CHAPTER 10 Nuclear Chemistry General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry Janice Gorzynski Smith
Unit 23 Organic and Biological Chemistry
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Transcript of Unit 23 Organic and Biological Chemistry
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Unit 23Organic and
Biological Chemistry
Dr. Jorge L. AlonsoMiami-Dade College –
Kendall CampusMiami, FL
Textbook Reference: •Chapter # 27•Module (None)
CHM 1046: General Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Chemistry• The chemistry of carbon
compounds.• Carbon has the ability to form long
chains.• Without this property, large
biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids could not form.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Carbon Compounds
• There are three hybridization states and geometries found in organic compounds:sp3 Tetrahedralsp2 Trigonal planarsp Linear
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Hydrocarbons
• Four basic types:AlkanesAlkenesAlkynesAromatic
hydrocarbons
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Alkanes
• Only single bonds.• Saturated hydrocarbons.
“Saturated” with hydrogens.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Formulas
• Lewis structures of alkanes look like this.• Also called structural formulas.• Often not convenient, though…
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Formulas
…so more often condensed formulas are used.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Properties of Alkanes
• Only van der Waals force: London force.• Boiling point increases with length of chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Alkanes
• Carbons in alkanes sp3 hybrids.• Tetrahedral geometry.• 109.5° bond angles.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Alkanes
• Only -bonds in alkanes
• Free rotation about C—C bonds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
IsomersHave same molecular formulas, but atoms are bonded in different order.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Nomenclature
• Three parts to a compound name:Base: Tells how many carbons are in the longest
continuous chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Nomenclature
• Three parts to a compound name:Base: Tells how many carbons are in the longest
continuous chain.Suffix: Tells what type of compound it is.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Nomenclature
• Three parts to a compound name:Base: Tells how many carbons are in the longest
continuous chain.Suffix: Tells what type of compound it is.Prefix: Tells what groups are attached to chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
To Name a Compound…
1. Find the longest chain in the molecule.
2. Number the chain from the end nearest the first substituent encountered.
3. List the substituents as a prefix along with the number(s) of the carbon(s) to which they are attached.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
To Name a Compound…
If there is more than one type of substituent in the molecule, list them alphabetically.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Cycloalkanes• Carbon can also form ringed structures.• Five- and six-membered rings are most stable.
Can take on conformation in which angles are very close to tetrahedral angle.
Smaller rings are quite strained.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Alkanes
• Rather unreactive due to presence of only C—C and C—H -bonds.
• Therefore, great nonpolar solvents.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Alkenes
• Contain at least one carbon–carbon double bond.• Unsaturated.
Have fewer than maximum number of hydrogens.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Alkenes
• Unlike alkanes, alkenes cannot rotate freely about the double bond.Side-to-side overlap makes this impossible without
breaking -bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Alkenes
This creates geometric isomers, which differ from each other in the spatial arrangement of groups about the double bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Properties of Alkenes
Structure also affects physical properties of alkenes.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Nomenclature of Alkenes• Chain numbered so double bond gets smallest possible
number.• cis- alkenes have carbons in chain on same side of molecule.• trans- alkenes have carbons in chain on opposite side of
molecule.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Alkenes
• Addition ReactionsTwo atoms (e.g., bromine) add across the double
bond.One -bond and one -bond are replaced by two
-bonds; therefore, H is negative.
{BrominationOfCyclohexene}
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Mechanism of Addition Reactions
• Two-step mechanism:First step is slow, rate-determining step.Second step is fast.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Mechanism of Addition Reactions
In first step, -bond breaks and new C—H bond and cation form.
In second step, new bond forms between negative bromide ion and positive carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Alkynes
• Contain at least one carbon–carbon triple bond.• Carbons in triple bond sp-hybridized and have
linear geometry.• Also unsaturated.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Nomenclature of Alkynes
• Analogous to naming of alkenes.• Suffix is -yne rather than –ene.
4-methyl-2-pentyne
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Alkynes
• Undergo many of the same reactions alkenes do.
• As with alkenes, impetus for reaction is replacement of -bonds with -bonds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Cyclic hydrocarbons.• p-Orbital on each atom.
Molecule is planar.
• Odd number of electron pairs in -system.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Aromatic Nomenclature
Many aromatic hydrocarbons are known by their common names.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
• Unlike in alkenes and alkynes, -electrons do not sit between two atoms.
• Electrons are delocalized; this stabilizes aromatic compounds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
• Due to stabilization, aromatic compounds do not undergo addition reactions; they undergo substitution.
• Hydrogen is replaced by substituent.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Structure of Aromatic Compounds
• Two substituents on a benzene ring could have three possible relationships ortho-: On adjacent carbons. meta-: One carbon between them. para-: On opposite sides of ring.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
Reactions of aromatic compounds often require a catalyst.
Halogenation
Friedel-Crafts Reaction
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Functional Groups
Term used to refer to parts of organic molecules where reactions tend to occur.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Functional Groups 1
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Functional Groups 2
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Organic Functional Groups 3
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Alcohols• Contain one or more hydroxyl groups, —OH
• Named from parent hydrocarbon; suffix changed to -ol and number designates carbon to which hydroxyl is attached.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Alcohols• Much more acidic than hydrocarbons.
pKa ~15 for most alcohols.
Aromatic alcohols have pKa ~10.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Ethers
• Tend to be quite unreactive.• Therefore, they are good polar solvents.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Carbonyl Compounds
• Contain C—O double bond.
• Include many classes of compounds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Aldehydes
At least one hydrogen attached to carbonyl carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Ketones
Two carbons bonded to carbonyl carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Carboxylic Acids
• Have hydroxyl group bonded to carbonyl group.
• Tart tasting.• Carboxylic acids are
weak acids. CH3COOH
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Carboxylic Acids
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Esters
• Products of reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols.
• Found in many fruits and perfumes.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Amides
Formed by reaction of carboxylic acids with amines.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Amines
• Organic bases.• Generally have strong, unpleasant odors.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Chirality• Carbons with four different groups attached to them are
handed, or chiral.• Optical isomers or stereoisomers• If one stereoisomer is “right-handed,” its enantiomer is “left-
handed.”
{Chirality} {Chirality&OpticalActv}
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Chirality
• Many pharmaceuticals are chiral.• Often only one enantiomer is clinically active.
S-ibuprofen
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Amino Acids and Proteins
• Proteins are polymers of -amino acids.• A condensation reaction between the amine end of
one amino acid and the acid end of another produces a peptide bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Amino Acids and Proteins
• Hydrogen bonding in peptide chains causes coils and helices in the chain.
• Kinking and folding of the coiled chain gives proteins a characteristic shape.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Amino Acids and Proteins
• Most enzymes are proteins.
• The shape of the active site complements the shape of the substrate on which the enzyme actshence, the “lock- and-key” model.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Carbohydrates
Simple sugars are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Carbohydrates
• In solution they form cyclic structures.
• These can form chains of sugars that form structural molecules such as starch and cellulose.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Nucleic Acids
Two of the building blocks of RNA and DNA are sugars (ribose or deoxyribose) and cyclic bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil).
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Nucleic Acids
These combine with a phosphate to form a nucleotide.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides combine to form the familiar double-helix form of the nucleic acids.