ThisprojecthasreceivedfundingfromtheEuropeanUnion’sSeventhFrameworkProgramme(FP7)forresearch,technologicaldevelopmentanddemonstrationundergrantagreementno.613034.

IMPACT

TSI WORKING PAPER NO. 08/2015

Unemployment,Volunteering,SubjectiveWell-BeingandMentalHealthImpactcoordinatorKarlHenrikSivesind

AuthorsDaigaKamerādeMatthewBennett

Recommendedcitationinformation:

Kamerāde,D.&Bennett,M.(2015)Unemployment,volunteering,subjectivewell-beingandmentalhealth, TSIWorkingPaperSeriesNo.8.SeventhFrameworkProgramme(grantagreement613034),EuropeanUnion.Brussels:ThirdSectorImpact.

IMPACT

Content

1Introduction.......................................................................................................................1

1.2Literaturereview:theeffectsofvoluntaryworkandwelfaregenerosityonwell-beingandmentalhealth.......................................................................................................................2

1.2DataandMethods..........................................................................................................41.2.1 Individuallevelvariables............................................................................................................41.1.2Contextuallevelvariables..............................................................................................................7

2AnalysesandPresentation................................................................................................9

2.1Bivariaterelationshipsbetweenunemploymentbenefitsandwell-beingmeasures....9

2.2Hierarchicallinearregressionresults...........................................................................13

3 Conclusion....................................................................................................................18

References..........................................................................................................................21

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1IntroductionAstheresultoflabourmarketflexibilisationorderegulation,manyEuropeancountriesarefacinggrowinglevelsofnon-standardformsofemploymentandmanyEuropeansareexperiencinggrowingjobinsecurityandshorterorlongerperiodsofunemployment(ETUC&ETUI,2013).Thecostsandrisksoftheincreasedinsecurityandjobmarketflexibilityareincreasinglyredistributedawayfromthestateandbusinessandbornlargelybytheunemployedthemselvesandtheirfamilies(Beck,2000).Thereisavastbodyofrobustevidencethattherangeofnegativeconsequencesofunemploymentiswide,andthattheeffectspersistlong-term.Unemploymentisassociatedwithsignificantfinanciallossesanddeclineinwell-being,mentalandphysicalhealthoftheunemployedthemselvesandtheirfamilies(forexampleseeoverviewsandmeta-analysisbyBrand,2015;McKee-Ryan,Song,Wanberg,&Kinicki,2005).Unemployedindividualsreporthigherlevelsofdepressivesymptoms,anxiety,lowerlevelsofself-esteem,confidence,lifesatisfaction,socialsupportandsenseofcontrol(Brand,Levy,&Gallo,2008;Darity&Goldsmith,1996;Jahoda,1981,1982;McKee-Ryanetal.,2005;Warr,Jackson,&Banks,1988).Longitudinalstudies,whereavailable,haveconfirmedthatthesenegativeeffectsarelargelytheresultofbecomingunemployed(socialcausation),nottheresultofindividualswithlowerwell-beingandmentalhealthmorelikelyendingupunemployed(individualdrift)(Hamilton,Hoffman,Broman,&Rauma,1993;L.Iversen&Sabroe,1987;LarsIversen&Sabroe,1988;LarsIversen,Sabroe,&Damsgaard,1989;Kasl&Cobb,1970;McKee-Ryanetal.,2005).Whilere-employmentreducessomeoftheseeffects,itdoesnoteliminatethem(Brand&Thomas,2014).Althoughsomevariationfrompersontopersonintheseeffectsofunemploymenthasbeenfound,thesenegativeeffectsareremarkablyconsistentacrosstimeandculture.Thiswell-establishedassociationbetweenunemploymentandpoorerwell-beingandmentalhealthraisethequestionhowcanthesenegativeeffectsofunemploymentbemitigated?Previousstudiestypicallyfocusonthemoderationoftherelationshipsbetweenunemploymentandwell-beingofage,lengthofunemployment,employmentcommitment,poverty,gender,employabilityandothervariablesthatarelargelyoutofindividual’sorstate’scontrol–theycanhelpexplainwhysomeunemployedpeopleexperiencedecreasedwell-beingbutnothowthedeclinescanbepreventedorlessened.Incontrastthisarticleexamineshowindividualsandthestatecanreducethenegativeeffectsofunemployment.Specificallyitfocusesontheeffectsofvoluntaryworkandwelfaregenerosityonthewell-beingandmentalhealthoftheunemployed.Atheoreticalcontributionofthisarticleisthatitextendsthepreviousresearchbyexaminingwhethervoluntaryworkcombinedwithgenerousunemploymentbenefitsdampensthenegativeeffectsofunemploymentonwell-beingandmentalhealth.Anothertheoreticalcontributionofthisarticle

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isthatitexaminescross-levelinteractionsbetweenwelfaregenerosityandvolunteering,whichallowsamorerefinedunderstandingoftheeffectsofunemploymentandfactorsmoderatingtheseeffects.Empirically,thisarticleincludesrelativelyrecentdatafromalargenumberofEuropeancountrieswithvariedlevelsofunemployment,volunteeringandwelfaregenerosity.1.2Literaturereview:theeffectsofvoluntaryworkandwelfaregenerosityonwell-beingandmentalhealthTwotheoriesdominatetheexplanationofwhyunemploymenthasnegativeeffectsonwell-beingandmentalhealth:Jahoda’sLatentDeprivationTheoryandFryer’sAgencyRestrictionTheory.AccordingtoJahoda(1982),unemploymenthasnegativewell-beingandmentalhealtheffectsbecauseincontemporarysocietypaidworkprovidesimportantmanifestandlatentbenefits.Themanifestbenefitofpaidworkisfinancialintheformofawage.However,accordingtoJahoda,workismorethanasourceofincome.Paidworkalsosuppliesseverallatentsocio-psychologicalbenefits,suchas,providingtimestructure,collectivepurpose,socialcontactsandsociallyvaluedorapprovedrolesorpositions,andactivity,includingopportunitiestouseone’sskills(Jahoda,1982).Anditisthelossoftheselatentpsychologicalandsocialbenefitsthatleadtoreducedwell-beingandmentalhealthduringunemployment.IncontrasttoJahoda,Fryerarguesthatthelossoflatentpsychologicalbenefitsaloneexplainsthenegativeeffectsofunemployment;thenegativeimpactofunemploymentisnotduetothelossoflatentbenefits,butrathertherestrictedagencyduetothelossofincomewhichputsindividualsinabsoluteorrelativepoverty;itistheexperienceofpovertythatreduceswell-beingandmentalhealth.AccordingtoFryer,unemploymentisoftenrelatedtoadecreasedagencyorsenseofcontroloverone’ssituationduetothelossofattachmenttoemploymentasasocialinstitution;individualswhoexperiencedecreasedcontrolduetounemploymentalsoexperienceadeclineintheirwell-being(Fryer,1986;Fryer,1992,2001;Fryer&Payne,1984).Evidencesuggeststhatthelossofincomeandthesocialandpsychologicalbenefitsofemployment,bothnegativelyaffectwell-beingandmentalhealth,withsomeindicationthatincomeaccountsforalargestproportionontheeffect(Creed&Macintyre,2001;Ervasti&Venetoklis,2010).Ifunemploymenthasnegativeeffectsduetothelossofincomeandsocialandpsychologicalbenefits,thenthesenegativeeffectscouldbereducedifothersocialinstitutionsprovideareplacementforthemanifestandlatentbenefits.InthisrespectthisarticlebuildsonBeck’s(2000)ideathatcivillabour-sociallyrecognisedandvaluedwork,suchasvoluntarywork,rewardedbycivicmoney–willbenefitsocietiesthatexhibitincreasingjobinsecurity,unemploymentandunderemployment.AccordingtoBeck,thisworkcanserveasanalternativesourceofactivity,identity,purposeandsocio-psychologicallatentbenefits.Voluntaryworkcombinedwithgenerouswelfarebenefitscouldreducenegativewell-beingandmentalhealtheffectsofunemploymentforthreereasons.Firstly,generouswelfarebenefits

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couldreducethenegativeeffectsthatpovertyandfinancialstrainduringunemploymenthasonmentalhealth(Weich&Lewis,1998).Secondly,volunteeringcanpotentiallycompensate,tosomeextent,forthelossofsocialandpsychologicalbenefitsfromaspaidwork,thusprovidingunemployedindividualswithopportunitiestoexercisetheiragencyviasocialinstitutionsalternativetoemployment.Thisarticlefocusesontheeffectsofformalunpaidvoluntaryworkcarriedoutinorganisationalsettingssuchascharities.Formalvoluntaryworkmaybe‘ameaningfulalternative’topaidwork(Ockenden&Hill,2009),asawaytocounteractthenegativepsychologicaleffectsofunemployment.Voluntaryworkscanbeanopportunityforindividualstoexertagencythroughsocialinstitutionsotherthanpaidwork,thusreducingpotentialnegativeeffectsonwell-being.Forexample,Bainesetal.(2008)foundthatpeoplewhowereexcludedfromthelabourmarketreportedthatvoluntaryworkprovidedthemwithawork-relatedidentityanddirectionandacted‘asanalternativetohavingajob’.Volunteeringinvolvesstructuringone’stime-gettingup,gettingdressedandleavingthehouseinordertoturnupintheplaceofvolunteeringintime(Davisetal.,2011).Volunteerworkcontributestoacollectivepurpose,suchasprovidingservicesforthoseinneedorassistinganorganisationinpromotingsomechangesinsociety.Volunteeringinvolvessocialcontacts–oneofthemostfrequentlymentionedreasonfor,andbenefitof,voluntaryworkismakingnewfriends(Corden&Sainsbury,2005;Low,Butt,EllisPaine,&DavisSmith,2007;Newton,Oakley,&Pollard,2011;Nichols&Ralston,2011).Volunteeringisvaluedinsociety,albeitnotashighlyaspaidworkasbuthigherthanbeingunemployed.Volunteeringcanprovideindividualswithanidentityalternativeto‘theunemployed’andopportunitiestouseskillstheyhave(Nichols&Ralston,2011;Ockenden&Hill,2009).Thirdly,voluntaryworkisanactivitythathassomepositiveeffectsonsubjectivewell-being,mentalandphysicalhealth(Wilson,2012).AsystematicreviewconductedbyJenkinsonetal.(2013)showssomeevidencethatvoluntaryworkreducesdepressivesymptoms,increaseslifesatisfactionandwell-beingandisrelatedtolowerlevelsofmortality,althoughthesefindingswerenotconfirmedbyexperimentalstudies.BinderandFreytag(2013)foundthatthewell-beingeffectsofvoluntaryworkarestrongerforthosewhohavelowerlevelsofwell-beingtostartwith,thereforeitispossiblethatvoluntaryworkcouldhaveapositiveeffectontheunemployed.Theexistingevidenceontheeffectsofvolunteeringonunemployedindividuals’well-being,mentalandphysicalhealthcurrentlyislimitedtosmallscalequalitativestudies(Baines&Hardill,2008;Corden&Sainsbury,2005;Newtonetal.,2011;Nichols&Ralston,2011),whicharelimitedintermsofgeneralisabilityandestablishingwhetherthepositiveeffectsofvoluntaryworkarenon-random;orstudiesthathavebeenconductedinasinglecountry(Griepetal.,2015).Drawingonthisliteratureweproposethreehypotheses.

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Hypothesis1:Volunteeringduringunemploymentispositivelyrelatedwithsubjectivewell-beingandmentalhealth-themorefrequentlysomebodyvolunteers,thehigheristheirsubjectivewell-beingandmentalhealth.Hypothesis2:Moregenerousunemploymentbenefitsarepositivelyrelatedtowell-beingandmentalhealthamongtheunemployed.Hypothesis3:Thepositiverelationshipbetweenvolunteeringduringunemploymentandpsychologicalwell-beingandmentalhealthisstrongerinthecountriesthathavemoregenerousunemploymentbenefits.

1.2DataandMethodsThearticleusesdata fromtheEuropeanQualityof LifeSurvey (EuropeanFoundation for theImprovementofLivingandWorkingConditions,2014).Thesedatacapturearangeofreliableself-reported mental health and subjective well-being measures, as well as information onvolunteering, unemployment, benefits received, poverty and a variety of demographicinformation.Theindividual-leveldatacontainedinEQLSwerematchedwithcountry-leveldatafrom various external sources (discussed in detail below). The analyses were restricted tounemployed respondents for whom complete individual and contextual information wasavailable for the dependent and independent variables. This resulted in a sample ofapproximately2,449respondents(dependingontheoutcomevariableintheanalysis)livingin29 countries.Weights were not used given the extreme data restrictions due non-responseacross dependent and independent variables and, most importantly, including onlyunemployedpeople.Theproblemofnon-responseorself-selectioniscommonusinglargescaledatasets, the article does however correct for some of this and tests the robustness of theresultsfrominitialhierarchicallinearmodelsbyperformingapropensityscoreanalysis.

1.2.1 IndividuallevelvariablesDependentvariablesThearticleusesfouroutcomemeasures:onecapturingmentalhealthandthreearecapturingsubjectivewell-being. Mental health ismeasuredusing theWorldHealthOrganizationWell-BeingIndex,whichrangesfrom0-100,whereascoreof0indicatesthelowestlevelofmentalhealthanda scoreof100 represents thehighest levelofmentalhealth (Henkelet al., 2003;Topp,Østergaard,Søndergaard,&Bech,2015).The first measure ofwell-being captures the respondent’s level of happiness. Respondentswereasked:“Takingallthingstogetheronascaleof1to10,howhappywouldyousayyouare?Here1meansyouareveryunhappyand10meansyouareveryhappy.”Thesecondmeasureofwell-being captures life satisfaction. Respondents were asked “All things considered, howsatisfiedwouldyousayyouarewithyourlifethesedays?Pleasetellmeonascaleof1to10,

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where1meansverydissatisfiedand10meansverysatisfied.”Thethirdmeasureofwell-beingcapturestheextenttowhichthey“generallyfeelthatwhatIdoinlifeisworthwhile.”Responsecategoriesrangedfrom“stronglyagree”,“agree”,“neitheragreenordisagree”,“disagree”,and“strongly disagree”. The response categories were coded from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5“stronglyagree”.ThedescriptivestatisticsfortheseoutcomevariablesaredisplayedinTable1.Despitesomescepticisminthesocialsciencesconcerningthevalidityofself-reportdata(e.g.seeNisbett&Wilson,1977),thesesubjectivewell-beingmeasurementshavebeenfoundtohavegoodconvergentvalidity:theyconvergewithothertypesofassessmentincludingexpertratingsbasedonin-depthinterviews,experiencesamplinginwhichfeelingsorlevelofsatisfactionarereportedatrandommomentsineverydaylife,participants’reportsofpositiveandnegativeeventsintheirlives,smilingandthereportsoffamilyandfriends(Dolan,Layard,&Metcalfe,2011;Pavot&Diener,1993;Pavot,Diener,Colvin,&Sandvik,1991;Sandvik,Diener,&Seidlitz,1993).Whilelevelsofreliabilityforsubjectivewell-beingmeasuresarelowerthanthosetypicallyfoundforsocalled‘objective’well-beingvariables(e.g.income,levelofeducation),theyaresufficientlyhightosupportmuchoftheresearchthatiscurrentlybeingundertakenonsubjectivewell-being,particularlyinstudieswheregroupmeansarecompared(Krueger&Schkade,2008;Pavot&Diener,1993).IndividuallevelindependentvariablesBasic descriptive statistics for all independent variables are displayed in Table 1 and thecorrelationmatrixforallkeyvolunteering,unemployment,benefits,povertyandcountrylevelvariablesisdisplayedinTable2.Table1.Descriptivestatisticsfordependentandindependentvariables.

Mean/proporti

on SD Min MaxDependentvariables Mentalhealth 58.46 22.31 0 100Happiness 6.63 2.17 1 10Satisfaction 5.90 2.47 1 10Worthwhile 3.63 1.04 1 5Backgroundcharacteristics Volunteerfrequency

Novolunteering 0.75

0 1Volunteersoccasionally 0.16

0 1

Volunteersregularly 0.09

0 1Female 0.52

0 1

Age 39.67 12.83 18 82Education

Primary 0.10

0 1Secondary 0.74

0 1

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Tertiary 0.17

0 1Maritalstatus

Divorced 0.15

0 1Married 0.50

0 1

Widowed 0.04

0 1Single 0.31

0 1

Housingtenure

Mortgage 0.15

0 1

Ownoutright 0.43

0 1Rent 0.36

0 1

Rentfree 0.05

0 1Othertenure 0.01

0 1

Religiousserviceattendance 1.87 1.04 1 5Deprivation 2.62 2.02 0 6Benefits 0.56

0 1

Health 3.73 0.97 1 5Longtermunemployed 0.55

0 1

CountryCharacteristics Unemploymentrate 11.36 4.61 4.10 21.70

GDP(PCPPP) 30.88 10.7015.28 91.47

Unemploymentbenefits 47.46 12.9622.00 74.00

Inequality 31.60 4.9823.00 45.30

Thefrequencyofvolunteeringwasmeasuredwithasetofthreedummyvariablesfromaquestionasking respondents to, “look carefullyat the list of organisationsand tell us, howoften did you do unpaid voluntary work through the following organisations in the last 12months?”. Response categories were “regularly (weekly or bi-monthly)”, “less often /occasionally”,and“notatall.”Longtermunemploymentwasmeasuredwithadummyvariablecoded1 if respondents reported that thereeconomic statuswas “unemployed12monthsormore” and coded 0 if they reported being “unemployed less than 12 months”. Long termunemploymentwasmeasuredwith a dummy variable coded 1 if respondents reported thatthere economic status was “unemployed 12months ormore” and coded 0 if they reportedbeing “unemployed less than 12 months”. Receipt of Benefits takes the value 1 if therespondent reported that they or a member of their household received unemployment,disabilityoranyothersocialbenefits,and0 ifnot.ADeprivation Indexwasusedtomeasurethenumberof things thehouseholdcouldafford.Respondentswereasked, “Thereare somethingsthatmanypeoplecannotafford,eveniftheywouldlikethem.Foreachofthefollowing

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thingsonthiscard1,canIjustcheckwhetheryourhouseholdcanafforditifyouwantit?”Thisvariablerangesfrom0to6.

Gender takes the value 1 if the respondent is female and 0 if male. Cross-nationallyfemales appear to volunteer less than males.Age is included as a continuous variable thatrangesfrom18to82.Levelofeducation isdistinguishedbyincludingdummyvariablescodedas 1 for each education level: “primary or less”; “secondary”; and “tertiary”.Marital statusindicatorswereincludedasasetofdummiesindicatingwhethertherespondentis“marriedorliving with partner”, “divorced or separated”, “widowed”, or “single”. Housing Tenure isdistinguished by including dummy variables coded as 1 for: “owns outright”, “owns withmortgage”, “rents”, “does not own, but does not pay rent”, or “other”. Frequencyof serviceattendancewasmeasuredwiththequestion,“Howfrequentlydoyouattendreligiousservices,apartfromweddings,funeralsorchristenings?”Responsecategorieswere“Everydayoralmosteveryday”(5) “At leastonceaweek”(4), “One to three timesamonth”(3), “Lessoften”(2),or“Never” (1). Religious service attendance ranges from 1-5.Health status ismeasuredwith aquestion asking respondents, “In general, would you say your health is…” with responsecategories “very bad”, “bad”, “fair”, “good”, or “very good”. The response categories werecodedfrom1“verybad”to5“verygood”.

1.1.2ContextuallevelvariablesUnemploymentbenefitswithinacountryweremeasuredusingnetreplacementrates(OECD,2011), which show the proportion of net income in work that is maintained after job loss.Higher values are indicative of greater benefit generosity in a society. The level ofunemploymentwithinacountryreferstotheshareofthelabourforcethatiswithoutworkbutavailableforandseekingemployment.Itismeasuredasunemploymentasapercentageofthetotal labour force (World Bank, 2011) where higher values equate to higher levels ofunemploymentwithinacountry.The income inequalityofacountrywasmeasuredusingtheGini coefficient(CIA, 2015). Smaller values indicate less income inequality within a country,while larger values indicate more income inequality. National economic development isincluded as the log of real GDP per capita in purchasing price parity for 2011 (in 1000s ofconstant2005internationaldollars),obtainedfromtheWorldBank(WorldBank,2011).Highervaluesindicatethatacountryismoreeconomicallydeveloped.

1a)Keepingyourhomeadequatelywarm;b)Payingforaweek’sannualholidayawayfromhome(notstayingwith relatives); c) Replacing anyworn-out furniture; d) Amealwithmeat, chicken, fish everyseconddayifyouwantedit;e)Buyingnew,ratherthansecond-hand,clothes;f)Havingfriendsorfamilyforadrinkormealatleastonceamonth.

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Table2.Correlationmatrixbetweenkeyvariables Dependentvariables Backgroundcharacteristics Countrycharacteristics

Men

talhealth

Hap

pine

ss

Satisfaction

Worthwhile

Novoluntee

ring

Voluntee

rs

occasion

ally

Voluntee

rs

regu

larly

Deprivation

Bene

fits

Long

term

un

employed

Une

mploymen

trate

GDP

PCPP

P

Une

mploymen

tbe

nefits

Ineq

uality

Depe

nden

tvaria

bles Mentalhealth 1.00

Happiness 0.50 1.00

Satisfaction 0.42 0.66 1.00

Worthwhile 0.35 0.42 0.41 1.00

Backgrou

nd

characteristics Novolunteering -0.04 -0.07 -0.08 -0.12 1.00

Volunteersoccasionally 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08

1.00

Volunteersregularly 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.09

1.00

Deprivation -0.30 -0.39 -0.39 -0.29 0.12 -0.09 -0.07 1.00

Benefits -0.05 -0.05 -0.04 -0.06 -0.05 0.00 0.07 -0.01 1.00

Longtermunemployed -0.04 -0.07 -0.09 -0.08 0.07 -0.09 0.00 0.16 -0.03 1.00

Coun

try

characteristics

Unemploymentrate 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 -0.06 0.12 -0.18 0.01 1.00

GDPPCPPP -0.02 0.09 0.10 0.04 -0.14 0.07 0.12 -0.27 0.34 -0.05 -0.33 1.00

Unemploymentbenefits 0.01 0.13 0.13 0.10 -0.15 0.06 0.14 -0.22 0.37 -0.04 -0.18 0.64 1.00 Inequality 0.06 -0.02 -0.07 0.04 0.10 -0.07 -0.05 0.17 -0.32 0.02 0.46 -0.47 -0.37 1.00

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2AnalysesandPresentation

Wetreatallfourdependentvariablesascontinuousvariables,makingordinaryleastsquares(OLS)regressionthemostappropriatetechniqueforanalysingthedata.Althoughthewell-beingscalesareordinal,wherehighervaluesequalhigherlevelsofwell-being,andthegapsbetweenthevaluesareambiguous,therearenosubstantiveorstatisticaldifferencesbetweentheOLSanalysespresentedandorderedlogitregressionmodels(resultsavailableuponrequest).WethereforereportOLSforeaseofinterpretation.Theconsistentfindingsbetweenmodelspecificationisinlinewithpreviousworkinthisarea(e.g.Diener,Diener,&Diener,1995;Diener&Tov,2012;Ferrer-i-Carbonell&Frijters,2004;OECD,2013).Thedataareclusteredwhereindividualsliveincountries,makinghierarchicallinearmodellingwithrandominterceptsthemostappropriatemethodtoanalysethedata(Snijders&Bosker,1999)Thedatacontaintwolevels:leveloneisthelowestlevelandaccountsforindividualrespondents;leveltwoaccountsforcountries.Eachdependentvariablehastwomodels.Thefirstmodelincludesallindividualandcontextual-levelvariables,providingafulltestofthehypothesesrelatingtovolunteeractivityandcountryunemployment benefits. The second model includes the cross-level interactions where thecoefficientsforeachvolunteeringfrequencycategoryattheindividuallevelareallowedtovaryacross the levelofunemploymentbenefitsat thecountry level. The resultsarepresentedasregression coefficients alongside graphical representations of the main hypothesis tests forstatisticallysignificantparameters.Propensityscorematching isused in the finalstageof theanalysis to test the robustness of the findings of one of the cross-level interactions. Thistechnique enables researchers to assess the effects of treatment conditions (volunteeringfrequencyinthecurrentcase)whilstlimitingselectioneffectsandnon-responseassociated.2.1Bivariaterelationshipsbetweenunemploymentbenefitsandwell-beingmeasuresBefore moving on to the results of the hierarchical linear models, the article describes thebivariate relationship between the country average of each dependent variable and theunemploymentbenefitrate(Figures1–2).Firstlythefiguressuggestthattherearenoobviousoutliers or clusters of countries that are likely to influence the relationships. Figure 1 alsoindicatesthatthereseemstobeapositiverelationshipbetweenwelfaregenerosity,well-beingandmentalhealth.

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Figure1.Relationshipbetweenwell-beingandunemploymentbenefits

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Likewise, Figures 2 -5 suggests that there is a clear relationship between the frequency ofvolunteering and levels ofwell-being andmental health: those that volunteer regularly havehigher levels of well-being and mental health, those that volunteer occasionally have thesecondhighestlevelsofwell-beingandmentalhealth,whilethosethatdonotvolunteerhavethelowestlevelsofwell-beingandmentalhealth.Figure2.Relationshipbetweenmentalhealthandunemploymentbenefitsbyfrequencyofvolunteering

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Figure3.Relationshipbetweenhappinessandunemploymentbenefitsbyfrequencyofvolunteering

Figure4.Relationshipbetweensatisfactionandunemploymentbenefitsbyfrequencyofvolunteering

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Figure5.Relationshipbetweenfeelingthatlifeisworthwhileandunemploymentbenefitsbyfrequencyofvolunteering

2.2HierarchicallinearregressionresultsTable3presentsthehierarchicallinearregressionresults.Ascanbeseen,ourresultsshowsomelimitedsupportfortheHypothesis2.Model4ashowsthatunemployedindividualswhovolunteerregularlyaresignificantlymorelikelytoreportthattheirlivesareworthwhilethanindividualswhodonotvolunteer.Thiseffectremainssignificantevenaftervariousindividualcharacteristicsandcontextualvariablesaretakenintoaccount.Onaverage,anunemployedindividualwhovolunteersregularlyhasa0.57greaterscorethattheir‘lifeisworthwhile’comparedtosomeonewhodoesnotvolunteeratall.OurresultsalsosupportHypothesis1.AscanbeseeninTable3,thereisaconsistentpositiveeffectofwelfaregenerosityonwell-beingandmentalhealth:incountrieswithmoregenerousunemploymentbenefits,allunemployedpeople,regardlessofwhethertheyvolunteer,havebettermentalhealth,andhigherhappiness,lifesatisfaction,andlifefulfilment.Finally,Hypothesis3wassupportedonlyintherelationtovolunteeringfrequencyandmentalhealth.AscanbeseeninTable3,theregressioncoefficient0.25forvolunteeringfrequencyandwelfaregenerosityinteractionindicatesthatunemployedpeoplewhovolunteermoreregularlyaremorelikelytohavebettermentalhealthincountrieswithhigherunemploymentbenefits,comparedtounemployedpeoplewhodothesamelevelofvolunteeringincountrieswithalowerlevelofunemploymentbenefits.

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Table3.Hierarchicallinearregressionresultspredictingmentalhealth(1),happiness(2),satisfaction(3),lifebeingworthwhile(4) Mentalhealth Happiness Satisfaction WorthwhileVariables 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4bBackgroundCharacteristics

Volunteerstatus(ref.novolunteering)

Volunteersoccasionally 0.686 1.154 0.089 0.273 0.136 -0.314 0.131* 0.018 (1.119) (4.581) (0.106) (0.390) (0.123) (0.452) (0.054) (0.199)Volunteersregularly 0.420 -12.908* 0.013 0.497 -0.028 0.171 0.191** 0.570*

(1.453) (6.565) (0.137) (0.624) (0.159) (0.690) (0.070) (0.286)Female(ref.male) -1.856* -1.897* 0.363*** 0.363*** 0.233* 0.230* 0.058 0.059 (0.835) (0.834) (0.079) (0.079) (0.092) (0.092) (0.040) (0.040)Age 0.069+ 0.068+ -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 0.002 0.002 (0.039) (0.039) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.002) (0.002)Education(ref.secondary)

Primary -2.449+ -2.267 -0.067 -0.073 0.102 0.097 -0.080 -0.086 (1.464) (1.464) (0.138) (0.138) (0.161) (0.161) (0.071) (0.071)Tertiary -2.158+ -2.082+ 0.012 0.013 0.012 0.004 0.183*** 0.179**

(1.140) (1.142) (0.108) (0.108) (0.125) (0.125) (0.055) (0.055)Maritalstatus(ref.married)

Separated/divorced 0.264 0.347 -0.720*** -0.721*** -0.343* -0.344* 0.033 0.032 (1.227) (1.226) (0.116) (0.116) (0.134) (0.134) (0.059) (0.059)Widowed -1.568 -1.698 -0.643** -0.641** -0.599* -0.597* -0.049 -0.046 (2.159) (2.156) (0.203) (0.203) (0.233) (0.233) (0.103) (0.103)Single 1.811+ 1.885+ -0.492*** -0.492*** -0.393*** -0.395*** -0.167*** -0.169***

(1.028) (1.027) (0.097) (0.097) (0.113) (0.113) (0.050) (0.050)Housingtenure(ref.mortgage)

Ownoutright 1.591 1.454 0.002 -0.003 -0.019 -0.019 -0.025 -0.022 (1.328) (1.328) (0.126) (0.126) (0.147) (0.147) (0.065) (0.065)Rent 0.777 0.810 -0.090 -0.103 -0.198 -0.199 -0.048 -0.048

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(1.304) (1.304) (0.124) (0.124) (0.144) (0.144) (0.063) (0.063)Rentfree 0.351 0.347 -0.074 -0.078 -0.077 -0.081 0.064 0.064 (2.170) (2.167) (0.205) (0.205) (0.238) (0.238) (0.105) (0.105)Othertenurestatus -11.206** -11.624** -0.896* -0.912** -1.096** -1.097** -0.228 -0.213

(3.628) (3.628) (0.349) (0.349) (0.399) (0.399) (0.176) (0.176)ReligiousServiceattendance 1.146** 1.212** 0.041 0.040 0.119* 0.118* 0.045* 0.043* (0.421) (0.421) (0.040) (0.040) (0.047) (0.047) (0.021) (0.021)Deprivationindex -2.670*** -2.670*** -0.289*** -0.288*** -0.359*** -0.360*** -0.104*** -0.104*** (0.234) (0.234) (0.022) (0.022) (0.026) (0.026) (0.011) (0.011)Unemploymentbenefits 0.173 0.237 -0.158+ -0.163+ -0.167+ -0.167+ -0.082+ -0.084+ (0.918) (0.917) (0.087) (0.087) (0.101) (0.101) (0.044) (0.044)Generalhealth 7.847*** 7.823*** 0.503*** 0.505*** 0.373*** 0.376*** 0.145*** 0.146*** (0.463) (0.463) (0.044) (0.044) (0.051) (0.051) (0.022) (0.022)Longtermunemployed 1.424+ 1.409+ 0.058 0.058 -0.088 -0.089 -0.052 -0.053 (0.845) (0.844) (0.080) (0.080) (0.093) (0.093) (0.041) (0.041)Countrycharacteristics Unemploymentrate -0.027 -0.025 0.018 0.018 0.015 0.015 -0.021+ -0.021+ (0.193) (0.194) (0.020) (0.020) (0.031) (0.031) (0.012) (0.012)GDP -0.192* -0.189* -0.006 -0.006 -0.014 -0.014 -0.008+ -0.008+ (0.077) (0.078) (0.008) (0.008) (0.011) (0.011) (0.004) (0.004)Employmentbenefits 0.148* 0.125+ 0.025*** 0.027*** 0.029** 0.028** 0.010** 0.011** (0.068) (0.071) (0.007) (0.007) (0.010) (0.011) (0.004) (0.004)Inequality 0.345* 0.353* -0.003 -0.004 -0.026 -0.026 0.017+ 0.017+ (0.162) (0.163) (0.017) (0.017) (0.025) (0.025) (0.010) (0.010)Cross-levelinteractions VolunteersoccasionallyXemploymentbenefits -0.005 -0.004 0.009 0.002 (0.091) (0.008) (0.009) (0.004)VolunteersregularlyXemploymentbenefits 0.250* -0.010 -0.004 -0.007

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(0.122) (0.012) (0.013) (0.005)Constant 18.656** 19.318** 4.655*** 4.602*** 5.328*** 5.393*** 2.727*** 2.707*** (7.065) (7.177) (0.717) (0.722) (1.025) (1.029) (0.405) (0.405)Level1Units 2428 2428 2439 2439 2449 2449 2428 2428Level2Units 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29LogLikelihood -10685.547 -10682.729 -4988.182 -4987.277 -5376.863 -5376.077 -3334.982 -3333.736df 22 24 22 24 22 24 22 24AIC 21421 21423 10026 10033 10804 10810 6720 6717BIC 21566 21592 10171 10201 10949 10978 6865 6862

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Figure6visualisesthecross-levelinteractionsbetweenunemploymentbenefitgenerosity,frequencyofvolunteeringandmentalhealth.Ascanbeseen,incountrieswheretheincomereplacementrateisverylow(ungenerousunemploymentbenefits),doingregularvoluntaryworkcanactuallyberelatedtopoorermentalhealthoutcomesthannotvolunteersorvolunteeringonlyoccasionally.Incontrary,incountrieswithgenerouswelfarebenefits,regularvolunteershaveconsiderablyhigherlevelsofmentalhealth.Figure6alsosuggeststhatthemoregenerouswelfarebenefitsthehigherthementalhealthoftheunemployed,evenaftercontrollingforarangeofindividualandcontextualcharacteristics.Figure6.Cross-levelinteractionestimatingtheeffectofcountryunemploymentbenefitsonmentalhealthatdifferentfrequenciesofvolunteering

Wealsoemployedapropensityscoreanalysistotesttherobustnessofthefindingthatincreasesinvolunteeringareassociatedwithagreatersensethatlifeisworthwhile.Thedatausedinthisstudyareobservationalanditisnotpossibletorandomlyassignindividualstodifferentlevelsofvolunteering.Propensityscoreanalysisallowsustomatchindividualsaccordingonthesamebackgroundandcountryvariablestotesttoseeiftheseindividualsreallydohaveadifferentsensethatlifeisworthwhiletothem.Inotherwords,thetechniqueallowsustocompareidenticalpeople(basedonthecovariatesincludedinthemodel)thatonlydifferbytheamountofvolunteeringthattheydo(assumingthatothernon-observablecharacteristicsdonotdiffer).Table4reportstheaveragetreatmenteffectsforthosethatvolunteerregularlyvs.thosethatdonovolunteering,havingmatchedallindividualsonthesamebackgroundandcountry

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characteristics.Ascanbeseen,thedifferencesbetweenregularvolunteersandthosethatdonotvolunteerisstillrobust,wherebyvolunteerssenseoflifebeingworthwhileis0.391greatercomparedtothosethatdonovolunteer.Likewise,peoplewhoreportvolunteeringoccasionallyreportthattheirlifeismoreworthwhilebyanincreaseof0.170comparedtopeoplewhodonotvolunteer.Table4.AveragetreatmenteffectsbasedonpropensityscorematchingTreatmenteffectstested Model1 Model2 Regularvolunteersvs.novolunteering 0.391*** (0.082) Occasionalvolunteersvs.novolunteering 0.170* (0.078)N 2037 2206

3 ConclusionThisstudyaddstothedebatesaboutfactorsthatmitigatenegativeeffectsofunemploymentonindividuals’well-beingandmentalhealth.Itexaminedwhethervoluntaryworkandnational-levelunemploymentbenefits,andtheirinterplay,compensatesforthelossinmanifestandlatentbenefitsassociatedwithpaidworkandthusimproveunemployedindividuals’well-beingandmentalhealth.OurresultsalsoprovidesomesupportforHypothesis1:volunteeringduringunemploymenthaspositiverelationshipstosubjectivewell-beingandmentalhealth-themorefrequentlysomebodyvolunteers,thehigheristheirsubjectivewell-beingandmentalhealth.Wefoundthatunemployedpeoplewhovolunteerregularlyreportthattheirlifeismoreworthwhilethantheunemployedwhodonotvolunteer.Thisistrueforvolunteersacrossallcountriesinoursample.TheresultsfromthisstudysupportHypothesis2:thegenerosityofunemploymentbenefitsispositivelyrelatedtothelevelsofwell-beingandmentalhealthamongtheunemployed.Wefoundthatthatincountrieswithmoregenerousunemploymentbenefitsallunemployedpeople,regardlessofwhethertheyvolunteer,havebettermentalhealth,andhigherhappiness,lifesatisfaction,andlifefulfilment.Thesefindingssuggestthatgenerousunemploymentbenefitsarecrucialformaintainingmentalhealth

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andwell-beingoftheunemployed.Onepotentialexplanationforthisfindingisthatacompensationforthelossofincomefrompaidworkinaformofgenerousunemploymentbenefitsreducethelevelsofpovertyandsocialexclusionandstressassociatedwithit.Generousunemploymentbenefitsprovideaspaceforregularvoluntaryworkwithouttheworryofdailysurvivalandpersonalfuture.Anotherexplanationforthemoderatingeffectofwelfaregenerositymightbethatthegenerosityofunemploymentbenefitssignalsthelevelsofapprovalfromthestatefortemporaryexitfromthelabourmarket(Beck,2000,p.162).Theunemployedmightfeellessstigmatisedandashamedofbeingunemployedincountrieswithmoregenerousbenefits.

Finally,Hypothesis3-thepositiverelationshipbetweenvolunteeringduringunemploymentandpsychologicalwell-beingandmentalhealthisstrongerinthecountriesthathavemoregenerousunemploymentbenefits-alsoreceivesomesupport.Wefoundthatthepositiverelationshipbetweenregularvolunteeringandmentalhealthisgreaterincountrieswithhighunemploymentbenefitsthanincountrieswithlowunemploymentbenefits.Crucially,ourfindingsalsosuggestthatregularvolunteeringwhileunemployedinacountrywithlowunemploymentbenefitsmayhavenegativeeffectsonmentalhealth.Ourfindingshaveimportanttheoreticalimplications.Theysuggestthatthatintherisksocietywheretherisksassociatedwithlabourmarketflexibilisationareincreasinglyshiftedawayfrombusinesstoindividuals,thestatefinancialsupportfortheindividualsduringunemploymentstillremainscrucialforwell-beingandmentalhealth.Althoughindividualscanboostonedimensionoftheirownwell-being(feelingthattheirlifeisworthwhile)byregularvoluntarywork,voluntaryworkinthecontextofungenerouswelfarebenefitscanalsodamagetheirmentalhealth.Amulti-activitysociety‘inwhichhousework,familywork,clubworkandvoluntaryworkareprizedalongsidepaidwork’envisionedbyBeck(Beck,2000)canbegoodforpublichealthonlyifthelossofincomefrompaidworkisgenerouslycompensatedbywelfarebenefits.Byfurtherunpackingthepotentialmitigatingroleofvoluntaryworkduringunemployment,wehaveidentifiedtwokeyimplicationsforpolicyandpractice.Ourfindingsthatvoluntaryworkispositivelyrelatedtolifefulfilmentandmentalhealthindicatethatitisadvisabletoprovidetheunemployedwiththeopportunitiestoengageinvolunteeringsotheycanbenefitfromthesepositiveeffects.Ourresultsalsosuggestthatinordertomaximisethepositiveeffectsofregularvoluntaryworkonmentalhealth,asawellasimprovewellbeingandmentalhealthofbothvolunteersandnon-volunteers,itisadvisabletosupporttheunemployedwithgenerousunemploymentbenefits.Althoughtheremightbeconcernsthatregularvolunteeringmaytaketimeandkeeptheunemployedawayfromactivesearchforjobs,researchshowsthatevenregularvolunteers,forexampleinBritain,volunteeronaverageonlyfourhoursaweek(NCVO,2012/2013),whichleavesplentyoftimeforjobseeking.Inaddition,ifvolunteering

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improvesmentalhealth,definedbytheWorldHealthOrganisation,as‘astateofwell-beinginwhicheveryindividualrealizeshisorherownpotential,cancopewiththenormalstressesoflife,canworkproductivelyandfruitfully,andisabletomakeacontributiontoherorhiscommunity’,thenitactuallyincreasesthecapabilityoftheunemployedtofindajob(WHO,2015).Ourfindingthatvoluntaryworkisrelatedtohigherwell-beingandbettermentalhealth(incountrieswithgenerouswelfarebenefits)bynomeanssuggestthattheunemploymentbenefitsclaimantsshouldbepressurizedtovolunteer,asitalreadyhappensinBritain(BBC,2015).Voluntaryworkisbydefinitionworkundertakenvoluntarily;itisnotacompulsorylabour.Thewell-beingandmentalhealthbenefitsmightnotexistiftheunemployedareforcedtoconductcommunityworkorhavetheirbenefitscut.Thisstudyfocusedonlyonformalvoluntarywork.Manypeopledovolunteerinformallyoutsideformalorganisationalsettings,forexamplebyhelpingneighbours,friendsandotherpeople.Manyunemployedpeoplealsoengageinothertypesofwork,forexample,houseworkandcaring,thereforefurtherresearchshouldbeundertakentoinvestigatetheeffectsofthesetypesofworkandwelfarebenefitsonwell-beingandmentalhealth.Toconclude,voluntaryworkduringunemploymentcanhavepositiveeffectsonwell-beingandmentalhealthwhichgetgreaterwithmoregenerousunemploymentbenefits.Volunteeringregularlyandreceivinglittlewelfaresupportcandamageone’smentalhealth.

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