Unit III Learning and IntelligenceChapters 9-11,13

Psychology

Unit 3: Learning and Intelligence

Critical Vocabulary

Classical Conditioning

• A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus

Operant Conditioning

• Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence

Social Learning

• Form of learning in which the organism observes, explores, and imitates the behavior of others

Cognition• Cognition is the

scientific term for "the process of thought".

• Thought depends on several processes & components: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules

Short-term Memory

• Memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items for a short period of time

Sensory Memory

• Very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor

Long-term Memory

• Refers to the storage of information in the human mind over extended periods of time

Recall

• The type of memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material without the aid of or with very few external cues

• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written?

Recognition

• The type of memory retrieval in which a person is required to identify an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has experienced before

• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written? A. 1774 B. 1776 C. 1970 D. 1965

Language

• A system of communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbols in ways that produce meaningful words and sentences

Creativity

• The ability to use information, invent new solutions to problems, or create original and ingenious materials

Learning

• A Relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

– 1)Inferred from a change in behavior or performance

– 2)Results in an inferred change in memory

– 3)The result of experience

– 4)Relatively permanent

Classical Conditioning

• Mental associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus

– Associating one stimulus with another

– In classical conditioning a person’s or an animal’s OLD response becomes attached to a NEWstimulus

Classical Conditioning

• IVAN PAVLOV—Does the name Pavlov ring a bell??

• While studying the digestive patterns of dogs, Pavlov noticed that just the sight and smell of food made the dogs salivate, so he began to study this and theorized CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical Conditioning

• Pavlov’s Dogs:

– A tuning fork is struck

– Food/meat powder is placed on the dog’s tongue

– Dog’s salivate

– Repeat several times

– Tuning fork is stuck

– Dog’s begin salivating at just the sound of the bell with out the presence of the food

Pavlov’s Dogs

Classical Conditioning

• General Principles:– N: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response,

but can cause a formally unrelated response

– UCS: an event that elicits a certain, predictable response without previous training

– UCR: an organisms natural or automatic response to a stimulus• REFLEXES!!!

– CS: the stimuli that causes the reaction/response after conditioning

– CR: the learned reaction

Classical Conditioning

• How does an animal or person acquire a conditioned response??

• A CS is paired with an UCS multiple times so that the CR is acquired and strengthened

N + UCS = UCRCS + UCS = CR

Classical Conditioning

• Sooo….how then were Pavlov’s Dogs conditioned???

UCS CS UCR CR

Presentationof the food or meat powder

The Tuning fork or bell

Salivation: food causes the dogs to

salivate regardless of

any conditioning

The dogs hear a bell and instantly salivate

N (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)

CS (bell) + UCS (food) = CR (hear bell, salivate)

Classical Conditioning• Common Conditional Responses:

Can you think of more from your own experience???!?!???!!

(1)N + UCS = UCR (2)CS + UCS= CR

Fear of the Dentist’s Drill

Sound of the Drill

Drilling into Teeth

Tension/Pain

Sound of Drill/Sight of Dentist

Drill into Teeth

HearDrill/See Dentist, Feel Tension and Pain

Advertising Slogan/ Song

Catchy Jingle or Slogan

Product Favorable Feeling

CatchyJingle or Slogan

Product Hear Song or Slogan,Get a Favorable Feeling

Loathing for the Police

Flashing Police Lights

Speeding Ticket

Anger/Fear Flashing Police Lights

Speeding Ticket

SeeFlashing lights, fell anger and fear

Classical Conditioning

• If I am trying to condition say…MY STUDENTS, how can I create the strongest association between the CS and the UCS?!?!

• The Strongest associations are made when the UCS is presented ½ second before the UCR

WHY?!

Classical Conditioning

• Say you wake up daily to the same alarm sound on your phone daily…this sound soon becomes very unpleasant and brings about a feeling of dread. What happens when you hear a similar sound throughout the day?

– You shutter and have that same feeling of unpleasant dread

• GENERALIZATION

Classical Conditioning

• Generalization: An animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS without prior training with the second stimulus

• EX. Pavlov’s tests with circles and ovals

• Can you think of ways this process is used in everyday life?!

Classical Conditioning

Stimulus DISCRIMINATION: the ability of an animal to respond differently to different stimuli—The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not

EXAMPLES?!

Classical Conditioning

• If a response can be learned or conditioned, can it become EXTINCT?!

• YES—EXTINCTION occurs when the CS is presented over time without the UCS causing a Disappearance of the CR

• Can it come back?! YES– Spontaneous Recovery: when a CR has become extinct, it does not mean it is completely gone, it may reappear but NOT at its original strength

Classical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior:

– 1)Emotional Responses

– 2)Fear Responses

– 3)Taste Aversions

Little Albert

By: John Watson

Classical Conditioning

In what areas can humans benefit from classical

Conditioning?!

Classical Conditioning

How are we Classically Conditioned in our

Everyday lives?!

Classical Conditioning in TV

• The Office

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU

• The Big Bang Theory

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4&feature=related

• Super Size Me

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpRQhVd63Y8

Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence

• How to control one’s environment to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment

• Learning from the consequences of Behavior!

• Will the subject operate or respond the same way in the future??

Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning• The process in which a

person’s NATURALresponses become attached to a new stimulus

• Reacting to a person’s environment

• Natural to salivate at food, this becomes attached or associated with the bell

Operant Conditioning• The study of how

VOLUNTARY behavior is affected by its consequences

• Learner operates on their environment

• NO stimulus

• Learning from the consequences of behavior choices

Operant Conditioning• REINFORCEMENT: Stimulus or event that

follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Occurs when something the animal wants is ADDED after

the action

Teach a dog a trick with treats!

Occurs when something Unpleasant

is TAKEN AWAY or AVOIDED if the animal

performs the action

Punish a dog with yelling

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement MUST occur BEFORE there is a CHANGE in Behavior

BEHAVIOR

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

CHANGED Behavior

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner1950

The Skinner Box: Taught a rat to respond to lights

and sounds in a specially enclosed box

A rat, placed in the Skinner box, must learn how to

solve the problem of how to get food to

appear in a cup.

Operant Conditioning

Primary Reinforcers

• Satisfies a biological need

–Hunger

– Thirst

– Sleep

Secondary Reinforcers

• One that has been paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforced

– MONEYMORE EXAMPLES?!?!

What is a reinforcer for one person is not necessarily the same for another person

Operant Conditioning

CHIMP-O-MAT• WOLF– to get food, chimps

must 1st get a poker chip to place in a slot to get food. Soon chimps begin to save, spend, and steal chips like humans do with money

• Poker chips become conditioned reinforcers for the chimpsPoker chips as a Secondary

Reinforcer

Operant ConditioningContinuous

Reinforcement Schedule

• Behavior that is reinforced EVERY time it occurs

• To get the best behaviorreinforcement every time

• Quick extinction is the reinforcement stops

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

• Positive behavior occurs only intermittently

• Acquired more slowly, but more persistent

• Behavior lasts longer

• Animals respond differently to each Partial reinforcement schedules **Reinforcement is dependent

on FREQUENCY and TIMING

Operant ConditioningSchedules of Reinforcement—The Skinner Box

Fixed-Ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of

responsesFood given after a fixed number of responses

Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement is provided after a variable

number of responsesNumber of responses required to get food changes each time

Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement is based on a time schedule

Food given after a certain amount of time elapses

Variable-Interval: Reinforcement is provided from time to

time at a variable rateAmount of time required to get food changes each time

Operant Conditioning

• FIXED RATIO: getting paid per jobs done; sell this much, get this much; 5 fouls= ejection from basketball

• VARIABLE RATIO: slot machines; telemarketing—never know when response will happen next; the more you try, the more you get

Operant Conditioning

• Fixed-Interval: test cycle of 9 week course about one test per week: study really hard right before the test, but not as much afterwards; pay-check cycle

• Variable-Interval: calling a friend, but getting a busy signal and calling back until they answer; Slow, but Steady

Operant Conditioning

• INTERVAL SCHEDULES = TIME

• RATIO SCHEDULES = # of RESPONSES

• Variable Less extinction; most human relationships reinforced this way

Operant Conditioning

• A painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed

• Follows and negates a behavior Takes away

• Escape or avoidance

• behavior is repeated and increases in frequency

• 2 Types: ESCAPE CONDITIONING: training and organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus & AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING: prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts

Negative Reinforcement

OPERANT CONDITIONING

PUNISHMENT

• An unpleasant consequence occurs after a behavior, decreasing the frequency of the behavior

• Behavior that is punished decreases or is NOT repeated

• CONS: 1) unwanted side effects 2) avoidance of punisher 3) may only suppress, but not diminish behavior 4) must be paired with positive coaching and modeling to truly work

Operant Conditioning

Negative Reinforcement

1. Unpleasant stimulus

2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus

EX: Loud noise in study area, move to a new study area and from now on avoid the loud place

Punishment

1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus

EX: shocking

2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus

EX: Not allowed to have dessert

Operant Conditioning

What are some reasons to avoid punishment situations, and instead

rely on positive reinforcement?

Operant Conditioning

How could a therapist using classical or operant conditioning help cigarette

smokers quit smoking?

Operant Conditioning

Describe two TV or radio commercials and how they use classical or

operant conditioning.

Social Learning

Social Learning: The 3rd type of Learning

What are the 1st and 2nd?

Explain them!

Social Learning

• Social Learning, consisting of cognitive learning and modeling, involves how people make decisions and act upon the information available to them

Social learning is the Process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the

behavior of others

Social Learning

The Bobo Doll

Albert BANDURA’s experiment with modeling

An adult modeled extreme aggression towards the doll, and when left alone the children who observed this did as well

Social Learning

BOBO DOLL

Bandura

• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586465813762682933#

Social Learning

• There are 2 types of Social Learning

Cognitive Learning

Modeling

Social Learning

• Cognitive Learning: is a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation

• How our brain and biological makeup enables us to learn

Social Learning

• Edward Tomlin’s Cognitive Map of Mazes

• A rat was placed in a maze with food at the opposite side, the rat began to learn how to take the quickest path to the food every time, even when the route was altered.

• The rat had developed a cognitive map of the maze

Social Learning

Cognitive Maps

A mental picture of spatial relationships

or relationships between events

What do you have a cognitive map of?!

Draw on your COGNITIVE MAP of Marcus to draw a

physical map with a partner!

Social Learning

• Behavioralism deals mostly with OBSERVABLE behavior, however…

• LATENT LEARNING is learning that is NOT demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior

• This is learning that may occur in the absence of reinforcement, but is only seen when a reinforcer is present….EXAMPLES?!

Social Learning

Think back to Operant Conditioning, learning is based on our reactions to the

consequences of our behaviors…What if however, our actions and behaviors have no

effect? What would happen to our behavior?

Social Learning

• Learned Helplessness [Laziness]: a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable

• If rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work!

Social Learning

What would a person’s response likely be to learned

helplessness?!

Social Learning

1) Stability—Helplessness that results from a permanent characteristic

1) Temporary—I did bad because I was tiered

2) Stable—I always do bad

2) Globality—I am just dumb; I am bad at everything

1) Internality—Thinking or blaming the problem on yourself, rather than external factors

Social Learning

MODELING—The 2nd type of Social Learning

Modeling is learning by imitating others; copying behavior

3 types: Modeling, Observable Learning, and Disinhibition

Social Learning

3 Types of Modeling Wall Chart:

In 3 groups, we will create a chart that illustrates the three types of Modeling

Define the type, give an example, and demonstrate it

Social Learning

• Modeling– the behavior of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same thing

• No new learning is really occurring, we just use old responses in new situations based on trends, peers, etc.

Social Learning

• OBSERVABLE LEARNING– imitation; watch someone do something and then you are able to reproduce it again when you could not before

• Each person is affected differently by their observations—violent games/movies elicit different responses from different kids

Social Learning

• DISINHIBITION—when an observer watches someone else engage in a threatening activity without punishment, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior later

• How can this be both good and bad?!

Memory and Thinking

FLASHBULB MEMORY

9/11/01Where were you? What were you doing?

Memory

What is Memory??

–Memory-storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.

INPUT-Information coming IN.

Memory En

cod

ing the

transforming of information so the nervous system can process it

Sto

rage the process

by which information is maintained over a period of time

Ret

riev

al the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory

Memory

• Encoding: using the sense to remember information: ACOUSTIC CODES, VISUAL CODES, SEMANTIC CODES

• Storage: maintaining info over time; information can be stored for a life time or just a few seconds depending on the effort put into encoding it

• Retrieval: bringing the stored info back to mind

CENTRAL PROCESSING

• Sensory Storage-information is held for a second or two.

• Short term memory-information is kept in the mind as long as you repeat it. [limited in capacity]

• A. rehearsal-repeat information to keep in memory.

• B. chunking-organize information into a collection or category…makes it easier to remember

Mnemonics: Chunking

• phone number sequence of 4-7-1-1-3-2-4 would be “chunked” into 471-1324

Mnore MnemonicsMusic Mnemonics: singing your “A-B-Cs!”

Name Mnemonics: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.)

Expression or Word Mnemonics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, and Subtract = Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.

Model Mnemonic:

Mnany Mnore MnemonicsRhyme Mnemonic: for the number of days in each month is:30 days hath September, April, June, and November. All the rest have 31Except February my dear son.It has 28 and that is fineBut in Leap Year it has 29.

Note Organization Mnemonics: note cards, outlines, Cornell style notes

Image Mnemonics: Visualize an image to help you remember.What is a numismatist? Visualize a new mist rolling onto a beach from the ocean and beach is made of coins. Silly? Of course, but sillyography makes it is easier to remember that a numismatist is a coin collector.

How about using a bad joke to help you remember? Picture two numismatists having a drink for "old dime's sake." Corny? Yes, but cornography often makes things easier to remember.

And one more. . .

Memory

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

WORKING MEMORY

Can you remember this?• Long term memory-storing for future use;

contains representations of countless facts, experiences, and sensations

• Semantic memory-knowledge of language, of meanings

• Episodic memory-events from our own life.

• Declarative memory-knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed

• Procedural memory-learned skills that does not require conscious recollection

Memory

• Sensory Memory

attention

• Short-Term (Working) Memory

Encoding/Maintenance Rehearsal

• Long-Term Memory

Retrieval

Let’s remember this forever!

• Output-retrieving items in memory.

• Recognition-identify something familiar.

• Recall-active reconstruction of info.

• Eidetic - photographic memory

• Confabulation – memories that are a confusion of imagined events with actual events

• Forgetting - info that cannot be retrieved from LTM (Long term Memory).

Just for Memory• Decay-fading away of memory over time

• Proactive interference- earlier memory blocks a new one.

• Retroactive interference- new memory blocks old one.

• Repression-forget unpleasant experience (defense mechanism)

Which is the correct penny? Do you RECOGNIZE it?

Chapter 11: Thinking and Language

Objectives: 1. Identify the units of thought and the kinds of thinking.2. Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem solving.

The Most Intelligent Prince

A king wants his daughter to marry the smartest of 3 extremely intelligent young princes, and so the king's wise men devised an intelligence test.

The princes are gathered into a room and seated, facing one another, and are shown 2 black hats and 3 white hats. They are blindfolded, and 1 hat is placed on each of their heads, with the remaining hats hidden in a different room.

The king tells them that the first prince to deduce the color of his hat without removing it or looking at it will marry his daughter. A wrong guess will mean death. The blindfolds are then removed.

You are one of the princes. You see 2 white hats on the other prince's heads. After some time you realize that the other prince's are unable to deduce the color of their hat, or are unwilling to guess. What color is your hat?

Note: You know that your competitors are very intelligent and want nothing more than to marry the princess. You also know that the king is a man of his word, and he has said that the test is a fair test of intelligence and bravery.

thinking

Changing and reorganizing information stored in memory to create new information

The Units of Thought and Language

Images, Symbols, Concepts, Prototypes, Rules

image

A visual representation of an event or object

symbol

An abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality

concept

Label for a class of objects or events that have at least one attribute in common

prototype

A representative example of a concept

rule

A statement of relation between concepts

3 Kinds of Thinking:

1) Metacognition

2) Convergent Thinking

3) Divergent Thinking

metacognition

The awareness of one’s own cognitive processes; “thinking about your thinking”

Convergent thinking

A systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer; aka “directed thinking”

Divergent thinking

Free flow of thoughts with no particular plan and depends more on images; aka “nondirected”

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

Algorithm v. Heuristics

algorithm

A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

heuristic

A rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy

OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Mental Sets, Rigidity, Functional Fixedness

Mental set

A habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving

Functional fixedness

The inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects

CREATIVITY—ENHANCING PROBLEM SOLVING

creativity

The capacity to use information and/or abilities in a new and original way

flexibility

The ability to overcome rigidity in thinking

recombination

Mentally rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution

insight

The sudden realization of the solution to a problem; “aha!” “Eureka!”

LANGUAGE STRUCTURE

language

The communication of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules

phoneme

An individual sound that is a basic structural element of language

syntax

Language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences

semantics

The study of meaning in language