Understanding Memory

We are what we remember.

3 Essential Questions

1. How does information get into memory?

2. How is information maintained?

3. How is information pulled back out of memory?

3 Essential Questions1. How does information get into

memory?Encoding – requires attention.

Discuss penny2. How is information maintained?Storage – “tip of the tongue”

3. How is information pulled back out of memory?

Retrieval

Memory Challenge

See how many you can remember?

Apple

candy

sugar

tooth

pie

chocolate

tart

soup

nice

month

clock

sour

dog

regret

snow

Check and Double Check1. Apple2. Candy3. Sugar4. Tooth5. Pie6. Chocolate7. Tart8. Soup

9. Nice10. Month11. Clock12. Sour13. Dog14. Regret15. Snow

Memory Challenge

See how many you can remember?

Write down as many as you can in the the correct order if you can.

Images1. Calculator2. Microphone3. Strawberries4. Ice pack5. Rabbit6. Stapler7. Magician8. Hammer9. Telephone10. Kite11. Banana12. Snowman13. Rooster14. Watch15. Keys

One More Try

Ator

botam

crov

difim

firap

glimoc

ricul

hilnim

jolib

kepwin

leptav

lumal

mib

natpem

peyrim

Write down as many as you can in the the correct order if you can.

Results

Memory

Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information

Memory involves encoding the input of the senses (visual, auditory, taste, smell, touch) What do you associate with each?

Memory is rarely perfect Forgetting refers to memory failure

Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system Visual Info – ½ second Auditory – 2 seconds

Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory Limited capacity (7 items) Duration is about 30 seconds

Long-Term Memory (LTM) has a large capacity and long duration -- unknown

ICONIC MEMORY GEORGE SPERLING

P Y F G

V J S A

D H B U

Overview of Memory Model

Memory as a Computer

How is this model flawed?

Effective Encoding of Information 2 Types

Automatic encoding – does not require deliberate effort

ex. where you sit in class Effortful encoding – concentrated effort is required

Ex.

Depending how meaningful the words are affects encoding Concrete vs. Abstract vs. Nonsense Words

Concreteness - the ability of a word to form a mental image Apple Boredom Car theory

Rehearsal Rehearsal – the review or practice of material

while you are learning it. Without rehearsal memories fade quickly from

(STM) Can persist (H.M.) more than an hour Phone number experiment

Why might we have a harder time remembering phone numbers today?

2 Types Maintenance Rehearsal – rote repetition of material in

order to maintain its availability in short-term memory Elaborative Rehearsal – association of new information

with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information – better for creation of long-term.

Define thalamus Aka “traffic officer” Part of the _________ system Relays all sensory info except ________

Deep Processing - National Spelling Contests

Does knowing too much about something make it less likely you will remember it?

An Encoding Failure “Next-in-Line Effect” Interference

Ex.

Concepts and Key Points 3 Components of Memory

Encoding Storage Retrieval

What are two types of encoding? Automatic Effortful

What is required during Encoding? Think about the penny. Attention

What Phenomenon demonstrates the need for attention? “Next-In-Line Effect”

What type of Memory was being challenged by the tests? Short-Term

What is its capacity – size and time 7+/- 2 & 30 seconds

How long does visual sensory memory last? ½ second

What type of rehearsal is better for creating LTM? Elaborative

Long-Term Memory Information transferred from STM to LTM is

coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing

new items within LTM Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact

replica of the original event Memories are reconstructed and can be altered

during the retrieval process

Parallel Distributed Processing

PDP model of memory recognizes that our brain processes multiple operations and involves a vast network of processing units that operate simultaneously.

PDP model suggests that our memory does not work like a computer, which is more serial distribution.

Integrating Approaches

Varieties of LTM

Organization of LTM

Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item Sometimes the cues required to recall an item

are not sufficient Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t

easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

Memory Measures

Recognition is when a specific cue is matched against LTM

Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory• E.g. Who wrote “Common Sense”

Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. (second time faster)

Priming – A method for measuring implicit memory – example - words with the word stem def

Priming Pass out demonstration sheets

Priming demonstration

Unscramble the following word:

L T E P A

Answer:

P E T A LP L A T E

Priming Why did half the class say plate and

the other half say petal? They were primed to do so There were two different sheets of

unscrambled words

Priming sheet 1

Unscramble the following word:

F I N E K O P O N S K R O F P U C E C U S A R L T E P A

Answer:

K N I F ES P O O NF O R KC U PS A U C E RP L A T E

Priming sheet 2

Unscramble the following word:

N Y P A S F E L A K T A L S D U B L O B S O M S L T E P A

Answer:

P A N S YL E A F S T A L K B U D B L O S S O M P E T A L

Priming Do priming demonstration

Priming

Seeingthe word rabbit Seeingthe word rabbit

Activates concept

Primes spellingthe spokenword hair/hareas h-a-r-e

Priming

Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus

Activation not a conscious decision BUT, can affect subsequent thoughts

and actions Two types of priming

Two types of priming Conceptual Priming Perceptual Priming

Conceptual priming

When priming stimulus influences your flow of thoughts

Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory

Example: Previous priming demonstration Example: If you hear a story about a pitbull,

when someone later asks you to name a dog, you’re more likely to say “pitbull”

Perceptual priming

Can you identify the fragmented stimulus below?

Perceptual priming

What if you were asked to unscramble the word earlier?

Biological Perspective Long-term Potentiation - As a response is

learned, specific neural pathways are established that become progressively more excitable and responsive Synapses are strengthened by stimulation of

dendrites to grow more spines Ability of a neuron to release its neurotransmitters

can be increased or decreased

Flashbulb Memories

Where were you when you first heard: That the spaceship Columbia/ Challenger had exploded

during landing? That the federal building had been bombed in Oklahoma

City? That Princess Diana had been killed in a car wreck?

Most are personal ex. Duke Students asked

85 A car accident 82 When you first met your college roommate 81 High school graduation 78 Senior Prom

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information

Why is it necessary? How is it adaptive?

Study Strategies

Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session

Distributed practice leads to better retention

Serial Position Effect

Remembering information at the beginning and end of a list better than material in the middle

Theories of Forgetting Decay theory: memory trace fades with time when

not accessed Doesn’t account for persistent declarative and

procedural Spanish test 50 years later / swimming riding a bike etc

Replacement theory – new memory can wipe out old memories Stop sign – “Did you see the car in front of the yield

sign” Interference theory argues that information

competes for retrieval• Proactive interference: old information interferes

with recall of new information• Retroactive interference: new information

interferes with recall of old information

Interference and Memory

Retroactive – Problem with remembering old information because of new informationProactive – the opposite

Cue-dependent memory How can you use this to find your lost keys

State-dependent memory How can it contribute to depression?

Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories

Encoding failure: may contribute to information never being encoded from STM to LTM and thus forgotten.

Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

Amnesia Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain

injury or trauma Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with

recall of information prior to a trauma Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with

recall of information after a trauma

Point of Trauma

Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia

Psychogenic amnesia – causes of forgetting are psychological and not organic (injury) Quite rare Involves massive memory loss, personal identity and

usually ends suddenly Traumatic Amnesia – involves the forgetting of a

specific traumatic event When it comes back it is perfectly accurate Part of a defensive mechanism (repression) of

threatening or upsetting information to the unconscious What arguments are presented against the existence of this

type of amnesia? Concentration Camps Not rehearsing Intentional distracting Dangers associated with confabulation and power of suggestion

Childhood Amnesia – the inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first 2-3 years of life Problem encoding and retaining episodic memories and

carrying them into later childhood Biological – the prefrontal cortex is not yet fully

developed Cognitive Lack of a sense of self Impoverished encoding Focus more on the routine then the distinctive aspects When we begin to think like adults we no longer have

access to the cues and information we once used as a schema

Patient H.M. Patient H.M. suffered from chronic brain seizures In the 1950’s, surgeons removed portions of his

hippocampus in order to reduce the seizures Since the surgery, Patient H.M. shows chronic

anterograde amnesia He has normal STM He has normal recall for material learned prior to the

surgery Patient H.M. has learned very little since the surgery

Patient H.M. would have no idea of the significance of: Watergate The Challenger explosion The death of Princess Diana

Issues in Memory Memory recall may involve reconstruction and

thus may not be accurate Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:

Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event)

Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten Apply to political campaigning

Sleeper Effect

Eyewitness Testimony Primarily because of the constructive nature

of memory, the reliability of eyewitness testimony is questioned.

Repressed Memories The area of repressed memories is a hotly

contested debate The reliability of repressed memories is called

into question due to: the constructive element of memory source amnesia the sleeper effect

Memory Strategies Mnemonic devices are strategies to

improve memory by organizing information Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a

place or part of a building Peg-Word system: peg words are associated

with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”) Word Associations: verbal associations are

created for items to be learned

Improving memory Use rehearsal

techniques Improve organization Counteract the serial

position effect Avoid massed

practice

Manage time Use the encoding

specificity principle Employ self-

monitoring and over learning

Use mnemonic devices

Attention “Next-in-line-effect”