show students how to do climatographs

2. Demonstrate how to plot multiple line graphs

3. Have students determine

Why is some information better shown on bar graphs?How can we determine the independent and dependent variable?How can we represent two different sets of data on the same graph?


Place the correct units on the graph along with a title; plotting the graph correctly

precipitation also by month. Then show students a climatogram.

independent and dependent variables form a data chart

4. Have students do metacognitive process writing in response to their problem solving

UNIT THREE: THE LIVING ORGANISM IN ITS ENVIRONMENTLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance Indicators 1.1b, 1.1c, 1.1f, 1.2a, 1.2d, 6.1a, 6.1b, 6.1d, 6.1f, 6.1gAIM PERFORMANCE MOTIVATIONS ACTIVITIES AND SUGGESTED QUESTIONSWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 11

OBJECTIVES ENRICHMENTSWhat are the activities of a living organism?

List and describe the eight life functions Identify where the life functions occur in organisms Describe why viruses are difficult to classify as living or nonliving (optional)

Give students a large seed (lima bean). Have them make a 2 column chart to list reasons why they think it is living and why they think it is nonliving.

1. Have students do focused free writing explaining their concept of life

2. Have students examine several items to determine what is living and what is nonliving.

3. Develop a concept map of the life activities

How are living things different from non-living things?How does a single-celled organism carry out the life functions?Why is it difficult to determine if seeds are living or non-living?

What is homeostasis? Define homeostasis Identify the systems involved in maintaining homeostasis Describe how a substance in the body is kept within acceptable limits

Make a Cartesian diver with a 2-liter soda bottle. Mark a line on the outside. Have students come up and try to get the diver to the line.

1. Demonstration of cells in hypertonic and hypotonic solutions

2. Demonstration of the role of Reflexes

3. Problem solving of how an oven maintains a temperature of 350oF or how the body maintains 37oC. Use a KWL chart to have students examine what they find.

How does homeostasis involve the life functions of the body?How is homeostasis different form metabolism?How does the body maintain its constant temperature?

How does the environment determine which organisms will live in a given area?

Define and describe the abiotic factors

Explain how the abiotic factors determine the biotic factors

Give students a handout showing four types of balls (golf ball, baseball, football, basketball). Have them name the sport they are associated with and the characteristics of the ball that fits the sport.

1. Have students work in teams with pictures of different organisms to explain how they survive.

2. Student teams examine pictures of different environments and describe adaptations organisms would need to survive.

3. Develop a list of characteristics needed to survive in a given area. Rank the list.

What can structure tell us about function?How are structures related to adaptations?

What limits the number of different organisms in a given area?

Explain how limiting factors differs in different climates

Predict the effect on plants and animals for each limiting factor

Wet a paper towel. Have students add small weights until the paper towel rips.

1. Use case studies.2. Develop a list of limiting

factors in different environments.

What determines the limiting factor in each environment?Why are limiting factors different in each environment?Do limiting factors help determine adaptations and population size?


(adaptations and numbers

How do organisms live together in a given environment?

Describe the three groups of biotic factors: autotrophs, hetereotrophs, and decomposers

Diagram or flow chart the ecological organization of living things: populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere

Show students a terrarium or a bottle garden.

1. Provide students with the names of the biotic factors and have them do focused free writing to explain them.

2. Provide students with readings about each and have them summarize and compare to their free writing

3. Define population, community, ecosystem and biosphere.

4. Use concentric circles to show the relationship of the items in #3.

Why are each of the biotic factors needed in a given environment?How do the biotic factors interact with each other?How are the biotic factors organized?

What roles do organisms need to have in a balanced environment?

Define niche Explain the

difference between producers and consumers

Show students a bottle garden or terrarium that is thriving and one that is doing poorly.

1. Use Darwin’s finches to develop the concept of niches.

2. Use a list of organisms and have students place them in the correct role.

How does niche differ from a habitat?How can a balanced environment be created?What causes an environment to become unbalanced?How can an unbalanced environment be restored to a balanced environment?

How do some organisms live closely together?

Define symbiosis Explain

parasitism, mutualism, commensalism.

Represent each with a +, -, or 0

Give examples of each type

Show students a picture of a bird that picks food from a crocodile’s teeth or a remora living on a shark. Have students explain how these organisms survive.

1. Use videos, laser disk or pictures to show each type of symbiosis

2. Present descriptions for a series of symbiotic relationships and have students determine the type.

3. Have students use metacognitive process writing to explain how they got the answer.

Why does symbiosis occur?Why does one organism always benefit in symbiosis?How can symbols be used to represent the different symbiotic relationships?

How is food produced in the environment?

Define photosynthesis and (chemosynthesis) Write a word equation for photosynthesis

Give students a t-chart (What I know about photoshynthesis – Questions I have about photosynthesis). First have them work in pairs, then combine pairs. Each team places their lists on the

1. Develop word equation for photosynthesis.

2. Use a concept map to shown flow of light energy into chemical bond energy

3. Demonstrate covered and uncovered leaf for presence of starch

4. Demonstrate how amylase

How is light energy captured by plants?How is light energy converted into chemical energy?Why do some wavelengths of light produce more food than others in photosynthesis?What happens to the sugar made by the plant?


board. The teacher helps them find areas of information, misconception and combines questions.

converts starch to sugar 5. Convert absorption spectra

for photosynthesis into a table.

How is energy transferred in living organisms?

Identify where energy is stored in ATP

Explain the Law of Conservation of Energy

Use a radiometer and flashlight.

1. Calorimeter lab2. Use a solar device to show

how energy can be changed.

Why isn’t all the food energy converted to mass?How can energy be changed to different forms?How does the law of Conservation of Energy apply to autotrophs and heterotrophs?

How can the food and energy relationships be drawn as diagrams?

Describe food chains, webs pyramids

Create a food chain and a food web

Explain trophic levels

Give students lists or pictures or organisms. Have them classify as to producer, consumer, or decomposer.

1. Give students a page with many organisms to cut out. Have them connect to form a simple food chain.

2. Have students use additional organisms to construct a food web.

3. Make sure to let students know that the arrow goes from the organism being eaten to the organism who is consuming it.

Why are producers at the bottom of food and energy pyramids?Why are food webs a more accurate representation of an ecosystem than a food chain?

Why are decomposers needed in the environment?

Define decomposer Describe the role of decomposers in the environment

Show the compost in a bottle garden.

1. Build a soda-bottle composter.

2. Show how decomposers recycle key substances.

3. Observe bread mold or dissect a mushroom.

How do decomposers help to recycle nutrients and minerals in the environment?


UNIT FOUR: Reproduction of Living OrganismsLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance Indicators 1.2f, 1.2g, 1.2h, 1.2i, 1.2j, 2.1b, 2.1c, 2.1e, 2.1f, 2.1g, 2.1h, 4.1a, 4.1b, 4.1c, 4.1d, 5.1b, 5.1c, 5.1dAIM PERFORMANCE

OBJECTIVESMOTIVATION ACTIVITIES AND


What parts of the cell carry out the life activities?

Match life activities with cell structures

Describe key structures in the cell

Have the students develop a list of 5 kitchen utensils. For each one listed they must describe what it is and how it works.

1.

1. Use the list of life activities together with an electron micrograph of the cell (a model is even better). Have students try to find a structure that is involved with a life function.

2. Set up microscopes or show a series of laser disk images of differ cells (single and multiple). Have students answer three questions in teams.a-What are these?b-What is the minimum number of these required to be an organism?

c- Where did they come from? 3. Provide students with a

brief reading on Leeuwenhoek. Have them write an imaginary letter to the Royal Science Society in England.

What is the cell theory?What are the life activities of living organisms?What are the key structures in a cell?How are the structures associated with each life activity?What advantage does a cell with organelles have compared to a cell without organelles?Why is the nucleus called the “control center of the cell”?

How do plant cells differ from animal cells?

List the structures unique to plant and animal cells.

Describe the life activities each structure is associated with.

Display model or diagrams (unlabelled) of a plant cell and an animal cell. Have students determine the structures they have in common.

1. Develop names for the structures all cells have in common.

2. Have students determine the structures that are dissimilar.

3. Give students a reading on the role of the dissimilar structures. Have students work in teams to develop an explanation of the role of each.

Why do plant and animal cells have so many structures in common?How is the role of the chloroplast unique?Why do plants need a cell wall?What role does the centriole play in an animal cell?How are animal cells supported if they don’t have a cell wall?How can substances pass into and out of plant cells if they have a cell wall?If centrioles are needed for cell division, why don’t plant cells have centriole?What is the advantage of having one or two large vacuoles compared to many smaller vacuoles?

Why is the nucleus important in producing new cells?

Identify the parts of the nucleus in the cell

Show pictures of a cell during interphase and early prophase. Have

1. Use a laser disk or short video clip showing mitosis.

2. Create a diagram of the

Why does the cell have a set of paired chromosomes?Why does chromatin contract to form chromosomes before cell division begins?


Describe the function of each part of the nucleus

Describe the basic concepts of cell division: mitosis and cytokinesis

students free write about the differences they observe and how we can account for them.

cell cycle and have students determine the amount of time a cell spends in each stage.

3. Use charts or other images to show how chromosomes double.

4. Have students compare and contrast mitosis and cytokinesis in plants and animals.

Why do chromosomes need to replicate before cell division?

How do simple, one-celled organisms reproduce?

Define and describe asexual reproduction

Describe several methods of asexual reproduction

Gary Larsen cartoon (see appendix)

1. Show video or laser disks of binary fission and budding. Have students determine the similarity and difference.

2. Have students compare the daughter cells to the parent cell.

How can single celled organisms without sex organs reproduce?How can single celled organisms reproduce so quickly compared to multicellular organisms?

How do plants reproduce asexually?

Describe vegetative propagation

Explain how man uses vegetative propagation

Show a potato, carrot top, or onion that is growing new plants.

1. Provide students with a handout of vegetative propagation. Have them identify the part that is producing the new plant.

2. Give students a handout and a reading about artificial vegetative propagation.

3. Give students several seedless fruits. Them have them either work in teams or speculate alone in writing how these could be produced without any seeds.

How does vegetative propagation occur in nature?How does man use vegetative propagation to produce new plants?What are the advantages of vegetative propagation?How is tissue culture used to produce new plants?

How do plants reproduce sexually?

Identify male and female parts

Describe sexual reproduction in plants

Compare and contrast several different flowers.

1. Display complete plant (live, model or diagram).

2. Work with students to identify the male and female structures.

3. Use a transparency to diagram how the pollen tube reaches the ovary.

4. Bring in examples of plant parts that we eat.

How does the flower assist in plant reproduction?Why aren’t all flowers the same?What are seeds and fruits?What parts of the plant are we eating?

How is the Define/describe Give students a list of 1. Provide students with a list How do hormones help regulate the reproductive Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 16

reproductive cycle controlled in animals?

the process of metamorphosis

Define and describe the process of estrus

Discuss the role of hormones and cycles

Give examples of reproductive behaviors

Explain the influence of temp/time of year

different animals and the time of year that they reproduce.

of animals and the time of the year for estrus.

2. Create a flow chart showing what happens during estrus.

3. Use the flow chart to show how hormones control the process.

4. Use videos to show the effect of estrus on male behavior.

cycle of animals?Why is more than one hormone needed for the reproductive cycle?Why is estrus important to ensure the survival of the species?How can man control insect pests using hormones?Why don’t all animals go through metamorphosis?

How does the fertilized egg become a new individual?

Discuss mitosis and differentiation

Explain the role of extraembryonic membranes

Use a chart of series of preserved specimens for chicken or frog development.

1. Use a series of models or diagrams to show how the fertilized egg changes. Use a video or laser disk to show the change in cell size.

2. Use an egg soaked in vinegar overnight to show the extraembryonic membrane.

3. Use a diagram of a developing chicken egg to show the membranes and their function.

4. Use a diagram of human embryonic development to compare the membranes to the chicken.

How can a single cell become a new individual?How does growth differ from differentiation?How embryonic development of mammals similar to the embryonic development of birds?

Why is sexual reproduction important to the survival of a species?

Define extinction Explain the role

of reproduction in the survival of a species

Discuss how sexual reproduction increase variation

Give each team several sunflower seeds. Have them observe and record differences.

1. Use a picture of dinosaurs to have students develop a definition of extinction.

2.

How does sexual reproduction produce variation?Why is variation important for the survival of a species?Why are some variations good for the species while others are bad?

UNIT FIVE: Changes Over TimeWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 17

LIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance Indicators 3.1a, d, e, f, g, h, j. kAIM PERFORMANCE

OBJECTIVESMOTIVATION ACTIVITIES AND ENRICHMENTS SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

How is the age of the Earth determined?

Describe how scientists have determined the age of the earth

Explain the concept of radioactive decay

Discuss how radioactive decay is used to date rocks

List the ½ life of three radioactive substances

Use a roll of toilet paper with 500 sheets. Have one student hold the end and the other unroll about 110 sheets. Mark this with and “X” and state this is where life began. Another student unrolls another 110 sheets. Mark this with another “X” and indicate this is where protozoa (protista) appeared. Another students unrolls 220 sheets. Mark with an “X” and indicate this is where multicellular organisms appeared. Mark the other 60 sheets in appropriate places for the appearance of other organisms. Make a line at the end of the last sheet to indicate modern humans. Ask students for questions and also ask how we know this information.

1. Graph ½ life of a substance.2. Determine the age of rocks

based on ½ life.3. Calculate the age of the Earth

based on ½ life of the oldest rocks.

How do we know that radioactive decay is constant?How can a half-life that is millions of years be determined?What assumptions do we make to date the Earth?Why is carbon14 used in dating human fossils?

How are fossils produced?

Define fossil and give examples

Describe how fossils are produced in sedimentary rock

List 4 ways in which fossils are produced

Explain how each fossil type is formed

Have students write their own definition of what a fossil is OR give them several fossil samples and have them develop an explanation or definition of what

1. Distribute samples of fossils and have students make observations.

2. Students categorize fossils.

Why are fossils in rocks produced in sedimentary rock only?What are the advantages of the preserved organism compared to a sedimentary rock fossil?Why do archeologists look for fossils in desert areas?


State one inference from each type of fossil

they are.

How are fossils dated?

Discuss the concept of relative dating

Describe the process of absolute dating

Explain the law of superposition

State two clues to relative dating

Explain the use of index fossils

Discuss how C14 and Potassium-Argon dating are used for absolute dating of fossils

Give students a plant and an animal fossil. Have then come up with ways to determine which is older.

1. Have students write to the following scenario: You are a scientist who is digging for fossils. You find one set of bones and start putting them together. Your team keeps digging and several feet down find another set of bones. Have students explain in writing

a. What assumptions can you make about these bones?

b. How valid were the assumptions you made? Explain.

2. Describe the thought process used in question b..

3. Provide students with a cross section of sedimentary rock showing fossils at different layers. Use to develop relative dating and law of superposition.

4. Show ½ life chart of C14 and potassium-argon dating to develop use of absolute dating.

How does absolute dating differ from relative dating?How accurate is absolute dating?Why are index fossils important when comparing fossils from two different areas?Why does the movement of landforms make it difficult to date fossils?

What other evidence of evolution do we have today?

Explain the role of comparative anatomy as evidence

Discuss comparative biochemistry as evidence

Compare and contrast homologous versus analogous structures

Define fossil record Describe the process of

comparative anatomy using the fossil record

Describe how homologous and vestigial structures are used to support the theory of evolution

Use a model or picture of the human skeleton. Have students explain in writing the advantages the human hand has. List any disadvantages.

1. Provide handouts of comparative structures. Have students color in bones of the same type. Develop definition of homologous structures.

2. Provide students with a list of vestigial organs and have them develop a list of reasons why they are vestigial.

3. Use a reading on comparative biochemistry to have students explain similarities.

4. Develop concept of common ancestor.

How are similar structures evidence of evolution?How do scientists decide when two organisms are closely related or more closely related than another organisms is?

How was evolution first

Describe the theory of natural selection

Show pictures of many types of pure

1. Show students a plant with many seeds (grass, corn, etc.).

How did the study of geology help Darwin understand the concept of evolution in living


explained by Charles Darwin?

List and describe the main points of the theory

bred dogs. Have students try to determine the environment that would be best for them.

Students explain why all will not mature.

2. Use a Gary Larsen cartoon from old Regents – showing most grasshoppers will not live to maturity.

3. Give students 2 squares of colored paper (dark brown and tan). Tell them that both are natural variations in a group of animals that live in a forest. Give dark green and brown sheets of paper. Have them determine which organism survives best. Explain that a climate change occurs making the area a semi desert with lots of tall grasses. Give them a sheet of beige paper. Have them explain which organism is now favored and why.

things?How did Darwin’s experiences give him evidence of evolution?How does overpopulation lead to competition, struggle for existence, and survival of the fittest?Explain the meaning of the term, “survival of the fittest” as used by Darwin. According to Darwin, how does the environment affect the evolution of an organism?Why can’t we see evolution?

What is our modern theory of evolution?

Describe the weakness in Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

Explain the role of sexual reproduction and mutations in producing variations.

Describe the role of mutations and variations in evolution

Describe the sources of mutations

Show pictures of white and black moths or Darwin’s finches. Ask students where these differences came from.

1. Have students review Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection.

2. Refer back to material on sexual reproduction. Use examples of how a population may have a variation that enables them to survive (ex. bacterial resistance, white/black moths).

3. Give students a list of mutations that have occurred in organisms. Develop why most are harmful.

4. Provide students with a reading on sources of mutations and have them account for why they may occur in well-adapted populations.

What didn’t Darwin explain in the Theory of Natural Selection?Why are most mutations harmful to organisms?Why do mutations occur if an organism is well adapted to its environment?

How can we describe the evolution of humans?

Explain the term common ancestor

Demonstrate how human evolution is similar to other organisms (not a straight line)

Discuss inferences made

Give students a checklist of misconceptions and facts about human evolution. Have them answer true or false.

1. Provide students with visual showing human evolution. Have them compare it to horse evolution.

2. Show students pictures of early hominids.

3. Have students read about the

How is the evolution of humans similar to other animals?Why is the fossil record more incomplete in humans than in other animals?What does the term “missing link” refer to?Why is it incorrect to say that humans evolved from monkeys?


from early human fossils Sequence early to modern

forms List and discuss

misconceptions

actual life of Neanderthals.4. Provide students with visual of

ape/human evolution.

UNIT SIX: Mechanisms of ChangeLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance Indicators 2.1a, 2.1b, 2.1c, 2.1e, 2.2a, 2.2b, 2.2c, 2.2d, 2.2e, 3.1a, 3.1b, 3.1c, 3.1g, 3.1h, 3.1i, 3.1j, Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 21

4.1c, 5.1c, AIM PERFORMANCE

OBJECTIVESMOTIVATIONS ACTIVITIES AND


How are traits inherited?

Define trait, gene, allele Explain dominant and

recessive genes Discuss how some genes

“reappear”

Show human parents with a dominant trait. Show two of their children, one with the dominant trait and the other with the recessive trait. Example: widow’s peak.

1. Develop a list of traits found in humans. Make a list of some other traits found in different organisms.

2. Use some simple crosses to show dominant and recessive traits. State Law of Dominance.

3. Show how recessive traits may reappear when hybrids are crossed.

Why do children look like their parents?How can children have a trait that neither parent has?How can diseases be inherited?Why do more people have brown eyes than blues eyes?

What is the function of DNA in the cell?

Describe the function of DNA in the cell

Describe the basic concepts of protein synthesis

Describe the role of proteins in the body

Have 4 separate activities key to numbered cards. One student acts as the controller holding up different cards for the class.

1. Use laser disk or video to show how protein synthesis occurs.

2. Use reading or handout to develop a list of DNA uses

What is a gene?What is the major function of our DNA?How does information from the DNA get to the cytoplasm of the cell?Why does the cell have two sets of chromosomes?Why are some genes expressed while others are not?How are genes turned on and off?

How do changes occur in an organisms DNA?

Describe changes in base pairs, crossing over

Compare chromosome changes to point mutation

Create a chart of a random series of numbers, letters, colors, etc. Leave up for about 1-2 minutes. Do not mention or refer to it until after you take it down. Then have the students try to reproduce it. Compare to the original. OR do lottery matching game – students have a set of numbers that vary in order from the master list.

1. Show students the codes for a section of normal and sickle cell hemoglobin. Have them find the difference.

2. Use a diagram to show how crossing over occurs during meiosis.

3. Show students other chromosomal mutations – additions, deletions, trisomy, monosomy. Have them explain why these are more serious that a point mutation.

How do mistakes occur in DNA during cell division?Why are some mistakes more common then others?Why is it that some mistakes are not expressed or have no effect on the organism?Why are most mistakes harmful to the organism?Why do chromosome mutations have a greater effect than a gene mutation?

How can the environment cause mistakes to occur in DNA?

Explain the effect of pollutants on DNA

Discuss how genes turn on/off (cancer)

Show ads for different sun tan products.

1. Use pictures of the Himalayan rabbit to show how temperature may effect gene expression.

2. Provide students with reading

How do our bodies help protect us from harmful environmental effects?How can we provide our bodies with additional protection from the environment?


about oncogenes and environmental factors. Students develop a list of “triggers.”

3. Develop a list of mutagenic agents.

How is cancer related to the effects of the sun?How can pollution cause mutations to occur in our bodies?Why is it difficult to establish that a specific pollutant is responsible for causing cancer in a given area?

Why do some traits appear more or less frequently in a population?

Define gene frequency Explain how the

environment acts as a selecting agent

State specific examples of the environment as a selecting agent Describe why most

mutations are considered harmful

Distribute cards with one +, two +, or a circle. Tell students you are spraying insecticide. Those with one + die immediately. Those with two + or a circle survive. We spray again with more insecticide. Those with two + die, leaving only the circles.

1. Have students relate what they know about overuse of insecticides and antibiotics.

2. Have teams of students compare and contrast pictures of related animals with different adaptations, e.g. red fox, arctic fox, and fennec fox.

3. Develop or relate scenarios in which the adaptive value of a trait changes as a result of environmental change (ex. Industrial melanism, Darwin’s finches, etc.)

4. Discuss mutations such as albinism, genetic diseases.

What is a selecting agent?How does nature act as selecting agent?Why are their different traits in a population?Why are most mutations considered to be harmful?How may a trait that has a low survival value, become a trait with a high survival value?

How can natural selection be observed?

Describe the process of industrial melanism

Explain how populations of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and DDT-resistant insects have arisen

Put together a “flip book”. Flip through it slowly and then rapidly.

1. Use industrial melanism to show natural selection.

2. Use diagram of horse evolution to show pace of evolution.

3. Use examples of bacterial or insect resistance.

How can man act as a selecting agent?Why can’t evolution normally be observed?How can the effects of humans cause the process of evolution to “speed up” so it can be observed?Why are the effects of humans dangerous in terms of observed natural selection?

How can future changes in a population be predicted?

Explain how geographic isolation and reproductive isolation occur

Discuss the impact of the introduction of non-native species

Survival is Just a Roll of the Dice (Teacher-directed experience, Teaching Resources for Environmental Science, Holt, p.45-47).

1. Give students a paper bag with 50 white beans and 50 red beans. Have them select 10 beans at random and compare to the original.

2. Use examples of geographic isolation to show how reproductive isolation may occur (Darwin’s finches, Grand Canyon squirrels, etc.)

Why might changes in a small population occur more frequently or faster than in a large population?Why does separation of a species into isolated groups affect their evolution?How does geographic isolation differ from reproductive isolation?How does competition between species affect evolution?How does bringing non-native species into an area effect the evolution of all the organisms of that area?

What is biotechnology?

Define technology and biotechnology

Explain how biotechnology produces recombinant DNA

Have students name their favorite candy bar. List five ways to improve

1. Use pictures of several pedigreed dogs to determine how the breeds were obtained. Review the dangers of inbreeding.

How does science differ from technology?How are multicellular organisms cloned?What are the advantages of biotechnology?How do restriction enzymes work?How can DNA from one organism be placed into


it. 2. Use a reading about cloning of mice or other multicellular organisms.

3. Use transparency of DNA splicing into a bacterial plasmid. Use to discuss how restriction enzymes work.

another?

How has man used biotechnology to improve plants and animals?

Give examples of uses of biotechnology

Explain use of genetically altered foods

Discuss how recombinant DNA is used to make human hormones

Explain the purpose of gene therapy

Genetic engineers have produced a “better” pig, which grows faster and had leaner meat than other pigs. They did this by transplanting a gene from a cow into the fertilized egg of a pig. The new pig also had abnormally short legs that developed arthritis (they hope to eliminate this in future transplants). The genetically altered pig could pass all the traits to its offspring,

1. Show students pictures or a list of genetically improved plants. Use with the motivation to have students list reasons for and against using genetic engineering to improve farm animals and plants.

2. Have students do metacognitive writing to review the thinking they drew upon in evaluating the issue.

3. Review gene splicing. Develop a list of human hormones produces this way.

4. Give students a list of human diseases. Have them discuss how they impact a person’s life. Provide them with a reading on gene therapy.

How is biotechnology used in food production?How has biotechnology been used in medicine?Why is it better to use bioengineered products for humans rather than traditional methods?What are the ethical issues involved in using biotechnology?

What are the possible dangers of genetically altered products?

Discuss how allergies may be triggered

Explain how altered genes may have been unexpected results

Give 3 statements about genetically altered food. Ask the class which one is incorrect. Give short newspaper or internet article about the misconception and then re-survey.

1. Have students discuss food allergies and allergic responses.

2. Have them predict how altered foods may trigger allergies.

3. Have students do free focus writing about eating genetically altered foods.

4. Develop a series of “what if” scenarios involving altered genes. Discuss precautions being taken.

How may allergies be dangerous?How might genetically altered foods lead to allergic attacks or new kinds of disease?How are scientists working to prevent unexpected results when using genetic engineering?


UNIT SEVEN: Relations Between the Living and Nonliving WorldsLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance Indicators 1.1b, 1.1c, 1.1d, 1.1e, 1.1f, .1b, 5.1c, 5.1f, 5.1g, 6.1b, 6.1e, 6.1f, 6.3a, 6.3bAIM PERFORMANCE



What are the major roles of inorganic substances in living things?

Discuss the importance of water in living organisms

Explain the role of key minerals in living things

Which could you live without the longest, food or water? Why?

1. Use a beaker of warm water to dissolve several substances (salt, sugar, etc).

2. Show sodium-potassium pump in nerves.

Why is water so important to living things?What are some important minerals in living things?How do organisms use these minerals?


What are the major groups of organic compounds?

Define organic and inorganic and give

examples List the four major types

of organic compounds, give examples

Describe each type of organic compound is different from other organic compounds

Have students create a list of the foods they eat each day.

1. Place students in teams and have them examine a list of organic and inorganic compounds (do not identify). They are to try and categorize them.

2. Give students the formulas for some carbohydrates. Have them determine the common theme.

3. Repeat for lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

4. Show students some symbols for each type.

How are organic compounds different from inorganic substances?How do we distinguish between carbohydrates and lipids?Why are proteins so important? How do we distinguish them from carbohydrates and lipids?How are nucleic acids unique?

Why are organic substances needed by living things?

Explain how each type of organic compound is used in a living organisms

Describe how producers are the link between the living and nonliving worlds

Display some sugar, fat and a piece of meat.

1. Develop a chart of organic compounds and their uses in living things.

2. Use equation for photosynthesis. Have students refer back to photosynthesis from unit three and identify the organic and inorganic compounds.

How does the use of carbohydrate and lipid differ in living things?Why do we need so many different kinds of protein?How do plants convert inorganic substances into organic compounds?

How is the acidity of a substance measured? andHow are litmus, pHydrion paper, and Universal Indicator used to determine pH?

Define acid, bases, and neutral

Describe the pH scale and the location of acids, bases and neutral values

State example of acids and bases

Describe how litmus is used to determine if a substance is an acid, base or neutral

Describe how pHydrion paper is used to determine a numeric pH value for a substance

Describe how Universal Indicator is used to determine the pH of a substance

Show how natural substances such as red

Set up 2 beakers with some zinc. Add water to one and some HCl or H2SO4 to the other.

1. Bring in some sample acids and bases. Show different methods of testing. Have students classify them.

2. Do pH lab.3. Show how cabbage juice

can be used as an indicator.

4. Use the pH scale and record the pH of common substances.

How are neutral substances different from acids and bases?How is the pH scale set up?How do strongly acidic substances register on the pH scale?How do strongly basic substances register on the pH scale?Why is pH important in living things?How may strongly acidic substances be used in living things?


cabbage juice can be used as an indicator.

How are water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide cycled in the environment?

Describe the water cycle Describe the carbon and

oxygen cycles

Demo cloud in a bottle. Have students observe.

1. Provide students with a chart of the water cycle. Have them describe the cycle in writing.

2. Use word equation for photosynthesis and respiration. Have students determine the relationship.

How is the water cycle powered?Why is the water cycle important for living things?How is the carbon and oxygen cycle related to photosynthesis and respiration?

How do limiting factors affect organism populations?

Discuss the role of limiting factors favoring certain adaptations

Explain why variations in a population are important

Display pictures of the Arctic and a desert.

1. Have students develop a list of abiotic factors.

2. Develop a definition of limiting factor.

3. Present scenarios in which the limiting factor changes.

What are the abiotic factors in the environment?What is limiting factor?How do limiting factors determine favorable variations?How do changes in the limiting factors lead to evolutionary change?

How does nitrogen cycle in the environment?

Describe how nitrogen is cycled in the environment

Identify symbiosis in the N cycle

Explain the role of decomposers

Bring in labels from different fertilizers. Point out the nitrates on each.

1. Use a pie graph of the atmosphere to show % of N in the atmosphere.

2. Provide students with a copy of the N cycle. Have them identify key organisms and then write a written explanation of each section.

3. Have students identify the decomposers and symbionts in the cycle.

Why do we need a nitrogen cycle?Why are nitrogen fixing bacteria considered symbiotic?What is the relationship between denitrifying bacteria and decomposers?

How can we describe the primitive Earth?

Describe the primitive atmosphere

Describe the geography of the primitive earth

Compare and contrast the primitive and modern atmosphere

Give students a diagram of the primitive atmosphere. What problems would there be in trying to live there?

1. Refer back to the pie graph of the atmosphere. Have students compare and contrast.

2. Show Miller’s experiment to show how amino acids formed.

What gases dominated the primitive atmosphere?What effects did the atmosphere have on any potential life forms?Describe the similarities and differences between the primitive and modern atmosphere.

How did life begin in our early nonliving world?

Describe the heterotroph hypothesis

Explain why the first organisms where anaerobic heterotrophs

Discuss how organisms modified the atmosphere

Make inferences about variations that existed in

Use a diagram to review the primitive environment including the oceans. Have students explain the adaptations an organism would need to survive.

1. Review anaerobic respiration. Have students identify the products.

2. Have students use a diagram of the atmosphere when life formed to explain why the first organisms were

How did Miller show that primitive atmosphere gave rise to organic compounds?Where did the first organisms appear?Why were the first organisms anerobic heterotrophs?Why did some of the first organisms survive while others did not?


the first organisms anerobic heterotrophs.How do organisms modify the environment for other organisms?

Explain how the first organisms changed the environment

Describe primary succession

Explain the effect of pioneer organisms

Show students a lawn or empty lot that has been untended for a long period of time. Have them describe it. Introduce the concept that land undergoes changes over a long period of time.

1. Write the formula for anaerobic respiration. Have students determine what the effect the first organisms had on the food supply and the environment.

2. Refer back to the causes of mutation and discuss the development of mutations on the primitive Earth that produced autotrophs and aerobic heterotrophs.

3. Show students a piece of Velcro. Use to demonstrate how seeds stick to animal fur. Develop a list of other methods of seed dispersal.

4. Show pictures of Mt. St. Helens immediately after the eruptions and 10 years later. Use to introduce the idea of pioneer organisms and succession.

5. Have students work in teams with a diagram to develop an explanation of succession.

Describe the process used by the first organisms to change the primitive atmosphere.Why were mutations very likely to happen on the primitive earth?How did natural selection result in oxygen in our atmosphere?How do pioneer organisms modify an environment?Why does succession occur?

UNIT EIGHT: MAINTAINING LIFE IN DIFFERENT CLIMATESLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance indicators 1.1b, 1.1c, 6.1a, 6.1b, 6.1c, 6.1d, 6.1e, AIM PERFORMANCE



What characteristics determine a biome?

Define biome List factors that determine

a biome (geography, weather, climate, limiting factors)

Write the following on the board: cactus, tree frog, pine tree, polar bear (column 1); tropical rain forest, polar ice, desert,

1. Use a transparency to illustrate the 10 different biomes throughout the Earth.

2. Pair up students and have them brainstorm about what distinguishes land

Identify five conditions that determine a biome.


mountain (column 2). Ask the students to match the plant or animal in the first column with the environment in which it would most likely to be found in column 2.

ecosystems (biomes) – what makes a forest a forest, a desert a desert, etc. Write each idea on the board, placing checkmarks next to an idea each time a team suggests it.

How do land biomes occur around the earth?

Determine the biomes that occur in large bands

Determine the biomes that are scattered

Display or distribute copies of national weather maps for the previous week. Students work in cooperative teams to summarize how the weather conditions of the country changed throughout the week. Have students determine what patterns are apparent in different regions. Have them account for the differences.

1. Use the motivation to explain that changes over a long period of time determine climate.

2. Use a transparency and handout that shows the large bands of several biomes. Use a reading to have students determine the characteristics of each.

3. Have students compare and contrast several key factors in the major biomes.

4. Have students use the map to identify scattered biomes.

How does the climate determine which organisms will survive in a given area?What is the relationship between climate and limiting factors?What are the major land biomes?What are the characteristics of the large land biomes?Why are some biomes scattered and not in large bands?

How do tropical rainforests differ from temperature deciduous forests?

Describe the climate in each biome

List the adaptations required for plants in each biome

List the requirements for animals in each biome

Compare and contrast the soil in each biome

Display a can of coffee, a chocolate bar, and samples of rosewood, ebony, teak, balsa, or mahogany. In a separate group display maple, oak and walnut samples along with a piece of 2 x4 lumber. Ask students to determine what they have in common.

1. Use a transparency of the tropical rain forest along with a reading to have students develop a list of key characteristics of the biome.

2. Have students develop a list of important plant and animal adaptations including examples.

3. Repeat the process for deciduous forest.

4. Have students compare and contrast both biomes and plant/animal adaptations. Have students use climatograms for each.

Why is the soil in the tropical rain forest considered a poor soil?Why are most nutrients in the plants and not in the soil in the tropical rain forest?List some key adaptations of plants and animals for living in the tropical rain forest.What factors distinguish deciduous forest from tropical rain forests?Give examples of key plant and animal adaptation for the deciduous forest.How do soils in each forest compare?


How does taiga differ from other forest biomes?

Compare and contrast the climate and soil of the taiga with the other forest biomes

Compare and contrast the animal and plant adaptations in each biome

Give students a data table of temperature and precipitation from an area near Quebec, Canada. Have them construct a climatogram.

1. Show students pictures of each biome. Have them describe the characteristics they see.

2. Provide students with climatographs of each biome.

3. Have students do focused free-writing about life in each biome.

How does the climate affect the soil in each biome?Why are there a lot of coniferous trees in the taiga, while there are few deciduous trees?What special adaptations do animals need to survive in the taiga as compared to the other forest biomes?

What do tundra and deserts have in common?

Compare the abiotic factors in each biome

Compare the plant and animal adaptations in each

Explain why each is considered a fragile ecosystem

Write the names of the following regions on the board: Death Valley, Sahara, Mojave. Have students discuss what they associate with these deserts. Write the names Alaska and Siberia on the board and ask students to describe them. What do you think they have in common?

1. Have students identify tundra and deserts on a world biome map or transparency.

2. Show students pictures of the Gobi and the Sahara along with their average temperatures.

3. Provide students with samples (or display) some lichens, mosses, and cacti.

4. Show a gerbil (or ask students who own one). Observe their behavior.

5. Use climatograms to have students describe the differences in each biome.

What is the key characteristic that determines a desert?What are some special plant and animal adaptations for surviving in a desert climate?Why are many desert animals nocturnal?What does tundra have in common with deserts?Why are there almost no trees in the tundra?Why are grasslands of great importance to man?What special adaptations do tundra plants require?Why are many tundra animals migratory?Why are deserts and tundra considered fragile environments?

Why are grasslands so important to man?

Develop list of plants and animals in various grasslands

Compare and contrast the adaptations of the organisms in each grassland

Explain the effect of the abiotic factors on the soil

Discuss the importance of grasses to man

Display a sack of flour, a box of oatmeal, a can of corn, and a bag of sugar.

1. Display climatograms of a desert and a grassland.

2. Use selections from the “Living Planet” series or other videos to show plant and animal adaptations.

3. Do lab or demonstration on splatter erosion (the effect on sand, loose soil and grass to hold water).

4. Have students work in teams to develop a list of differences in the grasslands (steppes/prairies and savannas).

Compare and contrast the weather in a desert and a grassland.What are the special adaptations of grasses? How do grassland animals help maintain the grassland ecosystem?How does man use grasses?Why are grasslands in danger of becoming deserts?

How do freshwater and saltwater biomes differ?

Compare and contrast the biomes as to abiotic factors including temperature, salinity, etc.

Bring a goldfish in a bowl. Have students determine the factors to

1. Allow a tall cylinder of fresh water to remain standing in the front of the room. Have students

Why do we find most of the aquatic animals in colder water?Why is most of the life in the ocean found in the upper levels?


Compare stability of each biome

consider in keeping the goldfish as a pet. Make sure students mention fresh water. Have students determine what makes it different from salt water.

observe the bubble that form in the water as it warms.

2. Gently heat a test tube of water. Have students not gas bubbles before it begins to boil.

3. Use a chart to show the solubility of oxygen in fast-moving water at various temperatures.

4. Heat an evaporating dish of tap water. Have students examine the particles in the dish. Heat a similar dish with salt water. Have students compare.

How does the depth of fresh water biomes compare to salt water?Why is conservation of fresh water so important?

How does life occur in different parts of the marine environment?

Develop a list of the abiotic factors in different parts of the ocean

Explain adaptation of living organisms in different parts of the marine environment

Compare stability of marine environment to terrestrial environments

Shine a light through different column of water with a photoelectric meter at the bottom. Allow students to record the meter readings.

1. Display pictures of ocean animals such as whales, tuna and sharks. Have students determine the part of the ocean they live in.

2. Place a 100 ml beaker on a tripod and fill with cold water. Use tongs to place a small crystal of potassium permanganate on the bottom of the beaker. Gently heat the beaker directly below the crystal. Students observe the movement of warm and cold water.

3. Draw a box on the board and tell students it represents the oceanic zone. Divide into 3 sections: the photic zone, aphotic zone, and benthic zone. Have students read about and fill in the characteristics of each.

4. Show pictures of various kinds of ocean life. Have students assign each to the proper zone. Optional:

Why is most marine life found in the photic zone?What adaptations do organisms need to survive in the aphotic zone?Why are organisms in the benthic zone usually scavengers? What other adaptations do they require in order to survive?What are the factors that allow the marine biome to be more stable than terrestrial biomes?


have students create food chains and food webs using these organisms.

How do freshwater biomes differ?

Compare running water conditions to standing water conditions

Compare plant adaptations in running and standing water

Compare animal adaptations in running and standing water

Display 2 beakers. One contains water and pebbles, the other contains water, sand, and silt. Students are to identify which represents a fast flowing stream and which is a slow flowing stream. Students are to describe some characteristics of each stream, such as the amount and source of oxygen, temperature of the water, and types of organisms living there.

1. Have students do metacognitive writing about the problem they solved in the motivation.

2. Place 2 columns on the board. In the first column place rivers, streams, and creeks. In the second column, place lakes, ponds, marshes, and swamps. Have students determine the criteria for the groupings.

3. Draw a cross section of a lake showing several levels of habitats.

4. Define a wetland and list examples on the board. Have students develop some requirements for organisms to survive there.

Why do organisms that live in fast flowing streams have adaptations such as streamlined bodies, suckers, or hooks?How is the oxygen supply different in the different kinds of fresh water ecosystems?Why do large, deep lakes have more biodiversity than flowing water ecosystems?What special adaptations do organisms require to survive in wetlands?


UNIT NINE: Changing and modifying the environmentLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance indicators 6.1f, 6.3a, 6.3c, 7.1a, 7.1b, 7.1c, 7.2a, 7.2b, 7.2c.AIM PERFORMANCE



How can we describe the growth of human -population over time?

Describe the growth of the human population over time

Identify factors that humans have modified or removed that control population growth

Begin With the number 1 and then double it for 20 times.

1. Use a graph of human population growth. Have students develop a written explanation.

2. Have students compare growth of human population to other animals.

3. Have students develop a list of factors that humans have changed or altered, including survival of the fittest.

How has the growth of human population changed in the last 100 years?What factors have humans altered or removed to allow their population to grow?How has human intervention changed the laws of evolution?

Why is the growth of the human population a threat to our environment?

List the negative effects of increased human population growth

Explain how each negative effect occurred and its impact

Use a vitamin C solution. Add indolphenol until it turns dark blue.

1. Use Mangrove Swamp exercise to show changes. Have students respond in writing.

2. Show a picture of a non-developed area from more than 100 years ago, and compare to the same area today

Why does human population growth usually result in habitat destruction?How else has human population growth impacted other life forms?Why are these impacts almost always negative?

How has agriculture negatively affected the environment?

Describe how agriculture has negatively affected the environment

Discuss soil loss due to poor farming techniques

Explain habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity

Show pictures of slash and burn farming.

1. Place some soil in a shallow tray and tilt the tray at an angle of 30 to 35 degrees. Use a beaker to pour water into the top of the tray. Have students observe the effect water has on the soil.

2. Review the nitrogen cycle. Emphasize its importance in helping maintain a nitrogen-rich soil.

3. Place equal amounts of soil in each of two funnels containing filter paper. Run the soil in one container through a sifter before placing in the funnel. Point out that sifting increases the

How have wind and water impacted our soil?How can we define erosion?How has man overuse the soil? Why is it important to not plant crops for a while or use legumes every few seasons?How does aeration and compaction affect the soil and the plants?Describe good and poor farming techniques. Explain the differences.Explain why farming causes loss of habitat for grassland and forest organisms.Compare and contrast good and poor farming techniques.


number of air spaces in the soil. Compact the soil for the second funnel by using a mortar. Pour equal amounts of water into each funnel. Have students observe the effect of compaction on water flow.

4. Show pictures and provide a reading on different types of farming practices.

How has urbanization negatively affected the environment?

Define and describe urbanization

Describe how urbanization has negatively affected the environment

List the problems caused by urbanization and their effects

Have students make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of living in a large city like NY.

1. Tell students they have a magic penny that doubles every minute. Have them calculate how much money they will have in 30 minutes.

2. Tell the class that the population of the school will double next year and double again the year after. Have them write about the effect on classroom space, halls, cafeteria, books, time schedule, etc.

3. Use a blank transparency and 2 different colored markers to show the difference between arithmetic and exponential growth.

4. Show graphs comparing urban to rural population.

5. Have students do focused free writing to relate the impact of urban growth to the impact on original habitats in NYC.

How does arithmetic growth compare to exponential growth?How would you react to a doubling of the school population? What would it do the way school life is conducted? Why has movement to cities increased during the last 100 years?What effects do cities have on habitats?

How has need for energy negatively affected the environment?

Identify man’s sources of energy

Define fossil fuels List the benefits and

problems of non fossil fuels

Display an electric light, a dry cell, charcoal briquette, a Bunsen burner, and an alcohol lamp. Students have to determine what they have in

1. Write the terms electricity, light, sound, solar, nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and heat. Show pictures of television, cars, stoves, etc. Have students determine that they use and convert energy.

What are the various forms of energy?What usually happens when energy changes from one form to another?Why are we running short of fossil fuels?Why are fossils fuels a problem to the environment?How may non fossil fuels be beneficial?What are the problems and drawbacks to using non fossil fuels?


common. 2. Hold a pinwheel over a Bunsen burner to demonstrate how it converts the chemical energy in gas to heat. The pinwheel turns when heat is converted to mechanical energy.

3. Refer back to fossil formation. Have students determine when fossil fuels form. Have them discuss what is happening to the process and why.

4. Show video clip on the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

5. Develop a list of non fossil fuels. Have students research their benefits and drawbacks.

How has man polluted the air?

Identify major sources of air pollution

Explain the causes and effects of acid rain

Discuss how smog occurs Describe noise pollution

and its effects

Darken the room and use a strong flashlight or film projector. Turn it on and use chalk dust. OR use a hot air popcorn maker to make some popcorn before the class arrives. Hide the machine.

1. Particulate lab.2. Use pH chart from

previous work to show where acid rain falls on the scale. Reinforce by adding vinegar to marble or limestone chips.

3. Burn some paper and then show some pictures of smog. Have students develop a list of its causes.

4. Use a tuning fork and resonating box to show how sound can produce sympathetic vibrations.

How has man polluted the air?How has the use of fossil fuels contributed to acid rain?How has the use of the automobile contributed to smog?How is smog linked to health hazards?Why is noise pollution dangerous?

How has man polluted the land?

Identify the major sources of land pollution

Explain why landfills are dangerous

Define toxic wastes Compare and contrast

nonbiodegradeable with biodegradable

Give a list of wastes. Have students classify as to biodegradable or non-biodegradable.

1. Hazardous wastes lab.2. Use diagrams of landfills.3. Bring in several kinds of

batteries including a car battery. Have students determine why they a re dangerous to dump in a landfill.

How can we determine what wastes go into a landfill?What kinds of substances do not belong in a landfill? Explain why.How may landfills impact the water supply?Why should we exclude nonbiodegradable objects from landfills?How have we tried to make landfills safer?


Explain how land pollution leads to desertification

4. Demonstrate how materials may move through a land-fill into the water table.

5. Show various biodegradable and nonbiodegradable items.

6. Review the effects of land without vegetation (erosion).

How does polluted land change over time?

How has man polluted the water?

Identify the major sources of water pollution

Explain eutrophication Discuss how pollutants

leach into the water Discuss thermal pollution

Use 2 beakers – 1 with green food coloring and coffee; the other clear.

1. Have students develop a list of all the uses for water.

2. Have students work in teams to research pathogens that contaminate water.

3. Have students read about how single rivers are used in 3rd world countries (washing, cooking, bathing, sewage disposal, garbage disposal, etc.).

4. Display a color satellite photo of the Chesapeake Bay. Have students determine why it is various colors.

5. Use charts showing oxygen solubility in water at different temperatures.

Why is water so important to us?What is a pathogen?What are some pathogens that contaminate or are spread through polluted water?Why are poor countries more likely to have water pollution? How does this affect the health of their residents?How do toxic chemicals get into our rivers? Why should we be concerned about the levels of these chemicals? How do rises in water temperature affect life in lakes and rivers?

How is sewage treated?

Define sewage and identify its sources

Describe the process of sewage treatment in the U.S.

Have students create a list of places in the home where sewage comes from.

1. Use a diagram of a sewage treatment plant.

2. Have students do research on 5 common pollutants in sewage. They are to report on how it enters the water, and the steps required to remove them.

3. If possible do a field trip to a sewage treatment plant.

What is sewage and where does it come from?What are the dangers associated with dumping raw sewage?How do we treat sewage water?Why is it important to treat sewage water?

How is our water “cleaned” for drinking?

Describe the process of water purification Identify possible

pathogens that could be in unpurified water

Describe the benefits and

Filter a soil-water mixture.

1. Have students determine the amount of fresh water in the world.

2. Have students explain why they would not drink water from an aquarium.

Why is fresh water such a valuable resource?Use you observations to explain sedimentation and filtration.How does coagulation work in water treatment?How does the use of chlorine help make our drinking water safer? What are some dangers in


problems of chlorination 3. Add 3 tablespoons of prepared soil (equal parts of sand, gravel, and clay) to a large cylinder. Stopper and shake. Allow water to stand. Students observe the rate at which the materials settle out. Then pour the water from the cylinder into a filter into a beaker.

4. Use the filtered water from

#3 and add powdered alum (Al2(SO4)3 18 H2O) to the filtered sample. Allow to stand for 20 minutes. Have students observe it become clearer.

5. Show a diagram of a water treatment plant.

using chlorine in our drinking water?


UNIT TEN: Protecting and Restoring the EnvironmentLIVING ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION: Standard 4 – Performance indicators 1.1a, 1.1f, 2.2a, 7.1c, 7.2a, 7.2b, 7.2c, 7.3a, 7.3b AIM PERFORMANCE



How can soil loss be prevented?

Define erosion Describe the methods of

erosion List three methods of

preventing erosion

One tray with soil, one tray with grass in soil (sod). Tilt and run water in each. Collect the runoff.

1. Set up 2 trays of soil. Insert a row of dominoes about 3 cm apart in one tray (stand on their short ends). Turn a blow dryer on one tray and then the other.

2. Show pictures of different types of farming, including terracing.

3. Provide students with reading on farming methods.

What are the two main ways in which topsoil is lost?How has farming led to increased erosion?Why is erosion of topsoil a major concern?How can we prevent topsoil erosion?

Why should the Earth’s atmosphere be protected?

Discuss the role of the ozone layer

Explain the effect of increase in greenhouse gases

Explain how man has changed the balance in the atmosphere

Relate the effects of particulate matter in the air to health

Show students a picture of smog over a city. Have students do free writing about what it would be like to live there.

1. Show atmospheric pictures of the changes in the ozone layer over the Antarctic.

2. Use a transparency to show the effect of greenhouse gasses.

3. Burn a small amount of sulfur. Then pour a small amount of H2SO4 on some rock.

4. Test the pH of some water and then add drops of acid. Remeasure the pH.

5. Do particulate lab.

Why is the ozone layer important to us?How has human activity increased the number of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere?How have increased greenhouse gasses impacted life on Earth?Why is sulfur dioxide of concern to us?How does acid rain affect a food chain?What causes particulates in the atmosphere? Why are particulates a concern of environmental groups?

Why should the Earth’s aquatic areas be protected?

Discuss the ocean as sources of food and oxygen

Explain the role of estuaries for migratory birds and other animals

Give a set of true false questions relating to facts or misconceptions about the oceans.

1. Have students brainstorm ways in which people use water.

2. Refer back to material on the marine biome.

3. Take some water from an aquarium and ask students if they would drink it.

4. Have students research (through readings) the impact of pathogens on drinking water.

Why is water important?How do we use the oceans? Why are oceans important to all life on Earth?Why should contaminants such as garbage and pathogens be kept out of the aquatic areas?How will the loss of aquatic habitats impact life on Earth?

Why should the Earth’s biodiversity be

Define biodiversity List examples of potential

products that would lost

Give a word jumble with four letters filled in.

1. Display a variety of objects that are made possible through biodiversity

What is biodiversity?Why is biodiversity important?Why are we so worried about extinction?


preserved and protected?

Research an endangered species

Describe methods by which biodiversity can be preserved

Develop a list of the effect of these efforts

Compare natural efforts to artificial

Give another with 2 letters filled in.

(foods, cloth, medicines, etc.) Ask students to explain how their lives would be different without them.

2. Ask each student to come up with the names of 3 or 4 organisms. Go up and down each row. Have a student record each on the board. Continue until there are 100 organisms. Explain that is the number of species that become extinct each day.

3. Display an overhead transparency of the world’s rainforests. Use a paper cut out the size of the state of Oregon to explain that this represents the amount of rain forest lost each year.

4. Have students research and create a poster or tee shirt logo for an endangered species.

5. Discuss the use of nature preserves versus breeding in captivity for release to the wild.

What will loss of the rain forest represent to life on Earth?Why are poor, third world countries more at risk for loss of biodiversity?What are the good and bad points of nature preserves?

How can problem insects be safely eliminated?

Discuss the negative effects of insecticides

Explain how alternative methods (pheromones, new predators, sterilization) produce results

List some of the possible danger of the non chemical methods

Discuss the benefits of immediate vs. long termresults

Show insect spray and an insect trap. Have students compare and contrast.

1. Have students read the side of a can of insecticide.

2. Show students pictures of harmful and beneficial insects.

3. Have students develop a list of dangers of using insecticides.

4. Refer back to natural selection. Have students discuss how resistant species occur.

5. Provide students with reading materials on biological controls.

How does an insecticide impact all of the insects in an ecosystem?How may insecticides harm other organisms?How do insects become resistant to an insecticide?What are the problems and benefits of using biological controls?


How can pollution be reduced?

Discuss reduce, reuse, recycle

Compare the benefit of each

Classify different products by how they should be recycled.

1. Display a can of motor oil. Have students determine how it is harmful to the environment. Have them suggest ways in which to dispose of it that are not harmful.

2. Have students use hand lenses to examine new and recycled paper. Students use observations to some of the drawbacks of recycled paper and suggest uses for recycled paper.

3. Students work in teams to develop a list of materials that are currently recycled. They are to write one benefit of recycling the material. Each team presents its list. Other teams may add new information to their list.

4. Students compare reuse and reduce to recycle.

Why should substances like motor oil be recycled?Why do we need to recycle items like aluminum and other metals?What are the drawbacks to recycling?How does reusing and reducing differ from recycling?What are the benefits of each?

How does the government help protect the environment?

Identify the local, state, and federal government agencies and their responsibilities in environmental issues

Describe how legislation for environmental issues is introduced and enacted

in the local community Describe how to

communicate environmental issues to the various governmental agencies

Explain the Endangered Species Act

True – false test on laws and misconceptions.

1. Distribute copies of a newspaper or magazine article in which a type of pollution from one state affected the quality of life in another state.

2. Distribute copies of a proposed piece of environmental legislation. Have students work in teams to present arguments for or against the legislation.

3. Have students select an environmental problem and devise a strategy for getting the government to act on it.

4. Present the Endangered Species Act.

How does pollution travel across state lines?What is meant by the expression “quality of life?”How might the state being polluted obtain relief from the problem?How do businesses and other interests influence legislation?How can we communicate our concerns to the government about environmental issues?What is the Endangered Species Act trying to accomplish?


What jobs are available for people interested in protecting the environment?

List and describe current environmental jobs

Describe how to get information on a specific environmental job

Identify environmental jobs that are private sector jobs and those that are gov’t jobs

Distinguish the different goals and outcomes of each sector

Have students match a list of environmental jobs to the job descriptions.

1. Develop a list of current and future environmental careers. Have students use the library or the internet to research a description of the career including the educational requirements.

Have students make presentations on one of the careers they have researched.


APPENDIX

The appendix contains ideas for implementing the activities and enrichments, as well as the key words that we can use to have students demonstrate competence in the standards. These are in no way complete nor are they completely descriptive. That would require additional pages and several workshops to be effective. We have also included a section on student self-assessment for many of the activities and projects. In addition, there is a section on projects that meet the S8 standard.

Keywords Used to Describe Activities that Demonstrate Competence in New York City Science Performance Standards

Adopt an areaAnalyze the risk(s)Brochure/PamphletBuild a working model/representational modelCompare accuracyCompare and contrastConcept mapConduct an investigation/study (local area/specific problem/question)Construct a technological deviceCritique an articleDebate an issue/positive and negative consequencesDetermine characteristicsDevelop a planDevelop a program (ex. recycling)Draw a diagram (trace an activity)Evaluate claims/benefits/risks/evidence/accuracyExchange dataExpert panel to describe/explain a phenomenon or processExplain how a phenomenon or process works/the relationshipField research programHypothesizeIdentify/evaluateInvestigate effectivenessLibrary researchMake predictions based on an activityWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 42

Make a timelineOral reportPicture bookPropose modifications to an existing technologyResearch a theory/development of.../recent advancesRepeat historical experimentsStoryboard presentationStudent group presentationsStudy different methodsTeach a concept to other studentsTest a hypothesisUse Internet to collect information/share informationVideo presentationWrite a research paper/short story/poemWrite an advertisement

Basic Activities That Can be Developed in Science Classes

1. Comparing and ContrastingAllows students to identify similarities (comparing) and differences (contrasting) between organisms, objects, processes, or phenomena. Qualitative and quantitative observations are made, organized into tables,and can even be used to make keys for identification.

a. Making Lists of Similarities and Differences Between Objects. For the “similarities list” there will be only one characteristic - as it is the same for both. For the “differences list” there will be two characteristics given in the same order of the organisms listed in the title.

Paramecium and Ameba Similarities Differences 1 cell organism cilia/no cilia nucleus maintains body shape/changing body shape eats other organisms mouthlike opening/wraps around food

b. Make a Table of Differences between Objects. The characteristic for each difference is placed beneath the object name and a row name is given for each difference.

Differences Between the Paramecium and Ameba Paramecium AmebaLocomotion Organ Cilia NoneWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 43

Body Shape Oval/Rigid ChangesFood Intake Mouthlike opening Wraps around food

c. Dichotomous Keys can also be made that make use of similarities and differences. To separate objects in a key, they either have an attribute or they do not.

Single Cell Organisms: Paramecium, Ameba, Bacteria Nucleus: Paramecium, Ameba No Nucleus: Bacteria Cilia: Paramecium No Cilia: Ameba

d. Comparing and Contrasting is essential when analyzing a specific question or problem. For example, you might compare the early (Eohippus - Dawn Horse) and modern (Equus) horses and determine which would be best adapted to living in a specific environment.

Differences Between Eohippus and Equus Eohippus EquusSize small largeToes 4/front One 3/hindTeeth short-crowned long-crowned

By making a comparison table you can now decide which characteristics would be best adapted to a specific environment. For example, Eohippus, the Dawn Horse, would be more adapted to living in a marsh area since it is smaller (weighs less) and has more toes (more area to spread its weight onto).

e. In a Controlled Experiment there should be only one contrasting factor between the Control and the Experimental Group. Students should be able to make a list of all factors that must be kept the same in a specific experiment. For example, suppose you wanted to test the effect of nitrogen on plant growth - what other factors would have to be kept the same?

water, light, soil, temperature, pH, available gases, etc.

Be specific for each factor. For example, when you state water you should really indicate: type of water, amount of water, temperature of water, pH of water.


f. Comparing different objects/methods allows scientists to determine efficiency and/or accuracy.

2. Visual Representations of Information/DataInformation and data can be presented in many different formats. It is important to determine the purpose of your presentation so you may select the best method to present your information/data.

a. Table, Graphs, and Charts b. Brochure/Pamphletc. Advertisementd. Concept Mape. Draw a Diagram f. Timelineg. Picture Bookh. Storyboardi. Audio/Video Presentationsj. Build a Model

3. Studies, Investigation, and Experimentsa. Conduct an Investigation/Study/Experimentb. Hypothesizec. Repeat Historical Experimentsd. Test a Hypothesise. Make Predictions based on Investigation/Study/Experimentf. Field Research Programg. Adopt an Areah. Develop a Program4. Technology and Sciencea. Exchange data with students in other states/countriesb. Use Internet to Collect/Share informationc. Use Computer Interfaces to Collect Datad. Obtain information from global/national/local databasese. Research/Predict Impact of Technology and Sciencef. Construct a Technological Devise

5. Evaluations/Assessmentsa. Critiques (scientific article)b. Review (book, movie)c. Claims/Benefits/Risks/Evidence Collection and Sources/Accuracy/EffectivenessWritten by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 45

d. Identify a Specific Situation/Problem/Program - then Evaluatee. Propose Modificationsf. Methods of Data Collection/Assumptions/Limitationsg. Statistical Evaluation of Data

6. Communication of Scientific Ideasa. Debatesb. Expert Panelsc. Oral Reportsd. Student Group Reportse. Teach a Conceptf. Write Instructionsg. Creative/Technological Writingh. Devising Alternative Explanationsi. Research Reports

The following are some possible research project proposals that can be used to meet the S8 standard:

HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH1. Reintroduction of local species back to the Bronx.2. Study of plant and microorganism symbiotic relationships (i.e. Nitrogen fixing bacteria,

algae, etc.).


3. Examination of plant growth comparisons: dwarf/bush vs. normal, hybrids vs. non-hybrid, heirloom vs. modern, drought resistant vs. normal, native vs. alien. Companion planting, soil conditioners, fertilizers, etc.

LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES1. Survey of soil studies of our local area: type (sand, silt, clay), pH, organic matter, organisms

(macro/micro), minerals (macro/micro), water drainage/retention, etc.2. Identification of plant products from our local area: food, wood, medicine, alcohol, fibers,

other products.3. Monitoring the climatic conditions/abiotic factors of our Urban Biome and its effects on the

local flora and fauna.4. Study of the aquatic and wetlands habitats including the School/local gardens, Van

Cortlandt/Bronx Parks, and the Bronx River.5. Implementation of Plant Identification Program for our local area.6. Enchanted Garden that will identify and collect local plant species so that they can be

correctly mounted and labeled and used as teaching aids in our local elementary and junior high schools.

7. Creation of site maps of tree populations (location, height, height at dbh, etc.) and comparisons to previous mapping records.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH1. Historical study of our local area, and how changes/pollution/technology have affected our

community2. Identification of world-wide biome, comparison/contrast, historical development, urban and

agriculture biomes, civilization development, and changes over time.3. Identification of natural resources of local area/biome(s), past and present, and how these

resources have been protected (agencies, laws, special interest groups) over time.


4. Service and historical research of a local environmental political interest environmental group (ex. Jerome Park Conservancy)

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE EDUCATION/NETWORKING1. Development and implementation of an Environmental Education Program for elementary

and junior high school students. The goal of this program will be to train students/teachers in the use of environmental study techniques and equipment that stress low-cost start up and ingenuity. Have science contests/fairs to encourage science inquiry in the lower grades.

2. Paper making (historical, artistic, using local plants, with recycled paper, etc.) and extraction of natural dyes from plants.

3. Development of a computer database to process information and to network with different school and community resources such as libraries, people, museums, business, industry, and government industries.

4. Collaboration with college and university programs, faculty, students, resources, and joint projects/grants.

BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT1. Grow cash produce outdoor/indoor: herbs, flowers, fruits/vegetables, and plants.2. Manufacture Secondary Products: wreaths, cards, etc.3. Creation of Educational Games/Products.4. Creation of How to Videos, Pamphlets.5. Establishment of a High School Science Store: Shirts, Seeds, Recipe Book, etc.

IMROVING THE ENVIRONMENT1.Institute projects that focus on improving our environment. They could focus on recycling, waste disposal/treatment, alternative energy sources, community education, pollution reduction/control, etc.2. Maintenance and Improvement of School Composting, worm farming program.

ARTS & THE ENVIRONMENT1. Biological Illustration projects/Natural Arts of our Urban Biome.2. Photography, Drawings, Painting, Sculpture.3. Fresh/Dried Plant/Flower Arrangements.


4. Environmental Landscape.5. Video Documentation: The creation and maintenance of the Enchanted Garden.6. Computer Graphics: Environmental Club Web Site development/improvement.

Self-Assessment of Student Work in Inquiry Based LearningIt is essential that your students learn to assess their own work. This has several benefits: students accept responsibility for their work and its quality; students understand the strengths and weaknesses of their work, and can then apply their assessment strategies to all aspects of the scientific method. This has the added benefit of reducing teacher time required for evaluation of student work and projects - which means that more work and projects (individual, short-term, and extended) can be undertaken without fear of excessive, time consuming evaluations. In addition, teacher evaluation and critical comments can sometimes have little meaning to the students. Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 49

Students often do not understand what is “incorrect” and/or how to “fix it”. If a student tried his/her best to complete an assignment/project and it was “faulty,” then we must assume that the student did not have a clear expectation of what was wanted or how to produce the “desired product”. Therefore, by first producing an assessment model before beginning an assignment/ project, we can eliminate any possible uncertainties or confusion as to what would be an “ideal product.”

Assessment Using Existing ModelsThe first step in teaching student self-assessment is for students to observe model(s) of what is wanted. Most importantly, the students should decide what is “good” about the model and what is “bad” or could be “improved” from the model. However, when first training the students, self-assessment works best when there are at least two models that can be compared and contrasted. This allows students to essentially select the “desired characteristics” from the various models, and then put them together in their work/project. These “desired characteristics” then become the “assessment criteria” by which students can evaluate their work. For example, different textbooks contain information on the same topics but may use vastly different illustrations to help explain the same information. Some aspects of each illustration may then be selected as “good criteria,” so that when the students produce their own illustration, they make certain it contains the “good criteria” from each illustration. Then, when assessing their work, they can confidently provide themselves with maximum number of points by fulfilling the assessment criteria. In essence, the assessment criteriabecome the “checklist” by which students can continuously check to see that their work/project has incorporated the desired characteristics, and ultimately, determine how well their product met the assessment criteria.

Assessment Based Upon ExpectationsWhen assessing written material (or speeches, seminars, lessons, etc.) the first step is for students to decide what information is “important” or should be found in the written material. For example, if you were going to look up vitamin C in the encyclopedia, what information would you expect to find about vitamin C (sources, why it’s needed in the body, what happens if you don’t get enough, other names, history, etc.)? Then you can determine how well the encyclopedia addresses each “important information criteria” you expected to find. Once again, students develop a clearer understanding of Written by Bart Bookman and Gary Carlin for the Office of the Superintendent of Bronx High Schools 50

how well a written source addresses “important information criteria” when they have other sources/articles to compare to the original. In many cases, this also allows students to add, substitute, or delete “important information criteria” from their original list.

Ranking Assessment CriteriaRegardless of whether you are assessing from models or expectations, you will be producing a list of assessment criteria (”desired characteristics”). However, not all criteria are of equal importance. For example, if you wanted to buy a used car, color and engine quality can be valid assessment criteria in selecting the car, but engine quality would probably be a far more important criterion than color. Therefore, it is important to rank your assessment criteria from the most important to the least important. This will allow you to then assign higher assessment values to the more important assessment criteria, and conversely, assign lower values to the less important criteria.

Scaling Assessment ValuesOnce you’ve decided how much value to assign to an assessment criterion, the next major task is to decide how much value to assign the information/work that you are assessing. In some instances this can be rather simple, such as whether specific information (such as a simple fact) is present or absent. But when the desired information requires “depth in explanation” or examines criteria such as “originality or creativeness’” the assignment of a criteria value requires a “scale. Using a scale ensures consistency in evaluations. It’s important that someone else who evaluates the work/project with the same assessment will determine the same (or within a reasonable range) overall evaluation value. In a simple scale, you can decide whether the information has not met, partially met, minimally met, met (basic requirement) completely met, or even exceeded the assessment criteria.

Thus, if an assessment criterion is worth 10 points, a scale might be made as follows: 0 = has not met 3 = partially met 5 = minimally met 7 = met basic requirement 10 = completely met/beyond


It is important to notice that there can be gaps between the scale values. This is especially true when assessment criteria are ranked more important and thus have higher assessment values. However, this does allow the rater to account for the variability in the information presented or in overall projects. For example, the rater may decide that an assessment criterion being addressed has been met fairly well - this in turn deserves more than a 7 for being met but not a 10 - so the rater selects a 9.

Overall AssessmentWhile it is important to determine assessment values for each assessment criterion, it is equally important that the student provide a rationale for the evaluation values they have selected. In addition, the assessment must also be reliable. It must provide assessment of the performance standards it was meant to measure. Therefore, the teacher’s evaluation must be of the students’ assessment and how much within reason students have indicated they have met or not met an assessment criterion. While some students may be quite generous, more often students tend to rather hard on themselves in assessments. One of the most important things we can do as teachers is to identify those areas in which students were to stringent and identify to the student why they deserved more scale points than they gave themselves.

This in turn allows the student the opportunity to indicate why they did not meet specific assessment criteria, and how they could improve the specific information/project so it would better meet the assessment criteria in the future. This is important, as it allows the student to understand the reason for revisions and identify the specific help they will need in addressing these revisions. Eventually, this provides the opportunity for students to understand that there is always room for improvement, and that answers to questions are not always as simple as initially expected.


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