Undercurrent Phase1 Report

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[Title] Project Undercurrent Phase 1 Report September 2007

Transcript of Undercurrent Phase1 Report

[Title]

Project UndercurrentPhase 1 Report

September 2007

Introduction� 3

Executive�Summary� 7

Research�and�design�process� 11Research�as�a�tool�for�design� 12Field�study�locations� 16Who�we�met� 23

Insights�and�opportunities� 31Opportunity�map� 321.�Hierarchy�of�use� 362.�Quality�and�convenience�trade-off� 423.�What�is�“clean”?� 524.�Spectrum�of�empowerment� 615.�Added�value�for�water� 70

Analysis�of�opportunities� 82Prioritizing�opportunities� 83Business�analysis� 88Design�principles� 90

Next�steps� 94

Appendix:�Themes�of�exploration� 97Collection� 98Treatment� 110Water�qualities� 118Vessels� 124Delivery� 134Vessel�cleaning� 140

Acknowledgements� 143

Table of contents

Introduction

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Introduction

The�Undercurrent�project�aims�to�improve�the�transportation�and�storage�of�water�for�household�use,�in�order�to�impact�the�health�and�quality�of�life�of�low-income�communities�in�the�developing�world.�

We�believe�that�we�can�achieve�this�goal�in�several�ways:·�Improve�the�ways�in�which�people�get�and�use�water�at�the�household�level·�Provide�choices�to�people�beyond�what�is�currently�available·�Enable�local�markets�and�private�sector�actors�to�improve�how�water�is�accessed�and�used�by�low-income�households.

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The�journey�of�water�in�the�developing�world�is�a�complicated�one,�filled�with�problems�and�workarounds�at�every�stage,�from�treatment�to�transport�to�use.��It�is�also�incredibly�dynamic,�each�person�tailoring�it�to�his�or�her�own�needs.

For�the�Undercurrent�project,�we�have�chosen�to�focus�on�the�transport�and�storage�of�water�for�household�use,�assuming�that�water�is�treated�at�the�source.

Our�research�necessarily�includes�the�entire�journey;�in�order�to�understand�transport�and�storage�we�must�understand�the�context�that�it�fits�within.��

The�clean,�deliver,�and�reuse�stages�in�the�journey�do�not�always�occur.

Store Dispense Use Discard(Clean) (Deliver) Collect Transport Store Dispense Use Discard

(Reuse)

The�journey�of�water�in�the�developing�world.

Project scope

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Project timeline

Phase�1 Phase�2

Map�the�opportunity�space

·�Identify�insights·�Articulate�design�challenges·�Illustrate�preliminary���opportunities

Create�concepts�and�select�directions

·�Select�design�challenges�for���further�inquiry·�Build�prototypes·�Seek�feedback�from�the�field·�Refine�opportunities

Develop�final�products�and�solutions

·�Create�implementable���solutions,�products�and/or���services

Phase�3Phase�2Phase�1

Executive Summary

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Executive summary

In�our�research,�we�identified�five�key�insight�areas�related�to�the�transport�and�storage�of�household�water.��Each�of�these�insights�provides�direction�for�innovation�and�design.

1. Hierarchy of use

Insight: People’s�water�behavior�reflects�a�hierarchy�of�use:�water�is�treated�differently�depending�on�its�use.�Specific�uses�correspond�to�distinct�behaviors�around�collection,�treatment�and�storage.��

Design challenge: Design�solutions�which�enable�people�to�segregate�water�in�a�safe�way.-�Acknowledge�and�enable�the�nuanced�behaviors�of�choosing�water�sources�and�vessels.-�Consider�solutions�which�make�water�storage�non-intrusive�in�the�home.

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Executive summary

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Insight: Quality�and�convenience�are�the�most�important�factors�influencing�people’s�selection�of�a�water�source.�People�are�often�forced�to�trade�one�for�the�other,�sacrificing�clean�water�for�convenient�access.

Design challenge: Improve�the�convenience�of�quality�water�sources.��-�Improve�the�experience�of�collecting�water�at�a�community�tap.��-�Evaluate�ways�to�extend�the�physical�reach�of�an�existing�water�treatment�plant.��-�Accommodate�people�who�are�carrying�water�over�long�distances.

3. What is “clean”?

Insight: There�are�few�reliable�indicators�of�water�safety,�so�if�it�looks�“clean”,�people�assume�it�is�safe.

Design challenges:��Help�people�evaluate�water�quality�and�understand�the�nature�of�contamination.-�Provide�indications�and�irrefutable�evidence�of�water�quality.-�Use�messaging�which�is�simple,�understandable,�and�consistent.Leverage�existing�behaviors�and�beliefs�about�keeping�water�clean.-�Encourage�cleaning�behavior�at�the�site�where�water�is�collected.-�Improve�effectiveness�of�cleaning.

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Executive summary

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Insight:��Many�people�feel�a�sense�of�resignation�about�their�water�options.�Particularly�among�lower�castes,�people�are�not�empowered�to�initiate�change.

Design challenges:��Design�water�tools�and�services�that�empower�people.-�Empower�people�through�accurate�information.-�Leverage�existing�mechanisms�for�information�sharing�(e.g.�schools,�religion,�health.)-�Design�solutions�that�are�available�to�disempowered�people,�because�empowered�people�will�find�their�way�to�the�solutions.

5. Added value for water

Insight: Paying�for�water�is�a�politically�charged�proposition,�but�many�households�pay�for�added�value�such�coolness,�clarity,�convenience�and�health�safety.

Design challenges: �Leverage�existing�water�preferences�to�make�safe�water�more�sought�after.-�Consider�branding�to�increase�the�perceived�value�of�water.-�Associate�brands�with�qualities�besides�safety�(e.g.�coolness,�flavor,�status.)-�Stimulate�value-added�services.-�Design�tools�and�systems�for�delivery�entrepreneurs.

Research and design process

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Research as a tool for design

Observation and Empathy

Human-centered�design�starts�with�people.�Understanding�people’s�behaviors,�choices�and�needs�guides�the�design�team�towards�identifying�new�opportunities�for�innovation.�All�of�our�research�methods�fall�into�two�categories:�observation�and�empathy.�Observation�is�fundamentally�looking�for�patterns�in�behaviors�and�tools,�looking�for�what�is�currently�working�well�and�also�areas�that�call�out�for�improvement.���Observation�visits�include�conversations�with�people,�allowing�them�an�opportunity�to�describe�their�choices�and�processes.�Empathy�goes�beyond�the�face�value�of�what�people�say�and�do.��Through�empathizing�with�people,�the�team�is�able�to�recognize�the�thoughts�and�feelings�that�lead�to�the�observed�behaviors.

Being in Context

First-hand�experience�of�the�atmosphere�and�tools�used�in�the�real�world�add�immeasurable�richness�to�the�quality�of�the�learning�process.��Visiting�people�in�their�homes�and�at�the�water�source�provides�the�research�team�with�valuable�understanding�about�the�life�and�day-to-day�activities�of�the�person�being�observed.��Observations�at�the�point�of�access�and�point�of�use�will�serve�to�highlight�areas�in�the�water�“journey”�where�design�innovation�can�have�an�impact.��

Looking for Inspiration

One�of�the�distinguishing�features�of�design�research�is�the�emphasis�on�inspiration.��In�the�search�for�inspiration,�the�design�team�seeks�out�“typical”�contexts�and�stakeholders�as�well�as�more�“extreme”�contexts�and�stakeholders.��Often�more�extreme�cases�are�able�to�highlight�issues�and�opportunities�that�are�less�visible�in�the�mainstream.��The�results�of�our�research�are�insights�inspired�by�human�stories,�as�opposed�to�statistical�data�from�more�quantitative�approaches.�These�insights�are�the�foundational�elements�of�the�idea�generation�stage�of�the�design�process.

A Systems Approach

The�study�of�water�transport�and�storage�includes�many�different�stakeholders:�a�variety�of�people�in�households�with�different�access�to�water�and�behaviors�around�water,�and�a�variety�of�providers�who�offer�treated�sources,�water�delivery�services,�and�storage�and�transport�solutions.��In�addition�to�specific�water-focused�studies,�the�team�will�explore�the�retail�and�distribution�of�analogous�products,�to�understand�the�factors�which�lead�to�successful�introduction�of�new�offerings.

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Research goals

Our�field�research�had�the�following�goals:

To understand people’s needs behaviors, attitudes, perceptions and aspirations in a variety of water contexts·�Variety�of�water�sources:�surface�water,�community�wells,�municipal�standpipes,�water�kiosks,�NGO-provided�bulk�supply,�and�conditions�of�scarcity.·�Variety�of�water�quality:�from�brackish�groundwater�to�improved�sources�to�certified�safe�water.·�Rural�and�urban�contexts�(with�emphasis�on�rural)·�Community�water�supply�and�individual�household�supply

To learn from existing solutions to the challenges of water access, transport, and storage·�Local�organizations�providing�improved�water�in�a�bulk�supply·�Existing�products�for�transport�and�storage�of�household�water·�Understanding�how�institutions�obtain�and�store�water�(e.g.�schools,�medical�clinics)

To understand rural markets in India·�Understanding�existing�supply�chains�for�water·�Understanding�challenges�associated�with�production�and�distribution�of�bulk�goods·�Speaking�to�people�at�many�distribution�points�in�the�supply�chain�for�non-water�products

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Process

1.�Conversations�with�people�about�their�lives�and�water�use

2.�Field�notes�on�each�family�we�met

3.�Insights�and�recurring�themes

4.�Key�insights

Examples�from�first�round�of�insights

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Process

5.�Design�challenges 6.�Brainstorming 7.�Opportunity�area�exploration

8.�Illustrative��concepts

�Examples�from�first�round�of�concepts

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Field study locations

The�team�visited�rural�communities�around�Vijayawada,�Jodhpur�and�Aurangabad�as�well�as�urban�slums�in�Hyderabad,�Delhi�and�Mumbai.�

We�chose�sites�for�our�research�based�two�main�factors.·�Local�water�conditions�and�practices,�to�get�a�broad�understanding�of�the�different�problems�and�solutions�in�India.·�Partners,�to�benefit�from�the�experience�and�networks�they�have�in�each�region�and�to�learn�from�their�work�in�the�water�space.

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Field study locations

Hyderabad

In�Hyderabad�we�visited�both�an�official�and�an�unofficial�slum.��In�both�cases�these�are�small�communities�whose�primary�concern�was�eviction.��

Rajeev�Gandhi�Nagar�is�a�small�slum�of�50�families�in�the�middle�of�the�city.�The�family�we�met�has�been�living�in�the�same�home�for�40�years.�14�family�members�live�in�very�small�living�conditions�less�than�100�square�feet.�The�adults�work�for�the�government�as�street�sweepers�and�can�afford�basic�things�for�their�home�like�electricity.

The�unofficial�slum�is�made�up�of�construction�workers�living�near�their�construction�sites�in�tents.��Though�they�look�very�temporary,�many�of�these�families�have�been�living�here�for�four�years.�The�parents�work�long�hours�which�often�leaves�the�children�unsupervised.

Government�water�is�available�just�a�short�walk�from�most�homes.��This�water�is�seen�as�high�quality�as�it�is�the�same�as�what�the�wealthier�inhabitants�of�the�city�use.

Local�partner:�CAP�Foundation

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Field study locations

Vijayawada

Water�is�abundant�in�the�region�around�Vijayawada.��Most�homes�have�piped�water�provided�by�the�government�a�few�hours�each�day.��This�water�is�not�high�enough�quality�for�drinking,�so�most�households�collect�drinking�water�from�other�sources�(local�pond�or�well�or�paid�access�to�a�water�treatment�plant).

The�primary�concern�about�the�drinking�water�in�this�region�are�high�totally�dissolved�solids�(TDS)�which�are�known�to�cause�joint�pain.��Green�algae�is�another�common�concern�and�is�highly�visible�on�the�storage�vessels�(particularly�plastic).

Caste�divisions�have�a�big�impact�on�water�access�as�lower�castes�typically�live�further�from�the�treated�water�sources.�

Local�partners:�WaterHealth�International,�Naandi�Foundation

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Field study locations

Delhi

Delhi�is�the�political�capital�of�India.��We�visited�the�Molar�Bund�slum,�which�has�40,000�inhabitants.�Many�of�the�families�have�been�living�here�for�over�10�years.�Most�of�the�homes�have�electricity�and�many�have�refrigeration.

Most�families�live�with�a�few�steps�of�a�municipal�water�tap.��The�taps�themselves�have�been�stolen�so�the�water�comes�out�of�a�bare�pipe.��The�water�comes�on�three�times�a�day�and�people�have�to�wait�their�turn�because�the�water�pressure�is�so�slow.��It�can�take�up�to�5�minutes�to�fill�one�pot�of�water.��

Local�partner:�Arpana�Trust

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Field study locations

Jodhpur

The�region�of�Jodhpur�has�water�shortages�every�year.��Their�primary�concern�is�about�access�to�water;�water�quality�is�a�secondary�issue.�The�big�initiatives�in�the�region�involve�rainwater�harvesting.��Digging�larger�ponds�or�catchments,�and�maintaining�these�sources�throughout�the�year.

Most�communities�have�developed�workarounds�for�these�hard�conditions�that�include�delivery�of�water�(4000L)�by�truck�or�tractor�that�fills�either�a�community�tank�or�a�household�storage�tank.�

The�water�quality�is�quite�poor.��The�taste�is�salty�which�most�people�dislike.��They�talk�a�lot�about�“sweet”�water.��The�government�provides�bleach�powder�for�free�and�its�use�is�quite�widespread.�Turbidity�is�a�big�concern�and�dealt�with�by�pouring�water�through�a�cloth�filter�and�also�the�use�of�alum.

Local�partner:�Jal�Bhagirathi�Foundation

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Field study locations

Mumbai

The�city�of�Mumbai�is�the�financial�capital�of�India,�and�home�to�the�largest�slums�in�Asia.��Throughout�Mumbai�there�are�informal�and�formal�slums,�the�largest�of�which�is�Dharavi,�with�a�population�estimated�to�be�between�600,000�and�a�million.

The�slums�include�a�great�range�of�living�conditions.��We�visited�a�home�in�Colaba�where�15�people�live�in�an�8’x10’�space,�with�no�access�to�electricity�or�running�water;�we�visited�a�2-floor�house�in�Dharavi�which�boasted�TV�and�refrigerator,�and�a�storage�tank�to�ensure�24-hour�access�to�piped�water.

In�the�poorer�slums,�collection�and�storage�are�quite�difficult.��Water�is�available�at�community�taps�for�only�2-3�hours�a�day,�on�a�fixed�schedule;�in�Colaba�the�water�comes�on�at�4am�each�day.��Water�storage�is�constrained�by�incredible�space�limitations,�causing�the�slum�inhabitants�to�spill�over�into�the�sidewalks�and�streets�outside.�

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Field study locations

Aurangabad

The�region�around�Aurangabad�is�known�for�its�farming—the�soil�is�fertile,�and�the�farming�practices�are�advanced,�so�it’s�one�of�India’s�most�productive�regions.��In�recent�years,�the�monsoon�rains�have�been�good,�so�farmers�are�investing�in�technologies�to�improve�agriculture�and�improvements�to�their�homes.

The�typical�family�farms�2-5�acres�on�a�plot�passed�down�from�their�parents,�with�a�surface�well�on�the�property�to�provide�irrigation�and�household�water�supply.��Water�is�abundant�most�of�the�year,�with�a�high�water�table�until�May-June,�when�many�of�the�ponds�go�dry.

For�the�farmers,�the�difference�between�subsistence�farming�and�selling�crops�in�the�marketplace�is�irrigation.��The�wealthier�farmers�use�electric�or�fuel-powered�pumps�to�distribute�the�water�to�their�plots.

Local�partner:�IDE-India

[Page Title]

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Who we met

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Our�project�is�inspired�by�our�interactions�and�conversations�with�the�people�we�spent�time�with,�in�their�homes,�businesses,�and�communities.

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Our�research�included�conversations�with�many�types�of�people.

·�Partners,�to�learn�about�the�water�service�that�they�provide.·�People�in�households�connected�with�the�partner�organization�(men�and�women,�parents�and�children).·�People�in�households�not�connected�with�the�partner�organization�(men�and�women,�parents�and�children).·�Local�entrepreneurs,�vendors,�and�shopkeepers,�to�learn�about�local�marketing�and�distribution,�and�about�successful�products.·�Schools,�to�look�at�the�handling�of�water�on�a�larger�scale�and�to�understand�education�around�water.

Who we met

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SusheelaSusheela�lives�in�the�village�of�Denduluru�near�Vijayawada,�Andhra�Pradesh.�She�has�2�sons,�one�of�which�who�died�in�a�car�accident.��Her�three�grandchildren�live�with�her�and�they�are�all�supported�by�her�remaining�son�who�lives�in�the�city.��She�spends�her�day�doing�housework.

Key individuals: Susheela

Her HomeThough�she�has�a�relatively�well�established�home�compared�to�some�of�her�neighbors,�she�would�like�to�rebuild�it.��She�is�considering�taking�out�a�government�loan�to�do�construction.�She�has�electricity�which�is�used�to�run�a�light�and�a�television.

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Water CollectionSusheela�had�a�private�tap�installed�in�her�yard�for�a�fee�of�Rs.�3150�($80)�and�pays�a�yearly�fee�of�Rs.�360�($9)�for�this�convenience.��Her�personal�tap�is�only�6�feet�away�from�the�community--�there�is�only�a�bush�between�them.��The�private�taps�affords�her�the�luxury�of�not�having�to�wait�in�line�with�the�others�and�the�use�of�hose�which�reaches�to�her�home.��

Key individuals: Susheela

Drinking WaterShe�is�satisfied�with�the�quality�of�the�municipal�water.��Some�of�her�neighbors�pay�for�drinking�water�from�the�WaterHealth�plant.��She�doesn’t�treat�her�water,�but�keeps�drinking�water�in�a�clay�pot�for�cooling�raised�off�the�ground�by�a�tire.��1�1/2�liter�plastic�bottles�are�kept�around�the�house�for�convenience.��Metal�pots�are�used�for�storage�and�cooking�water.

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JathiHer�family�is�in�the�carpentry�profession�in�the�village�of�Naya�Dungarpur,�near�Jodhpur,�Rajasthan.��She�has�two�sons�who�live�in�Mumbai;�her�daughters�in�law�and�daughter�and�eight�grandchildren�live�with�her.��They�are�a�healthy�family�and�Jathi�attributes�their�luck�to�God.��“Health�is�luck�from�God”.

Key individuals: Jathi

Her financesTheir�house�is�one�of�the�more�established�in�the�community.�They�have�solar�electricity�which�they�got�through�a�subsidy.��They�paid�Rs.�6000�($150)�which�they�were�able�to�finance.��The�electricity�is�enough�to�power�a�fan,�two�lights,�a�radio�and�a�TV.��“God�recharges�everyday.”��The�family’s�expenses�are�minimal�(free�electricity,�free�water,�no�health�costs)�the�biggest�expense�is�school�fees�which�are�Rs.�8000/yr�($200).

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Water collectionJathi’s�family�has�a�storage�tank�outside�their�home�which�collects�rain�water�and�is�kept�as�reserve�for�when�the�pond�runs�out�(every�May).��The�community�undertook�a�project�to�enlarge�the�pond�to�hold�water�longer.�Jathi’s�family�contributed�Rs.�1500�($38)�to�this�effort.�Jathi�is�primarily�responsible�for�collecting�water�from�the�pond�(about�a�10�minute�walk).�She�carries�10-20�pots�each�day.��This�water�is�used�for�everything-even�for�cattle.��There�is�also�a�municipal�standpipe�that�is�closer�but�infrequently�flowing.

Key individuals: Jathi

Drinking WaterFreshness�is�important;�they�only�drink�water�fresh�from�today.��Yesterday’s�leftover�water�is�used�for�washing.�The�family�is�conscientious�about�water�quality.�They�use�a�cloth�filter�twice�before�drinking�water.��The�community�adds�chlorine�bleach�to�the�pond�during�the�rainy�season.��When�the�water�runs�out�the�family�has�to�pay�Rs.�400�($10)�for�water�to�be�delivered.��They�view�this�trucked�water�as�very�dirty�and�requires�bleaching.

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Tarabai and MirabaiIn�an�Aurangabad�village,�Tarabai�lives�with�her�husband,�two�teenage�children,�and�her�husband’s�sister�Mirabai,�who�was�divorced�by�her�husband�last�year.�It�is�unusual�for�village�women�to�divorce,�and�the�women�thought�it�was�unlikely�that�she�would�remarry�or�have�children.�“It’s�much�harder�to�be�a�woman�in�the�village,”�Mirabai�said,�because�it’s�difficult�to�get�work�in�the�fields.�Both�women�have�been�laborers�since�childhood.

Key individuals: Tarabai and Mirabai

Water for lifeBoth�women�complained�that�their�heads�get�very�tired�after�a�transporting�water�from�the�nearest�pump�well�to�the�cement�storage�tank�at�the�back�of�their�house.�The�bore�well�is�closer,�but�the�water�from�this�well�is�salty,�whereas�the�water�from�the�pump�well�is�“sweet,�from�God.”�Both�wells�were�dug�after�a�diviner�from�the�next�village,�who�may�have�mystical�powers,�came�and�identified�the�most�likely�water�sources.�The�family�has�a�water�pump,�but�it’s�used�primarily�for�farming,�not�for�the�household.

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Accepting one’s roleBoth�women�showed�respect�for�members�of�their�community�who�had�accepted�God’s�gifts�their�role�in�life�without�striving�too�far�beyond�their�humble�roots.�When�we�showed�Tarabai�and�Mirabai�the�“Hippo�Roller”�prototype,�they�explained�that�the�men�in�their�community�“would�not�allow�us�to�use�such�a�fancy�technology”�and�that�they�would�keep�it�for�themselves.�Mirabai,�the�divorcee,�said�that�she�might�possibly�be�able�to�fight�for�use�of�the�innovation,�indicating�that�her�liminal�status�might�allow�her�to�act�outside�a�woman’s�traditional�role.�

Key individuals: Tarabai and Mirabai

Holding on to beauty“Drinking�water�and�eating�fruits�and�vegetables�are�important�for�keeping�beautiful,”�the�women�explained,�underscoring�a�potential�opportunity�to�link�water�safety�to�beauty.�Mirabai�uses�beauty�lotion�to�keep�her�skin�fresh,�with�the�hope�that�she�may�still�re-marry.�Tarabai’s�husband�laughs,�acknowledging�that�she�wants�to�spend�farming�incomes�on�clothing�and�jewelry�while�he’d�rather�invest�in�agriculture�and�household�improvements.��This�year,�they�plan�to�spend�on�both.

Insights and opportunities

32

Opportunity map

Insight

Insight

Insight

Insight

Insight

Our�research�consisted�of�meeting�approximately�sixty�families�and�practitioners�in�India,�each�of�whom�revealed�interesting�insights�about�water�usage.�

In�this�report,�we�will�discuss�the�5�most�critical�insights�for�designers�of�water�transport�and�storage�in�India.

33

Opportunity map

Each�of�the�5�key�insights�is�linked�to�a�set�of�design�challenges,�

which�frame�the�opportunity�for�impact.

Design�Challenge

Design�Challenge

Design�ChallengeInsight

34

Opportunity map

The�insights�and�design�challenges�reveal�potential�opportunity�areas,�

that�we�will�bring�to�life�in�the�next�phase�of�the�project.

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Opportunity�Area

Design�Challenge

Design�Challenge

Design�ChallengeInsight

35

Opportunity map

36

1. Hierarchy of use

Insight: Hierarchy of use

Water�is�treated�differently�depending�on�its�intended�use.�Specific�uses�correspond�to�distinct�behaviors�around�collection,�treatment�and�storage.

The�intended�use�for�water�often�influences�the�choice�of�source�and�storage�vessels.��Higher�quality�sources�are�often�used�for�drinking�water,�and�lower�quality�sources�for�other�uses.��Closed�vessels�are�often�used�for�drinking�water,�and�open�vessels�for�other�uses.

37

1. Hierarchy of use

The�choices�of�one�family�in�Vijayawada�are�highlighted�in�green.�This�family�uses�water�from�the�treatment�plant�for�drinking,�and�piped�water�for�cooking�and�washing.��Drinking�water�is�often�poured�from�the�plastic�jug�into�a�clay�pot,�for�cooling.

USESTORAGESOURCE

Well

Pond

Truck

Treatment�Plant

Piped�to�House

Stand�Pipe

Large�Scale

Clay�Pot

Bucket

Metal�Pot

Safe�Water��Plastic�Jug

Plastic�Bottle

Cooking

Washing

Livestock

Drinking

38

The�choices�of�one�family�in�Jodhpur�are�highlighted�in�yellow.�This�family�uses�water�from�the�well�for�drinking�and�cooking,�and�trucked-in�water�for�washing�and�livestock.��All�household�water�is�kept�in�clay�pots.

38

1. Hierarchy of use

USESTORAGESOURCE

Well

Pond

Truck

Treatment�Plant

Piped�to�House

Stand�Pipe

Bucket

Metal�Pot

Safe�Water��Plastic�Jug

Plastic�Bottle

Large�Scale

Clay�PotCooking

Washing

Livestock

Drinking

39

1. Hierarchy of use

Why do people have these behaviors of segregation?

Health - People�choose�water�from�the�best�sources�for�drinking.��They�take�special�care�of�it,�keeping�it�in�the�best�vessels,�indoors,�raised�from�the�ground,�and�covered.

Conserving cost and effort - “Safer”�water�requires�more�time�and�cost�to�store�and�use.��People�don’t�want�to�spend�extra�effort,�collecting�high�quality�water�(which�might�be�farther�away)�and�taking�special�care�of�the�water,�for�that�which�won’t�be�used�for�drinking.

Vessel cost and availability - The�best�type�of�vessels�are�often�more�costly,�and�harder�to�get�than�the�basic�vessels�which�can�be�used�for�low-quality�washing�water.

40

1. Hierarchy of use

Insight

Water�is�treated�differently�depending�on�its�intended�use.�Specific�uses�correspond�to�distinct�behaviors�around�collection,�treatment�and�storage.

Design challenges

Design�solutions�which�enable�people�to�segregate�water�in�a�safe�way.�-�Acknowledge�and�enable�the�nuanced�behaviors�of�choosing�water�sources�and�vessels.-�Consider�solutions�which�make�water�storage�non-intrusive�in�the�home.

41

1. Hierarchy of use

Guideline for action

Design�solutions�which�enable�people�to�segregate�water�in�a�safe�way.

42

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Insight: Quality and convenience trade-off

Quality�and�convenience�are�the�most�important�factors�influencing�people’s�selection�of�a�water�source.�People�are�often�forced�to�trade�one�for�the�other,�sacrificing�clean�water�for�convenient�access.

While�quality�and�convenience�are�paramount,�cost�and�status�play�into�the�equation�as�well.

43

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

low quality

highquality

highconvenience

low convenience

Jal�Bhagirathi�plant

WaterHealth�plant

open�well�pumped�to�home

pond�piped�to�home

pond-fed�water�delivery�truck

pond-fed�village�standpipe

open�well�on�property

tube�well�near�village

tube�well�outside�village

pond�outside�village

municipal�tap,�low�water�pressure

municipal�tapmunicipal�tap

construction�site�tap

municipal�water�delivery�truck

o�Hyderabado�Vijayawadao�Delhio�Jodhpuro�Mumbaio�Aurangabad

The�water�sources�we�saw�on�our�field�visit�can�be�mapped�subjectively,�by�quality�and�convenience.

The�most�convenient�water�sources�are�piped�or�delivered�to�the�home,�eliminating�the�drudgery�associated�with�water�transport.��

The�highest�quality�water�sources�are�treatment�plants,�or�water�which�is�close�to�the�treatment�stage�(e.g.�municipal�water.)��

44

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

G.�Chanti�gets�her�water�at�the�standpipe,�because�she’s�not�willing�to�pay�either�for�quality�or�convenience:�she’d�rather�save�for�home�improvements.

Susheela�pays�for�a�piped�water�connection,�even�though�the�standpipe�is�close�by,�because�she�values�the��convenience.

The�schoolmaster’s�wife�buys�WHI�water�for�drinking,�because�it’s�high�quality.��She�has�a�piped�water�connection�for�washing,�because�it’s�convenient.

In�the�village�of�Denduluru,�three�different�sources�are�available,�all�within�200m�of�each�other.��We�interviewed�three�households�which�prioritize�quality�and�convenience�differently.

low quality

highquality

highconvenience

low convenience

WaterHealth�UV�plant

pond�piped�to�home

Denduluru

pond-fed�village�standpipe

45

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Why do people choose quality over convenience?

Immediate benefits - There’s�an�immediate�understanding�of�the�benefits�of�convenience.��However,�the�benefits�of�quality�are�hard�to�quantify—due�to�lack�of�understanding�about�connections�between�water�quality�and�health,�and�due�to�the�complex�nature�of�water�contamination.

Importance of proximity - There�is�a�strong�aversion�to�carrying�water�farther�than�necessary;�if�a�family�has�been�using�a�particular�source,�they’re�unlikely�to�switch�to�one�that’s�farther�away.��There�is�also�a�feeling�embedded�in�the�culture�that�women�should�not�venture�far�from�the�home.

46

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Insight

Quality�and�convenience�are�the�most�important�factors�influencing�people’s�selection�of�a�water�source.�People�are�often�forced�to�trade�one�for�the�other,�sacrificing�clean�water�for�convenient�access.

Design challenges

Improve�the�convenience�of�quality�water�sources.��-�Improve�the�experience�of�collecting�water�at�a�community�tap.��-�Evaluate�ways�to�extend�the�physical�reach�of�an�existing�water�treatment�plant.��-�Accommodate�people�who�are�carrying�water�over�long�distances.

Improve�the�quality�of�water�at�convenient�sources.

47

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Example opportunity: Pre-filled pots serviceCreate�a�service�which�allows�people�to�trade�their�empty�pots�for�clean,�pre-filled�pots.

Ankur�brings�four�empty�pots�to�the�filling�station.

He�picks�up�two�full�pots,�and�gets�tokens�for�the�other�two.

Later�in�the�day,�his�wife�brings�the�tokens�and�takes�two�more�pots�home.

48

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Example opportunity: Pre-filled pots service

Key features-�Speeds�up�process�of�collecting�water-�Allows�people�to�collect�water�all�day,�even�if�water�is�only�available�for�a�limited�time-�Allows�participants�to�collect�water�in�convenient�increments,�through�use�of�tokens

Business model questions -�What�is�the�willingness�to�pay�for�a�service�that�cleans�pots�and�reduces�wait�time?-�How�do�customers�verify�that�the�pots�they�picked�up�were�clean?-�Are�there�marketing�challenges�associated�with�shared�pots?-�What�are�the�operating�costs�(labor�and�consumables),�and�can�these�be�offset�by�revenues?-�What�levels�of�inventory�of�pots�and�water�(filled�pots)�are�needed?�-�Does�there�need�to�be�a�significant�buffer�of�inventory�of�pots�of�water,�and�would�this�be�wasteful�of�scarce�water�or�space?

49

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Example opportunity: HaulingSupport�local�entrepreneurs�to�develop�locally-made,�wheeled�devices�that�transport�multiple�vessels�with�minimal�labor.

50

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Example opportunity: Hauling

Key features-�Eases�transport�of�larger�quantities�of�water,�to�reduce�the�“drudgery”�of�carrying�pots-�Can�accommodate�existing�water�vessels-�Can�also�be�used�for�transporting�goods�other�than�water

Business model questions -�What�are�people�willing�to�pay�to�buy�a�hauling�device?-�What�are�people�willing�to�pay�to�rent�a�hauling�device?-�Will�it�require�maintenance,�part�replacement?�-�This�device�may�require�a�behavior�change�(for�example,�it�may�make�it�possible�for�women�to�use�larger�collection�devices.)��Is�this�behavior�change�a�positive�thing?-�Is�manufacturing�local�or�centralized?�(Centralized�typically�makes�the�product�cheaper�and�standardized,�but�requires�transportation/distribution.�Local�production�allows�for�customization�and�more�direct�distribution,�but�makes�it�difficult�to�get�economies�of�scale.)

51

2. Quality and convenience trade-off

Guideline for action

Improve�the�convenience�of�quality�water�sources.

52

3. What is “clean”?

Insight: What is “clean”?

There�are�few�reliable�indicators�of�water�safety*,�so�if�it�looks�“clean”,�people�assume�it�is�safe.

*�We�define�safe water as�water�that�meets�WHO�standards�for�safety.

53

3. What is “clean”?

Visibly�clear�is�the�most�important�factor�in�judging�‘clean’.�People�put�great�effort�into�reducing�turbidity.

In�the�slums�people�are�proud�to�drink�this�water�provided�by�the�municipality,�because�it’s�the�same�water�provided�to�the�wealthier�people.

As�long�as�fish�are�swimming�in�his�pond�this�farmer�is�confident�that�the�water�is�drinkable.

People�who�use�bleach�are�dosing�in�an�inconsistent�manner,�with�no�feedback�that�the�treatment�is�working.

In�Vishnu�Nagar�the�larvae�swimming�in�the�water�are�an�obvious�indication�of�‘unclean’.

In�Mad�Puria�there�is�a�tradition�of�a�‘solar’�treatment�where�the�(covered)�pot�sits�in�the�sun�all�day�as�a�way�to�treat�the�water.

The�difficulty�of�distinguishing�clean�from�unclean,�the�multivariate�causes�of�health�problems,�and�the�delayed�effects�of�drinking�poor�water�lead�to�a�multitude�of�beliefs�and�practices—some�of�which�are�effective�in�preventing�health�problems�and�some�which�are�not.

54

3. What is “clean”?

Why do people have a lack of understanding of “clean” water?

Misleading cues - There�are�no�visual�cues,�or�reliable�indicators,�that�water�is�clean�and�safe�to�drink.��The�cues�that�do�exist�can�be�misleading:�for�example,�taste�is�a�distinguishing�factor�which�is�not�tied�to�water�safety.

Mixed messages - There�are�countless�messages�about�what�makes�water�clean,�stemming�from�sources�such�as�religion,�schools,�health�clinics,�commercial�marketing,�and�local�tradition.��Every�person�must�choose�what�to�believe�from�this�cacophony�of�opinions.

55

3. What is “clean”?

Insight

There�are�few�reliable�indicators�of�water�safety,�so�if�it�looks�“clean”,�people�assume�it�is�safe.

Design challenges

Help�people�evaluate�water�quality�and�understand�the�nature�of�contamination.-�Provide�indications�and�irrefutable�evidence�of�water�quality.-�Use�messaging�which�is�simple,�understandable,�and�consistent.

Leverage�existing�behaviors�and�beliefs�about�keeping�water�clean.-�Encourage�cleaning�behavior�at�the�site�where�water�is�collected.-�Improve�effectiveness�of�cleaning.

56

3. What is “clean”?

Example opportunity: What can’t you see?Educate�the�community�about�contaminants�in�the�water�that�can’t�be�seen�by�the�naked�eye.

Nirja�is�walking�by�the�plant,�carrying�water�from�the�village�pond.

The�plant�operator�invites�her�to�come�inside�and�learn�about�her�water.

With�magnification,�she’s�surprised�to�see�that�there�are�actually�contaminants�in�her�water!��She�can�compare�this�with�the�plant�water.

57

3. What is “clean”?

Example opportunity: What can’t you see?

Key features-�Builds�on�existing�behaviors�to�reduce�visible�particulate�and�turbidity-�Becomes�a�marketing�tool�for�a�specific�treatment�or�source-�Gives�confidence�in�perceptible�differences�between�water�qualities

Business model questions -�How�much�training�is�required�by�microscope�operators,�skilled�labor?-�How�will�the�equipment�cost�be�covered?��(This�concept�does�not�have�a�revenue�stream,�and�could�be�considered�a�marketing�effort,�so�costs�for�this�should�be�offset�by�increased�revenues�somewhere�else.)-�Can�the�equipment�cost�be�shared�among�business�branches?

58

3. What is “clean”?

Example opportunity: Cleaning stationsOffer�dedicated�cleaning�stations�at�the�treatment�plant,�which�allow�people�to�clean�in�a�safe�way.

Before�filling�their�pots,�everybody�comes�to�the�cleaning�station,�where�they�can�clean�with�chlorinated�water.

Tools�are�available,�and�plant�workers�provide�advice�about�cleaning�practices.

Pooja�is�comfortable,�knowing�that�the�pot�she’s�using�is�as�safe�as�the�water�she’s�paying�for.

59

3. What is “clean”?

Example opportunity: Cleaning stations

Key features-�Raises�awareness�of�the�impact�of�cleaning-�Can�be�offered�separately�from�water�treatment,�or�as�a�value-add�service-�Allows�people�to�pay�for�a�service,�rather�than�paying�for�water

Business model questions -�What�is�willingness�to�pay?��Can�the�service�be�optional?-�What�are�equipment�costs?-�What�are�consumables�costs?-�What�are�labor�costs?��(Level�and�type�of�service)-�What�brands�can�be�leveraged?��(Nirma�soap,�etc.)-�Are�revenues�from�the�cleaning�station�and�the�plant�independent�or�consolidated?

60

3. What is “clean”?

Guideline for action

Help�people�evaluate�water�quality�and�understand�the�nature�of�contamination.

61

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Insight: Spectrum of empowerment

Many�people�feel�a�sense�of�resignation�about�their�water�options.�Particularly�among�lower�castes,�people�are�not�empowered�to�initiate�change.

62

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Empowered

This�older�couple�in�Mad�Puria�adds�bleach�to�every�pot�of�drinking�water.��If�they�don’t,�they�will�get�sick.�His�asthma�is�easily�triggered,�so�they�are�very�sensitive�to�taking�care�of�their�health.

“If�we�are�out�in�the�field�and�don’t�have�a�cloth�filter,�we�will�pour�the�drinking�water�through�a�sari.”�

Dependent

Because�she�has�an�invalid�husband,�she�relies�on�her�son�to�for�financial�support�and�also�to�provide�water�from�a�treatment�plant�in�Kovali.��Her�son�is�also�the�one�who�keeps�her�water�containers�clean.��

“My�son�told�me�to�get�rid�of�the�clay�pots,�so�I�did.”

Resigned

In�the�Harijan�(lowest�caste)�neighborhood�outside�of�Chinthapalli�Padu,�the�pond�is�overgrown�with�algae�and�contains�human�and�animal�waste.��The�people�work�all�day,�and�have�no�time,�money,�or�support�for�water�maintenance.�

“It�is�up�to�the�government�to�solve�this�problem.�They�are�doing�a�bad�job.�Things�will�never�change.”

63

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Complexity of empowerment

Jathi’s�family�stays�healthy�and�she�attributes�that�to�God.��“Health�is�luck�from�God.”��However,�she�is�actually�one�of�the�most�active�people�we�met:�she�pours�drinking�water�through�a�cloth�filter�twice�and�bleaches�the�canal�water�that�is�trucked�in�during�droughts.

Empowerment factors

Caste - Lower�castes�are�not�encouraged�to�aspire�to�upward�mobility.

Gender -�Women’s�roles�are�strictly�prescribed�in�many�households,�and�they’re�not�empowered�to�enact�change�outside�of�the�household.��Men�are�often�the�ones�in�charge�of�household�purchasing�decisions.

Choices - Not�knowing�there�is�another�option�available�limits�imagination.

Education - Knowing�the�consequences�of�actions�and�knowing�what’s�possible�allows�people�to�take�change�into�their�own�hands.

64

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Community versus household empowerment

Community�empowerment�may�take�the�form�of�digging�a�new�well,�cleaning�the�local�pond,�or�putting�pressure�on�leaders�to�implement�new�infrastructure.��Many�of�the�people�we�met�are�more�empowered�at�the�household�level�(choosing�one�source�over�another,�pouring�water�through�a�cloth�filter),�perhaps�influenced�by�the�factors�above.��In�many�cases,�women�have�much�more�control�over�what�happens�in�their�household�than�what�happens�at�the�community�level.��The�observed�instances�of�community�empowerment�were�often�motivated�by�outside�sources:�for�example,�the�Jal�Bhagirathi�Foundation�offers�grants�to�communities�in�Jodhpur�to�motivate�investment�and�attention�to�care�for�water�quality.

Using this spectrum

One�use�of�this�spectrum�is�to�understand�the�need�to�design�distinct�offerings�to�people�at�different�levels�of�empowerment.��Another�use�to�think�about�how�we�might�design�an�offering�that�invites�an�individual�or�community�to�take�a�step�towards�more�empowerment.

65

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Why are people resigned about water?

Lack of understanding - When�people�don’t�understand�the�problems�of�water�safety,�they�are�less�motivated�to�work�for�change.

Too many problems - The�poor�and�disempowered�people�in�Indian�society�tend�to�have�a�disproportionate�number�of�challenges�to�deal�with�in�their�daily�lives�(including�poverty,�land�rights,�scarcity�of�resources,�etc.)��With�so�many�challenges,�the�problems�related�to�water�may�not�be�the�first�priority.

Government responsibility - Many�people�feel�that�it’s�the�government’s�responsibility�to�fix�the�problems�of�water�access�and�quality,�not�their�own.

Fatalism - Some�people�have�a�fatalistic�attitude�about�their�health�and�futures,�which�prevents�them�from�taking�initiative.��As�Jathi�said,�“Health�is�luck�from�God.”

66

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Insight

Many�people�feel�a�sense�of�resignation�about�their�water�options.�Particularly�among�lower�castes,�people�are�not�empowered�to�initiate�change.

Design challenges

Design�water�tools�and�services�that�empower�people.-�Empower�people�through�accurate�information.-�Leverage�existing�mechanisms�for�information�sharing�(e.g.�schools,�religion,�health.)-�Design�solutions�that�are�available�to�disempowered�people,�because�empowered�people�will�find�their�way�to�the�solutions.

67

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Example opportunity: Safe water campaignInvolve�local�community�members�in�a�campaign�to�spread�the�message�about�water�quality,�sponsored�by�local�business.

Homes�participating�in�safe�water�practices�hang�a�sign�on�their�house,�to�impart�status�and�to�empower�the�family�to�share�knowledge�with�neighbors.

Kids�receive�branded�safe�water�school�supplies,�to�reward�learning�and�to�encourage�their�peers.

Community�members�are�encouraged�to�share�their�learnings�with�others,�in�a�community�forum.

68

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Example opportunity: Safe water campaign

Key features-�Empowers�local�people�to�impact�their�communities-�Credits�people�for�positive�behaviors-�Builds�loyalty�and�brand�awareness�of�a�particular�treatment�or�source

Business model questions -�Who�pays�for�this�community�empowerment?��(Business,�local�government,�schools,�donors,�etc.)��Can�costs�be�shared�among�groups?��-�What�existing�channels�could�be�leveraged�for�implementation?��(Schools,�clinics,�local�NGOs,�SHGs)-�What�brands�can�be�leveraged?��(Nirma�soap,�etc.)-�What�are�the�costs�involved?��(Design,�materials,�distribution)

69

4. Spectrum of empowerment

Guideline for action

Create�water�tools�and�services�that�empower�people.

70

5. Added value for water

Insight: Added value for water

Paying�for�water�is�a�politically�charged�proposition,�and�people�expect�that�water�should�be�free.��However,�many�households�pay�for�added�value�such�coolness,�clarity,�convenience�and�health�safety.

71

Water�is�judged�on�several�qualities,�some�subjective�and�some�objective.��Specific�sources�or�treatments�of�water�are�more�sought�after�depending�on�what�types�of�qualities�they�offer.

5. Added value for water

Water Qualitiesconvenient�clear�coolgood�taste�

healthyhigh�status�good�smellfresh�holyfamiliar

In the following areas, American corporations have been exploring the boundaries of water with additives like vitamins and electrolytes.

nutrient�filledquenchinghydrating

72

5. Added value for water

High statusWater�can�become�associated�with�status�when�it�is�paid�for,�branded,�and�used�by�wealthy�people.

Good tasteTaste�varies�by�source�(water�naturally�tastes�“sweet”�or�“salty”,�based�on�its�mineral�content).��People�improve�taste�by�storing�it�in�a�clay�or�copper�pot.

FreshWater�is�considered�fresh�at�its�natural�source,�and�when�it�has�been�collected�from�its�natural�source�recently.

HolyWater�is�used�in�many�traditional�ceremonies,�and�is�integral�to�the�Hindu�religion.

ConvenientThe�most�convenient�water�is�available�closest�to�the�point�of�use.��People�will�sacrifice�many�qualities�of�water,�to�get�water�in�less�time,�with�less�drudgery.

CoolCoolness�is�incredibly�valued�for�water,�because�it�makes�water�refreshing�to�drink.

ClearClarity�is�one�of�the�only�visible�signs�of�clean�water,�and�used�as�a�proxy�for�other�indicators�of�healthiness.

HealthyHealthy�water�is�valued�by�people�who�understand�its�benefits,�either�through�personal�experience�or�through�health�education.

73

5. Added value for water

Why don’t people want to pay for water?

Right to free water - Free�water�has�long�been�promised�to�poor�people�during�political�campaigns,�so�people�feel�that�they�shouldn’t�have�to�pay�for�water�itself.��

Other sources of free water - In�areas�where�there�are�many�existing�sources�of�free�water�(ponds,�wells,�government�standpipes,�etc.),�there�is�little�incentive�to�switch�to�a�system�of�paying�for�water.

74

5. Added value for water

Insight

Paying�for�water�is�a�politically�charged�proposition,�but�many�households�pay�for�added�value�such�coolness,�clarity,�convenience�and�health�safety.

Design challenges

Leverage�existing�water�preferences�to�make�safe�water�more�sought�after.-�Consider�branding�to�increase�the�perceived�value�of�water.-�Associate�brands�with�qualities�besides�safety�(e.g.�coolness,�flavor,�status.)-�Stimulate�value-added�services.-�Design�tools�and�systems�for�delivery�entrepreneurs.

75

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Brand extensionsBuild�the�brand�of�a�water�treatment�plant,�by�selling�branded�water�which�has�been�enhanced�through�a�variety�of�methods�(chilled,�flavored,�carbonated).

In�shops�and�kiosks�around�the�village,�branded�water�from�the�plant�is�sold�as�a�premium�water—Pani�Plus.

As�well�as�chilled�water,�there�are�flavored�and�carbonated�versions.

He�heads�over�to�the�plant�and�buys�enough�for�his�whole�family.

76

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Brand extensions

Key features-�Extends�the�brand�of�the�treatment�facility-�Elevates�the�status�of�treated�water-�Attracts�customers�who�are�not�primarily�health�focused

Business model questions -�What�is�the�demand�for�packaged�chilled�water,�in�village�areas�around�water�plants?-�Is�there�overlap�between�customers�of�packaged�water�and�of�bulk�water?��Would�consumers�of�bulk�water�be�inspired�by�trends�in�packaged�water?-�Who�would�manage�production�of�the�bottled�water?-�If�packaged�water�is�not�bottled�locally,�how�does�the�company�manage�different�water�sources�under�the�same�brand,�without�risking�customer�backlash?

77

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Water deliveryCreate�a�system�to�support�the�delivery�entrepreneur,�through�connection�to�a�larger�infrastructure.

Sunil,�the�village�delivery�man,�fills�water�jugs�at�his�filling�point.

He�cycles�through�the�village,�delivering�to�all�his�customers�and�meeting�others�along�the�way.

The�system�can�be�expanded,�with�larger-scale�delivery�supplying�water�to�many�entrepreneurs�like�Sunil.

78

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Water delivery

Key features-�Increases�value�of�water�through�a�branded�delivery�experience-�Creates�job�and�career�paths�through�connection�to�a�larger�infrastructure-�Business�eases�start�up�effort�and�costs�for�individual�entrepreneurs

Business model questions -�What�delivery�revenue�is�possible?��Can�this�cover�vehicle�amortization,�labor�costs,�and�potential�fuel�costs?-�What�are�the�quality�control�issues�associated�with�delivery?-�What�are�other�potential�sources�of�income�for�the�delivery�vehicle?��(Advertising,�going�full�both�ways)-�How�can�the�reach�of�delivery�be�expanded?��(For�example,�with�multiple�distribution�points�and�some�local�collection,�or�a�delivery�supply�chain�with�different�types�of�vehicles)

79

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Large scale storageCreate�a�service,�to�provide�and�maintain�large-scale�household�water�tanks.

Kamal’s�family�orders�a�new�water�storage�tank�for�their�home.��They’re�pleased�with�the�“Tank-U”�installation�service.

As�part�of�the�service�plan,�the�Tank-U�truck�comes�every�week�to�refill�the�tank�with�safe�water.

And�once�a�month,�a�Tank-U�service�person�cleans�gives�the�tank�a�thorough�cleaning.

80

5. Added value for water

Example opportunity: Large scale storage

Key features-�Ensures�clean�and�safe�storage-�Provides�a�menu�of�delivery�options,�to�build�customer�loyalty-�Creates�a�system�in�which�a�single�source�can�take�responsibility�for�water�safety.

Business model questions -�Can�the�business�model�offer�flexibility�in�which�of�the�services�customers�choose�to�participate�in?��(Tank�installation,�tank�cleaning,�water�delivery)-�Could�tank�cleaning�be�an�add-on�service�for�providers�of�water�delivery,�house�builders,�other�cleaning�services,�pesticide�providers?-�What�are�the�costs�involved�in�a�service�to�building�or�install�storage�tanks?��(Labor,�materials)-�This�could�be�a�very�fragmented�market.��What�are�the�benefits�of�centralized�support�for�household�storage�cleaning?��(Buying�consumables�in�bulk,�buying�cleaning�equipment�in�bulk,�shared�marketing,�quality�control)�-�Can�the�unit�cost�of�storage�tanks�be�financed?�Where�would�this�financing�come�from?-�What�are�the�costs�of�a�cleaning�and�delivery�service?-�What�training�and�support�will�service�providers�need?

81

5. Added value for water

Guideline for action

Leverage�existing�water�preferences�to�make�safe�water�more�sought�after.

Analysis of opportunities

83

Prioritizing opportunities

Of�all�the�concepts�and�opportunities�we�have�thought�about,�we�have�chosen�only�a�subset�to�

include�in�this�report.��

We’ve�prioritized�the�opportunities�which�are:

-�Areas�in�which�a�new�product�or�service�can�make�an�impact

-�New�ideas,�or�new�approaches�to�existing�offerings

-�Economically�sustainable�solutions

-�Solutions�which�are�appropriate�to�our�target�market�(low-income,�rural,�water�from�treated�

community�supply)

84

Revisiting the opportunity map

We�brainstormed�hundreds�of�opportunity�areas,�and�distilled�the�most�promising�into�8�scenarios,�illustrated�in�the�previous�pages.��When�we�map�these�scenarios�against�the�overall�opportunity�map,�we�see�that�some�of�the�insight�areas�are�especially�rich�for�innovation.

Quality�and�conveniencetrade-off

What�is�“clean”?Spectrum�of�empowerment

Added�value�for�water

Hierarchy�of�use InsightDesign�ChallengeOpportunity�Area

85

Existing innovations

Pot-in-pot cooler(M. Abba, Nigeria)

A�chamber�is�cooled�through�clay�pot�evaporative�cooling.��By�the�same�principle,�plastic�water�vessels�could�be�placed�in�a�pot�to�cool.

Mesh top

A�screen�prevents�people�from�dipping�hands�into�the�water�supply.��The�screen�can�be�removed,�for�cleaning.

Ladle in lid(Traditional)

A�ladle�built�into�the�lid�allows�people�to�serve�water,�without�dipping�hands�in�the�pot.

Delivery service financing(WaterHealth International)

WaterHealth�finances�a�delivery�entrepreneur�by�providing�a�cycle-rickshaw,�which�the�entrepreneur�can�pay�off�over�time.

Vehicle rental(Molar Bund, Delhi)

A�service�in�Delhi�rents�rickshaws,�for�Rs.�10�per�hour.

Improved clay pot(CDC Safe water system)

The�traditional�clay�pot�is�modified�to�prevent�contamination:�it�has�a�narrow-mouth�opening,�and�a�stainless�steel�tap�dispenser.

In�our�research,�we�saw�several�innovations�which�answer�the�design�challenges�brilliantly.

In�these�cases,�the�big�opportunity�is�for�building�businesses�which�could�spread�the�solutions.

86

Narrowing the scope

Our�research�has�exposed�the�great�variety�of�people�who�would�benefit�from�innovations�in�safe�water�transport�and�storage.��While�we�hope�that�our�innovations�will�be�appropriate�for�broad�group�of�users,�we�recommend�narrowing�the�scope�in�the�following�ways.

Factor Recommendation Comments

Source�quality Water�comes�from�an�“improved”�source.

Acknowledge�that�“improved”�water�sources�are�not�always�100%.�Take�water�quality�outcomes�into�account.

Water�distance Water�is�available�outside�the�home.

There�are�distinct�sets�of�needs�for�people�collecting�within�1km,�and�greater�than�1km.

Age Adult Acknowledge�the�different�roles�that�household�members�play�in�relation�to�collecting�and�storing�water.

Gender Both�women�and�men Acknowledge�the�different�roles�that�men�and�women�have,�related�to�water.

Caste All�castes Be�aware�of�the�challenges�specific�to�people�of�low�castes.

Income�level Earning�$1-4�per�day Our�focus�is�the�poor,�who�can�participate�in�entrepreneurial�solutions.��Some�subsidies�are�possible.

Rural�or�urban Rural While�we�hope�our�designs�will�benefit�both�rural�and�urban�populations,�our�design�focus�is�on�rural�because�that’s�where�most�of�our�target�market�lives.

Education�level Low The�least�educated�are�most�likely�to�be�affected�by�our�work.

Region India We�hope�to�expand�the�geographical�scope�of�our�work�in�the�future,�but�our�current�knowledge�is�based�in�India.

87

Opportunities which we did not pursue

There�are�several�opportunities�which�we�have�chosen�not�to�pursue.

One-size-fits-all vesselOpportunity:��� A�“one-size-fits-all”�vessel,�suited�for�both�transport�and�storage,�would�reduce�the�� � � need�to�transfer�water.Reason:��� � People�have�very�strong�opinions�about�vessel�material�and�shape,�tied�to�use�and� � � to�general�local�preferences.��Rather�than�creating�a�one-size-fits-all�vessel,�we’ve�� � � focused�on�vessel�cleaning.

Built-in water storageOpportunity:� We�have�several�interesting�concepts�of�water�storage�vessels�as�household�� � � construction�elements.Reason:�� � Built-in�water�storage�is�most�appropriate�for�urban�slums,�where�space�is�the��primary�� � � constraint,�people�are�relatively�less�price�sensitive,�and�innovative�practices�at�a�� � � household�level�are�more�prevalent.�Urban�areas�are�not�the�main�focus�of�our�work.

Household treatmentOpportunity:� The�design�challenge,�“How�might�we�improve�the�quality�of�water�at�convenient�� � � sources?”�yields�many�rich�opportunities�for�household�treatment.Reason:�� � While�these�solutions�are�compelling,�they’re�beyond�the�scope�that�we�have�� � � defined�for�this�project.

88

Business analysis

While�each�design�opportunity�implies�unique�business�issues,�there�are�general�issues�that�should�be�considered�for�deploying�any�of�the�opportunities�identified.�

Start-up costs –�Significant�capital�costs�to�start�a�business�could�be�a�barrier�to�entry�for�local�entrepreneurs�who�lack�access�to�capital�or�financing.�Working capital –�If�the�cost�of�the�product�will�result�in�a�need�for�significant�working�capital�for�the�entrepreneur�this�could�again�pose�a�challenge�for�starting�up�a�new�enterprise.

Operating costs –�Costs�associated�with�labor,�consumables�and�maintenance�need�to�be�offset�by�revenues�and�should�be�kept�low.

Supply chain –�The�availability�of�inputs�through�existing�supply�chains�should�be�considered,�as�well�as�the�potential�need�for�complimentary�supply�chains�to�be�developed.�For�example,�if�an�input�such�as�chlorine�is�needed,�there�should�be�chlorine�readily�available�in�the�market.�If�not,�a�supply�chain�for�chlorine�would�be�needed�or�an�alternative�such�as�local�production.���

89

Business analysis

Marketing Costs – A�new�idea�or�innovative�technology�may�have�a�higher�perceived�value,�but�also�require�more�marketing,�which�can�be�costly,�while�a�more�traditional�approach�may�be�less�compelling,�but�require�little�promotion.�The�trade-offs�between�cost�and�marketing�need�to�be�well�understood,�perhaps�through�market�testing.

Marketing – Messaging�will�need�to�communicate�lifestyle�benefits�as�well�as�health�benefits,�tapping�into�people’s�aspirations�and�life�goals�beyond�personal�health.

Positioning – Concepts�will�need�to�demonstrate�a�clear�‘reason�to�believe’,�demonstrating�visual�or�other�feedback�in�order�to�ensure�repeat�use�after�initial�trial.�New-to-market�products�and�services�will�increase�penetration�through�word�of�mouth,�which�makes�it�essential�that�entrepreneurs�supply�a�simple�and�compelling�product�benefit�story�that�can�be�passed�from�person�to�person.

Demand – Consumer�desire�for�goods�and�services�must�exist,�and�people�must�be�willing�to�pay�for�them.�For�example,�people’s�assumption�that�clean�water�should�be�provided�by�the�government�and�access�to�it�should�be�free�could�be�a�barrier�to�penetration�that�should�be�evaluated�with�test�markets�among�target�consumers.

Market size – The�existing�market�size�needs�to�be�understood�based�on�people’s�present�ability�to�pay,�but�this�market�could�be�expanded�through�demand�creation.

Pricing and willingness to pay – Potential�consumers�should�have�the�willingness�and�ability�to�pay�for�a�product�or�service�concept.�Willingness�to�pay�could�be�tested�at�different�pricing�levels,�and�creative�pricing�models,�such�as�payment�in�credit�or�cross-subsidies�could�be�deployed�to�address�inability�to�pay�by�low-income�consumers.

90

Based�on�our�research�in�India�and�our�previous�experience�with�design�in�this�space,�we�have�collected�the�following�set�of�design�principles.��These�principles�are�intended�to�inspire�and�guide�design,�with�the�understanding�that�an�innovation�is�unlikely�to�meet�all�of�these�ideals.

Design for the Base of the Pyramid should be…

Affordable�-�able�to�be�purchased�by�people�earning�less�than�$4/day

Humanity-centered�-�designed�with�an�understanding�of�the�needs�and�aspirations�of�the�individual�as�well�as�the�community

Scalable�-�able�to�spread�widely�to�reach�more�people

Modular�-�able�to�be�purchased�in�increments

Systems-based�-�covering�the�true�costs�of�the�system,�including�supply�chain,�education,�and�repair�services

Useful�-�able�to�provide�demonstrable�value�to�the�end�user

Locally serviceable�-�replacement�parts�and�service�available�for�local�repair

Economically sustainable�-�using�context-specific�business�models�which�harness�market�forces

Environmentally sustainable�-�accounting�for�the�environmental�impacts�of�materials,�processes,�and�behaviors

Design principles

91

Innovations for India should be...

Equitable�-�designed�with�a�sensitivity�to�the�caste�system

Compatible with religious beliefs -�integrating�cultural�beliefs,�such�as�belief�that�health�is�the�domain�of�a�higher�power

Empowering -�designed�to�motivate�people�who�might�otherwise�be�limited�by�what�is�provided�for�them

Household products for the Base of the Pyramid should be…

Made with culturally appropriate materials�-�integrating�tradition�and�preferences�for�materials�that�fit�in�the�home

Accessible�-�available�through�local�available�distribution�channels

Low operating cost�-�able�to�function�without�significant�inputs�such�as�energy�and��replaceable�parts

Design principles

92

Household water storage and transport products in the Base of the Pyramid should be…

Designed for aesthetics of water�-�able�to�maintain�or�enhance�the�aesthetics�of�water,�such�as�taste,�smell,�appearance

Safe�-�resistant�to�bacteriological�contamination

Clean�-�designed�with�access�for�cleaning,�and�materials�which�enable�cleaning

Fresh�-�designed�to�encourage�short-term�storage�of�water

Ergonomic�-�designed�with�appropriately�size�and�shape�for�women�to�carry

Able to be transported�-�designed�with�features�for�transport�by�foot,�by�cart,�by�bicycle,�by�motorbike

Design principles

93

know

believe

act

reinforce frame

prompt

93

Design principles

IDEO’s�behavior�change�cycle�is�an�evaluative�tool,�for�innovations�which�include�behavior�change�as�a�component.��Behavior�change�may�be�successful�if�includes�the�following�six�elements.

Believe�-�People�need�to�believe�that�the�innovation�will�matter.Frame�-�They�need�to�build�a�mental�model�of�how�the�innovation�will�work.Know�-�They�need�to�know�the�rules�of�how�to�use�the�innovation.Prompt�-�Knowing�what�to�do�is�often�not�enough.��People�need�cues�and�reminders�to�prompt�action.Act�-�Action�requires�resources:�physical,�cognitive,�emotional,�social,�and�financial.Reinforce�-�Feedback�reinforces�belief�to�strengthen�and�drive�behavior�change.

Behavior change cycle

Next steps

95

Where are we now?

Field�research�-�In�Phase�1,�we�have�immersed�ourselves�in�the�needs�and�challenges�of�safe�water�

transport�and�storage�in�India,�learning�from�experts�in�the�sector�and�the�people�who�know�these�

challenges�best,�facing�them�daily�in�India.

Synthesis�-�We�synthesized�our�learnings,�picking�out�the�highest�level�insights,�and�developed�a�set�

of�design�challenges�to�guide�our�design�moving�forward.

96

Next steps

Map�the�opportunity�space

·�field�research·�synthesis·�initial�concepts

Create�concepts�and�select�directions

·�refined�concepts·�prototypes·�field�feedback

Develop�final�products�and�solutions

·�implementable���solutions,�products���and/or�services

Phase�1 Phase�2 Phase�3Phase�2Phase�1

The�next�steps�for�the�project�are�to�select�an�opportunity�space�for�further�exploration,�and�to�develop�a�system�of�solutions�for�additional�field�feedback.

In�Phase�2,�the�partnerships�we�form�will�be�critically�important�to�the�success�of�the�project,�just�as�they�have�been�in�Phase�1.

Appendix: Themes of exploration

98

Collection

Collection key points

People�choose�their�water�sourced�based�on�several�factors,�the�most�important�of�which�are�quality�and�convenience.

People�often�use�several�different�sources,�depending�on�the�end�use�of�the�water�(e.g.�drinking,�cooking,�washing.)

Women�are�primarily�responsible�for�water�collection,�but�men�are�involved�when�the�distance�requires�transportation�or�if�money�is�involved.

For�many�households,�collection�is�not�as�arduous�as�we�had�expected.��If�community�sources�are�not�a�short�walk�away,�people�often�pay�for�delivery.

99

Collection

Summary of Andhra PradeshWater�was�much�relatively�accessible,�with�most�people�having�access�to�piped�water�in�their�homes,�and�drinking�water�within�a�few�steps�from�their�home.��Women�are�primarily�responsible�for�water�in�the�home,�but�in�situations�where�water�is�further�from�the�home�men�are�responsible�for�transport.��The�collection�process�was�not�convenient�and�often�involved�waiting�in�line�or�waiting�for�the�water�to�turn�on,�but�it�was�not�seen�as�a�particular�hardship.�The�one�village�we�found�that�traveled�2�km�to�their�drinking�well�was�an�anomaly;�we�had�to�be�very�intentional�in�our�search�to�find�these�conditions. Summary of Jodhpur regionJodhpur�has�water�shortages�every�year.�Local�ponds�dry�up�and�people�have�to�travel�long�distances�for�water.�Most�villages�have�developed�work-arounds�for�these�conditions�that�include�delivery�of�water�by�truck�or�tractor,�to�fill�either�a�community�tank�or�a�household�storage�tank.��The�delivery�brings�large�volumes�of�water�(4000�liters)�which�makes�carrying�one�pot�at�a�time�over�long�distances�seem�insufficient;�most�of�these�communities�pay�for�delivery�trucks�regularly�rather�than�walk�to�a�distant�source.�In�situations�where�the�pond�is�close,�women�are�primarily�responsible�for�retrieving�water�from�the�pond�or�storage�tank.��In�severe�drought,�the�government�provides�trucks�of�water�for�free.

Summary of slumsMost�slum�dwellers�live�within�a�few�steps�of�a�municipal�water�source.��The�water�comes�on�at�scheduled�intervals,�two�or�three�times�each�day.��Often�whole�families�are�involved�in�the�collection�process�with�the�mother�of�the�household�managing�the�effort.��Water�is�collected�in�multiple�vessels�of�any�kind�and�brought�home�to�fill�larger�vessels�for�storage.

Summary of Aurangabad regionMost�farmers�have�open�wells�on�their�properties.��For�the�families�that�live�on�the�farm,�women�collect�water�from�the�well�in�metal�pots,�or�in�rare�cases�people�pump�directly�from�the�well�to�the�households.��For�families�that�live�in�villages,�women�collect�water�from�a�variety�of�community�sources,�also�carrying�the�water�in�metal�pots.

100

Slum community tapRajeev Ghandi Nagar, Hyderabad

Rajeev�Gandhi�Nagar�is�a�small�slum�of�50�families�in�the�middle�of�the�large�city�of�Hyderabad.��The�family�we�spoke�with�collects�water�every�other�day,�enough�for�the�14�people�in�household.��They�walk�to�the�municipal�water�tap,�approximately�20�feet�from�the�home.��The�mother�fills�the�pots�at�the�tap;�the�whole�family�helps�carry�pots�back�to�house.��Drinking�water�is�stored�in�metal�pots�and�plastic�bottles,�and�washing�water�is�stored�in�large�drum�(100L�or�larger)�outside�of�the�doorway.��

Water�is�available�from�tap�a�few�hours�every�day.��On�days�when�the�tap�isn’t�working�the�community�can�order�a�truck�to�come�fill�a�Sintex�tank�for�free.��Some�neighbors�have�water�piped�to�house�for�Rs.�100/month�($2.50)�+�Rs.�1000�($25)�installation�fee.

Collection

101

Piped nonpotable waterAhdhra Pradesh

Almost�all�the�villages�in�Andhra�Pradesh�have�piped�water�directly�to�their�households.��Generally�speaking,�the�water�is�surface�water�which�has�been�treated�with�a�sand�filter,�and�pumped�to�an�overhead�tank�to�create�water�pressure.��The�communities�recognize�that�this�water�is�very�unsafe.��They�use�this�water�for�washing,�but�use�other�sources�for�drinking.

WaterHealth International (WHI) treatment plantsAndhra Pradesh

WHI�customers�bring�their�empty�jugs�(purchased�from�WHI)�and�pay�1�Rupee�for�12L.��and�1.5�Rupee�for�20L.�Women�don’t�ride�bikes�or�motorbikes�so�it�falls�to�the�men�to�collect�the�drinking�water�(either�from�the�pond�in�the�next�village�or�the�WHI�plant).�The�larger�vessels�are�too�heavy�for�women�to�carry,�so�it�mostly�men�who�come�to�WHI�plant.��The�majority�of�households�take�one�20L�jug�each�day.��

The�family�we�spoke�with�across�the�street�from�the�plant�takes�two�12L�jugs�so�that�the�children�can�carry�it.�They�put�the�jugs�into�their�fridge.��Or�when�the�fridge�is�broken,�transfer�the�water�into�clay�pots�for�cooling.

Collection

102

Village wellChinthapalli Padu, Andhra Pradesh

In�Chinthapalli�Padu,�many�families�collect�drinking�water�at�the�village�well.��Like�most�villages�in�Andhra�Pradesh,�this�village�has�piped�water�which�they�use�for�washing.

Women�commonly�carry�the�water.��Each�person�brings�her�own�rope�and�pot.��Most�people�fill�one�pot�and�carry�it�home.��A�few�young�men�fill�multiple�pots�and�use�a�bicycle�or�stick�over�their�shoulders�to�carry�multiple�pots�at�once.�

Distant wellChinna Gunnur, Andhra Pradesh

This�community�uses�local�pond�water�for�washing�but�the�water�is�too�saline�for�drinking.��The�nearest�drinking�water�is�at�the�next�village’s�well,�2km�away.��The�men�in�the�household�go�by�bicycle�or�motorbike�to�transport�drinking�water.��

For�washing,�some�people�fetch�water�from�the�pond�in�pots,�and�others�bring�their�washing�to�the�pond.��Several�households�use�an�electric�pump�to�bring�water�from�the�pond�through�a�long�hose�to�their�home.��

Collection

103

Low-caste pondChinthapalli Padu, Andhra Pradesh

Outside�the�village�is�a�Harijan�(lowest�caste)�community,�with�a�separate�pond.��In�contrast�to�the�main�village�pond,�the�Harijan�pond�is�poorly�maintained:�there’s�lots�of�algae,�animals�drinking�directly�from�the�pond,�and�women�washing�in�the�pond.

Rural community tapDenduluru, Andhra Pradesh

12�families�share�access�to�one�standpipe.��The�water�comes�on�twice�a�day�and�the�women�line�up�in�anticipation.��They�fill�several�pots�at�a�time�and�carry�them�home�on�their�shoulders—one�at�a�time,�about�200�feet.��It�takes�about�an�hour�to�collect�water.��

This�water�is�free,�and�wealthier�community�members�have�the�option�to�pay�for�the�same�water�to�be�piped�directly�onto�their�property�(but�not�into�the�house).��The�private�connection�costs�Rs.�3150�($80)�+�Rs.�300/year�($8).

Collection

104

Slum community tapMolar Bund, Delhi

Molar�Bund�is�a�slum�of�40,000�people,�in�the�outskirts�of�Delhi.

Water�is�available�at�municipal�taps�3�times�each�day.��The�water�pressure�is�very�low,�so�lines�form�as�people�wait�to�their�buckets.��It�can�take�up�to�five�minutes�to�fill�a�12�liter�pot.��

Almost�every�home�has�a�tap�within�100�feet,�and�people�only�use�the�one�nearest�their�home.��

Some�families�bring�all�their�pots�and�buckets�at�once,�while�some�families�use�one�pot�to�carry�back�and�forth�to�their�house�several�trips.��One�girl�we�spoke�with�fills�20-25�containers�each�day—all�back�and�forth�with�one�bucket.��The�water�is�carried�home�and�then�poured�into�a�larger�storage�container�or�small�plastic�bottles�that�are�kept�in�a�fridge.

Theft�is�a�problem�for�the�municipal�taps,�as�parts�of�the�taps�are�often�stolen.��

Collection

105

Water harvesting tankSindhiyonki Dhani, Rajasthan

This�community�of�six�families�has�recently�invested�in�an�improved�water-harvesting�tank.��The�tank�is�fenced�in,�so�that�the�water�catchment�area�will�remain�clean.��Outside�the�water�catchment�area,�a�hand�pump�is�used�to�retrieve�water�out�of�the�tank.��In�order�to�start�the�flow�of�the�pump,�one�must�pour�water�into�it.

The�tank�is�about�100�feet�away�from�the�homes.��Women�from�the�community�collect�about�20�pots�of�water�per�day�using,�one�pot�that�they�take�back�and�forth.�

Animals�use�a�different�source�of�water;�they�are�walked�to�the�pond�4�km�away,�twice�each�day.��(The�community�used�to�get�their�drinking�water�from�this�pond�before�they�had�built�this�new�tank.)��

The�rainwater�only�keeps�the�tank�full�for�6�months.��The�rest�of�the�year�the�community�pays�for�trucked�water�to�fill�the�tank.��600�Rs�per�4000�L�truckload�($15).��Each�truckload�last�2�weeks.

Collection

106

Household water tankVishnu Nagar, Rajasthan

In�this�village�every�household,�even�the�poorest,�has�a�private�water�tank.�The�families�have�their�tanks�filled�by�tractor�tankers.��

For�most�of�the�year,�the�tankers�deliver�water�from�the�village�pond,�2km�away.��They�pay�Rs.�150�($4)�for�a�4000�liter�tanker�to�be�delivered.��One�family�we�spoke�with�needs�five�refills�each�month.��

When�the�pond�dries�up,�they�pay�Rs.�400�for�tanker�to�be�deliver�from�a�pond�17km�away.��(Rs.�65�goes�to�the�government�and�Rs.�335�goes�to�transporting�the�water).��

These�families�are�paying�for�this�water�to�be�delivered�for�all�uses—even�their�livestock.���

One�man�we�spoke�with�wishes�there�were�piped�water�to�the�village,�saying�“Coming�to�the�village�is�as�good�as�coming�to�my�house.”�(His�wife�could�go�collect�it.)

Collection

107

Water harvesting pondNaya Dundarpur, Rajasthan

The�families�in�this�community�get�their�water�from�a�water�harvesting�pond�that�is�about�10�minutes�away.��

Women�collect�10-20�pots�per�day,�one�at�time,�carried�home�on�their�heads.��They�have�a�special�cloth�that�is�wound�in�a�circle�to�prop�the�pot�on�their�heads.��The�men�help�by�carrying�large�plastic�jerry�cans�(that�used�to�hold�acid)�on�their�bikes.�

The�families�all�have�household�tanks,�but�only�use�them�as�reserve�storage.��When�the�pond�dries�up�(2�months/yr)�they�get�water�trucked�in�from�the�government.��The�same�water�is�used�for�everything,�even�cattle.��

The�community�also�has�a�municipal�tap�which�is�closer�than�the�pond,�but�it�is�infrequently�supplied.��

Collection

108

Slum community tapMumbai

In�the�Mumbai�slums,�most�households�collect�water�at�a�community�source�which�is�available�2-3�hours�each�day,�on�a�fixed�schedule.��There�are�usually�long�lines�at�the�source,�and�whole�families�go�together�to�carry�the�cans�back.�In�these�lines,�people�mark�their�pots�to�identify�ownership�and�their�place�in�line.

In�one�community,�a�private�organization�has�a�community�tap�with�municipal�water,�and�they�provide�maintenance�and�service�to�keep�the�area�clean.��There�is�a�fee�of�70�Rupees/month�which�entitles�a�member�to�6�pots/day.�

Households�are�large,�and�people�store�a�high�amount�of�water�each�day.��One�household�we�spoke�with�fills�23�pots�each�day.

In�the�more�established�households,�which�we�saw�in�the�massive�Dharavi�slum,�people�have�unofficial�links�to�piped�water.��

Collection

109

Private surface wellsAurangabad

Most�farmers�have�a�well�or�pond�on�their�property,��which�they�use�for�both�agriculture�and�drinking�water.�There�is�typically�one�water�source�per�farm.�As�farms�get�passed�down�to�the�next�generation,�several�brothers�may�be�sharing�a�one�well�until�they�dig�a�new�one.�

In�general,�investment�in�household�improvements�is�lower�priority�than�agriculture.��Water�is�often�piped�from�the�well�to�the�fields�using�an�electric�pump,�but�less�often�piped�to�the�households,�assuming�that�the�women�can�carry�the�water.���We�did�meet�some�families�who�move�a�flexible�hose�from�the�field�to�their�house�in�order�to�pump�water�into�storage�containers.��

People�are�carrying�pots,�but�not�very�far.��We�heard�that�women�carry�more�pots�than�men�because�“they�have�better�balance.”

Community tapAurangabad

Families�that�live�in�a�village�get�drinking�water�from�a�well�or�government�standpipe,�which�is�always�close�by�because�villages�are�small.

Collection

110

Treatment key points

There�is�a�pervasive�lack�of�sensitivity�about�water�cleanliness.�If�it�looks�clean�it�is�presumed�clean,�and�there�are�no�reliable�indicators�of�cleanliness.

There�are�a�variety�of�attitudes�about�what�is�considered�a�quality�water�source,�and�a�variety�of�treatment�practices,�even�within�communities.

Treatment�is�primarily�motivated�by�aesthetics�(e.g.�taste,�temperature,�clarity),�rather�than�health.

The�widespread�use�of�the�clay�pot�can�be�interpreted�as�a�type�of�treatment.�In�addition�to�the�important�cooling�qualities�it�is�also�perceived�to�have�a�purification�function.

There�are�many�subtle�forms�of�treatment,�such�as�storing�drinking�water�in�a�high�place�off�of�the�ground�and�keeping�the�area�around�vessels�clean.

Treatment

111

Treatment

Summary of Andhra PradeshWe�did�not�see�any�individual�household�treatment�of�water�in�Andhra�Pradesh,�other�than�occasionally�pouring�water�through�a�cloth�as�a�filter�to�remove�visible�particulate.��The�ubiquitous�clay�pot�can�be�considered�a�form�of�treatment�in�that�people�use�it�as�a�cooling�mechanism�and�believe�that�is�has�purification�properties.

Summary of Jodhpur regionWater�in�this�region�is�very�saline�and�turbid�and�these�aesthetic�factors�motivate�regular�treatment.��There�is�widespread�use�of�bleaching�powder�and�alum,�but�little�consensus�on�best�practices.��Some�families�bleach�their�household�tanks�at�each�filling;�some�do�it�only�seasonally;�some�households�bleach�each�pot�of�drinking�water�individually.��The�government�provides�the�bleaching�powder�free,�and�alum�is�available�inexpensively�in�the�marketplace.��Filtering�through�a�cloth�is�very�common.��A�more�subtle�household�treatment�is�keeping�water�pots�elevated�above�the�ground,�above�the�reach�of�children.��Some�communities�see�small�larvae�swimming�in�their�water�which�is�a�strong�motivator�for�treatment.

Summary of SlumsThe�municipal�water�in�slums�is�the�same�as�that�provided�to�wealthier�inhabitants�of�the�city.��The�slum�dwellers�take�great�pride�in�that�and�view�the�water�as�being�terrific.�They�have�a�lot�of�confidence�that�the�government�is�provided�water�that�is�treated�properly�and�there�is�no�need�for�them�to�perform�any�household�treatment.

Summary of Aurangabad regionBleach�use�is�widespread.�In�villages,�the�government�bleaches�the�public�wells�once�per�month.��The�government�also�tests�the�public�and�private�wells�each�month.�

112

Trust in the governmentHyderabad slums

Households�do�not�treat�the�water.��They�have�a�strong�conviction�that�the�water�provided�by�the�municipality�is�totally�safe�and�clean.��The�community�does�have�an�aversion�to�water�that�has�been�stored�in�the�large�plastic�Sintex�tank�nearby.��They�think�the�tank�is�dirty�because�of�birds�and�dust,�and�infrequent�cleaning.��They�would�rather�get�water�from�a�community�further�away�than�drink�from�this�tank.

Choosing treated source Water Health International, Andhra Pradesh

Piped�water�is�not�considered�drinkable,�and�it’s�used�only�for�washing.��Drinking�water�from�the�well�in�the�next�village�or�the�WHI�plant�is�considered�already�clean�enough�(so�it’s�not�treated).��Often�it�is�poured�into�a�clay�pot�for�cooling.��There�are�concerns�about�joint�pain�(due�to�TDS—totally�dissolved�solids),�and�sickness�in�the�monsoon�season.��These�concerns�lead�many�families�to�choose�the�WHI�option�for�healthier�water.

Treatment

113

Seasonal TreatmentDenduluru, Andhra Pradesh

The�public�water�is�considered�safe,�although�it�is�surface�water�with�minimal�treatment.�The�family�we�spoke�with�says�that�they�are�more�likely�to�boil�the�water�during�the�rainy�season.��After�letting�it�cool,�they�pour�it�into�plastic�bottles.

Focus on TurbidityChinthapalli Padu, Andhra Pradesh

The�well�water�has�a�some�turbidity,�so�many�people�filter�the�water�by�pouring�it�through�a�fabric.��This�is�primarily�done�for�aesthetic�reasons�as�opposed�to�health.��The�well�water�is�known�to�have�a�lot�of�minerals�in�it�(e.g.�fluoride)�but�people�feel�that�they�are�used�to�it�so�it�doesn’t�bother�them.

Treatment

114

Choosing an untreated sourceDelhi Slum

We�did�not�see�any�water�treatment�in�the�slum.��One�family�told�us�they�didn’t�know�how�to�clean�water.��Another�family�told�us�they�treated�their�water�with�chlorine�about�once�a�month�(when�they�received�free�tablets�from�the�health�clinic).��They�said�they�would�use�chlorine�daily�if�they�received�it�daily.��Purified�water�is�offered�by�the�school�and�the�hospital:�1�Rupee�(2.5�cents)�for�20�liters,�bring�your�own�bucket.��The�people�we�spoke�with�do�not�use�these�paid�sources�because�they�are�much�further�away�from�their�home�than�the�municipal�tap.

Community responsibilitySindhiyonki Dhani, Rajasthan

In�this�community�we�did�not�see�household�treatment,�but�the�community�does�take�responsibility�to�clean�the�tank�every�year�and�protect�the�tank�area�with�barbed�wire�to�keep�animals�away.��The�community�built�this�tank�in�partnership�with�the�Jal�Bhagirathi�foundation,�which�provided�knowledge�around�safe�water�collection�practices.

Treatment

115

Bleaching PowderVishnu Nagar, Rajasthan

In�this�village,�most�people�we�spoke�to�add�bleach�to�their�tanks�with�each�filling.��Some�families�bleach�once�their�tank�is�filled�up,�and�some�add�bleach�when�it�is�empty.��Bleach�powder�is�provided�for�free�by�the�government.���Alum�is�used�to�reduce�turbidity�during�the�rainy�season.��It�costs�Rs.�6�(8�cents)�for�100�grams,�and�a�family�we�spoke�with�uses�2�grams�per�tank.�

There�is�an�interesting�division�of�labor:�women�collect�the�water�from�the�tank,�men�clean�the�tank�once/year�and�the�teenage�son�is�the�one�responsible�for�adding�the�bleach�and�alum.��

One�reason�this�community�is�more�aggressive�than�most�with�its�purification�is�that�they�can�see�small�larvae�in�the�water�when�they�don’t�take�action.�

Individual treatment at sourceSindhiyonki Beri, Rajasthan

Women�at�the�well�pour�water�through�a�cloth�into�their�pots.��This�is�the�only�instance�we�saw�of�treatment�by�individuals�at�the�source.

Treatment

116

Complexity of choicesNaya Dundarpur, Rajasthan

One�family�we�spoke�with�only�uses�water�collected�fresh�that�day.��They�use�a�cloth�filter�twice�before�drinking.��The�community�pours�bleach�into�the�pond�during�the�rainy�season:�2kg�of�bleach�at�the�first�rain.��When�the�pond�is�empty�the�government�brings�them�canal�water�that�they�have�to�bleach.��Another�family�the�same�community�doesn’t�like�the�smell�of�bleach�so�does�not�use�it�much,�even�though�the�government�provides�it�free.��Instead,�they�keep�the�water�in�the�in�the�sun�as�a�treatment,�and�then�let�it�cool�overnight�and�drink�it�the�next�day.

Health ConsciousMad Puria, Rajasthan

We�met�one�family�that�is�extra�attentive�to�water�treatment,�because�they�are�older�and�prone�to�sickness.��They�add�one�spoonful�of�bleaching�powder�to�every�pot�of�water�they�drink.��The�powder�is�free�from�the�government�and�is�used�to�settle�the�dust�and�kill�the�germs.��They�feel�that�if�they�don’t�use�the�bleach�they�will�get�sick.�They�are�so�committed�to�purity�that�if�they�are�not�home�to�filter�the�water�through�fabric�they�will�drink�water�through�their�clothes�as�a�filter.

Treatment

117

Clay potsAll India

Clay�pots�were�ubiquitous�in�every�community�we�visited.�In�addition�to�the�important�cooling�qualities�it�is�also�perceived�to�have�a�purification�function.�Both�poor�and�wealthy�people�use�these�same�clay�pots.

Bleach in PondsAurangabad

Bleach�use�is�widespread.�In�villages,�the�government�bleaches�the�public�wells�once�per�month.��The�government�also�tests�the�public�and�private�wells�each�month.�

On�the�farms,�bleach�is�also�widespread,�although�one�farmer�we�met�did�not�need�to�bleach�because�there�are�fish�in�the�water�which�keep�it�clean.

Treatment

118

Water qualities

Water qualities key points

Paying�for�water�is�a�politically�charged�proposition:�free�water�has�long�been�promised�to�poor�people�during�political�campaigns,�so�people�feel�that�they�shouldn’t�have�to�pay�for�water�itself.��However,�many�households�pay�for�added�qualities.�

Water�is�judged�on�several�qualities,�some�subjective�and�some�objective.��Specific�sources�or�treatments�of�water�are�more�sought�after�depending�on�what�types�of�qualities�they�offer.

Water Qualities

convenient�clear�coolgood�taste�

healthyhigh�status�good�smellfresh�holy

most important

119

Water qualities

Susheela�pays�Rs�300/year�($8)�for�a�personal�tap�on�her�property�rather�than�stand�in�line�with�the�rest�of�the�community�at�the�tap�4�feet�away�from�her�home.�

Convenient

In�Jodhpur,�people�pay�Rs�150�($4)�for�4000L�to�be�delivered�to�their�homes,�because�they�have�no�alternate�water�sources.

Even�the�Naandi�promoter,�whose�job�is�to�educate�people�about�health�benefits,�uses�pond�water�because�the�treatment�plant�is�too�far�from�her�home.

120

Water qualities

Madhav�pours�water�through�a�cloth�filter�to�take�out�particles.

Clear

Seeing�larvae�in�the�water�is�motivator�to�add�bleaching�powder.

Plastic�containers�are�disliked�because�they�heat�up�the�contents.

This�shop�sells�chilled�water�for�Rs.�2�(5�cents)�when�the�same�water�could�be�bought�next�door�for�much�less�unchilled.

Cool

Clay�pots�are�seen�in�almost�every�household�due�to�cooling�properties.�They�cost�around�Rs.�40�($1)�and�need�to�be�replaced�every�year�to�maintain�cooling�properties.

In�Jodhpur,�people�buy�alum�to�reduce�turbidity�Rs�6/year�(15�cents).

121

Water qualities

A�wealthy�relative�has�sponsored�a�water�treatment�plant�in�this�village,�giving�this�man�a�lot�of�influence.

High status

The�school�teacher’s�family�will�drive�10km�to�buy�water�from�the�treatment�plant�when�the�closer�plant�is�closed,�because�they�value�health�so�much.

Divya’s�baby�has�an�allergic�reaction�to�bathing�in�the�pond�water�so�her�family�gets�water�from�the�well�2km�away.

Healthy

Swathi’s�family�pays�for�drinking�water�from�the�local�treatment�plant,��Rs�2/day�(5�cents),�because�they�have�been�educated�about�the�health�benefits.

Placing�the�WaterHealth�container�next�to�the�television�demonstrates�its�display�power.

Urban�slums�have�pride�that�their�water�is�the�same�as�that�used�by�the�wealthy�neighbors.

122

Water qualities

Concerns�about�chlorine�bleach�were�often�about�the�associated�smell.

Smell

Everyone�agreed�that�clay�pots�add�a�very�desirable�flavor�to�the�drinking�water.

The�reverse�osmosis�plant�charges�Rs.�0.15�($0.003)�per�liter.��People�are�paying�not�for�health�but�for�taste:�the�local�water�is�very�salty.

Good taste

Lemon�is�added�to�water�so�the�soda�seller�can�raise�his�price�from�Rs.�0.5�to�Rs.�1�($0.02)�per�serving.

Plastic�makes�the�water�smell�bad.

123

Water qualities

The�ground�is�considered�to�be�physically�and�spiritually�impure,�so�water�is�often�raised.

Holy

Water�sources�can�be�viewed�as�fresher�than�others.��Storage�tanks�and�trucks�are�not�considered�to�be�fresh,�because�they’re�more�removed�from�the�natural�source.

Fresh

Jathi�uses�freshly�collected�drinking�water�every�day.�She�wouldn’t�drink�water�from�yesterday.

Water�is�used�in�many�traditional�ceremonies,�and�is�integral�to�the�Hindu�religion.

For�many,�water�is�seen�as�coming�from�a�higher�power.

124

Vessels key points

While�the�material�and�shape�of�vessels�varies�regionally,�the�behavior�surrounding�vessels�is�quite�similar�throughout�the�regions�we�visited.��Water�is�handled�with�a�clear�hierarchy�of�use—different�vessels�are�used�to�transport�and�store�water�for�different�uses.

The�hierarchy�of�use�allows�people�to�pay�special�attention�to�keeping�their�drinking�water�clean.

Clay�pots�are�ubiquitous�in�every�region�and�valued�for�their�unique�ability�to�cool�and�purify�water.

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125

Summary of vessel use

In�general,�water�for�drinking�is�kept�indoors,�in�vessels�such�as�metal�and�clay�pots.��The�vessels�are�often�raised�off�the�ground�on�stands�or�shelves,�placed�in�a�well-cleaned�area,�and�kept�covered.��This�water�is�used�only�for�drinking,�and�occasionally�for�cooking.

Washing�water�is�usually�kept�outdoors,�in�larger�open�containers�such�as�plastic�buckets,�metal�buckets,�and�older�clay�pots.��This�water�can�be�used�multiple�times,�for�uses�such�as�washing�vessels,�clothing,�people,�and�animals.��It�is�also�sometimes�used�for�cooking.

Summary of vessel shapes

RoundedWomen�prefer�to�carry�water�in�rounded�pots,�which�can�be�held�comfortably�on�the�hip,�shoulders,�or�head.��While�these�pots�are�optimized�for�carrying,�the�designs�require�people�to�dip�into�the�vessel�to�get�water,�creating�an�invitation�for�contamination.��

Mount-ableMen�tend�to�carry�water�in�the�biggest�containers�they�can�handle�-�often�20L�jugs�which�can�be�taken�on�a�bicycle�or�motorbike.��These�shapes�have�a�drawback�in�that�the�inlet�is�often�too�small�to�allow�cleaning.

StackingIn�the�home,�pots�are�often�stacked�on�each�other�to�conserve�space.��

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126

Review of materials

Clay

Clay�pots�are�revered�at�all�levels�of�society,�from�the�very�poor�to�the�very�rich.��Part�of�India’s�heritage,�they�are�praised�for�their�natural�cooling�properties.��The�minerals�from�the�clay�also�contribute�to�good�taste�and�are�considered�to�be�healthy.��One�problem�with�clay�is�that�the�typical�shape�of�clay�pots�creates�opportunities�for�contamination.

Clay�pots�are�ubiquitous�in�village�life,�and�less�common�in�city�slums.��Clay�pots�are�inexpensive�in�rural�areas�(Rs�35:�$1),�where�they�are�made�locally.�They�are�much�less�available�in�urban�areas;�we�suspect�this�is�because�they’re�made�outside�cities,�and�fragile�to�transport.��

Metal

Metal�pots�are�very�traditional�and�widely�used,�often�purchased�as�part�of�a�woman’s�dowry.��The�metal�pots�are�more�durable�and�lightweight�than�clay,�the�most�popular�option�for�women�to�carry.��From�a�bacteriological�standpoint,�there�are�no�significant�problems�with�metals;�however�chlorine�can�react�adversely�in�metal�pots.

The�four�main�types�of�metal�pots,�in�order�of�price,�are�stainless�steel,�aluminum,�copper,�and�brass.�Stainless�steel�is�the�cheapest�type�(Rs.�150:�$4),�and�most�common�for�everyday�use.��Aluminum�has�the��benefit�over�steel�of�being�resistant�to�corrosion.��Copper�is�often�used�for�religious�ceremonies:�there�is�an�association�with�copper�and�truth�and�virtue.��Brass�is�high-status,�often�four�times�the�price�of�stainless�steel.��

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127

PlasticPlastic�is�not�regarded�as�a�good�material�for�drinking�water,�because�it�makes�the�water�smell�and�is�considered�to�be�much�less�fresh�than�clay�or�metals.��However,�plastic�is�used�occasionally�in�villages�and�quite�commonly�in�cities.��

In�villages,�plastic�is�not�widely�available.��People�have�to�travel�to�the�nearest�town�to�buy�plastic�containers,�and�the�containers�for�sale�are�often�re-purposed�containers�for�cooking�oil,�kerosene,�or�battery�acid.��Men�use�plastic�containers�to�transport�water,�because�they�can�be�made�large,�with�features�to�hook�onto�bikes�or�motorcycles.��People�also�carry�1.5L�plastic�bottles�outside�the�home,�to�bring�water�to�the�fields.��

In�cities,�plastic�is�one�of�the�most�prevalent�materials:�plastic�vessels�are�the�cheapest�and�most�common.��Plastic�vessels�come�in�many�shapes,�including�rounded�pots,�jugs�with�handles�at�the�top,�and�large�plastic�drums.��In�Mumbai,�there�is�a�huge�distribution�system�for�20L�plastic�containers,�which�are�color-coded�by�the�grade�of�plastic:�white�being�closest�to�virgin�material,�then�blue,�then�black�being�the�recycled�material�which�is�least�durable.�The�blue�version�cost�Rs.�100�($2.50);�the�black�cost�a�little�less,�and�they�white�costs�a�little�more.��

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128

In�the�official�slum,�people�tend�to�use�metal�pots�for�transport;�in�the�poorer�squatter�slum,�people�like�to�use�plastic�pots,�which�are�noted�for�their�durability—important�in�case�a�physical�fight�breaks�out�at�the�water�source.

Metal�pots�are�favored�and�are�kept�in�elevated�positions�in�the�home.��

Both�tend�to�use�plastic�buckets�or�pots,�which�are�cheaper�than�metal�pots.��Most�store�washing�water�outdoors,�but�some�store�it�indoors.

Hyderabad slums

Vessels

drinking, cooking washingtransport

Vessels

129

Women�carry�water�in�metal�pots,�because�they’re�lighter�than�clay�and�the�round�shape�is�considered�ergonomic.��When�men�carry�water,�they�tend�to�carry�larger�quantities,�sometimes�in�plastic�jugs,�using�bicycles�and�motorbikes.�

drinking cooking, washing

Clay�pots�are�ubiquitous�due�to�cooling�properties.��There’s�a�resistance�to�plastic�containers,�because�the�plastic�affects�temperature,�taste�and�smell.��Clean�water�purchased�in�the�WHI�plastic�vessels�is�often�poured�into�clay�pots�in�the�home.� �

Metal�pots�are�commonly�used�for�cooking�water�(indoors)�and�washing�water�(outdoors).��Concrete�basins�(outdoors)�are�also�used�for�washing.

transport

Vijayawada villages

Vessels

130

Delhi slums

People�tend�to�carry�many�small�containers,�many�of�which�have�handles�as�a�key�feature.��Inexpensive�plastic�jugs�and�buckets�are�quite�common.

Water�for�drinking�is�stored�in�metal�pots�or�the�same�containers�used�for�transport.��The�lucky�few�with�refrigerators�store�cooled�water�in�1L��plastic�bottles.

washing

Water�for�washing�is�usually�stored�in�the�plastic�jugs�and�buckets�used�for�transport.��Both�indoor�and�outdoor�space�is�scarce,�so�families�store�water�wherever�they�can.

drinking, cookingtransport

Vessels

131

Jodhpur villages

In�Jodhpur,�women�do�most�of�the�water�transport,�carrying�water�on�their�head�in�clay�or�metal�pots.��When�men�transport�water,�they�usually�use�plastic�jerry�cans,�carried�on�a�bicycle�or�motorcycle.

washing

Water�for�drinking�and�cooking�is�stored�in�clay�pots,�near�the�kitchen�area.��Drinking�water�is�kept�elevated�above�children’s�reach.��Cooking�water�tends�to�be�on�the�ground,�in�older�clay�pots�which�have�lost�their�cooling�properties.

Water�for�washing�is�stored�outdoors�in�clay�pots,�or�containers�built�into�the�house�architecture.��It’s�often�kept�near�the�family’s�“thankas”�(large-scale�water�storage�tanks).

drinking, cookingtransport

Vessels

132

Mumbai slums

People�take�as�many�vessels�as�possible�to�the�water�source—including�plastic�jugs�of�many�sizes,�and�metal�and�plastic�pots.

washing

Water�is�usually�stored�indoors,�in�metal�and�plastic�pots.��People�live�in�small�spaces�and�use�many�pots,�so�the�pots�take�up�a�huge�amount�of�the�living�space.��In�more�established�slums,�people�store�water�in�plastic�bottles,�cooled�in�their�refrigerators.

Water�for�washing�is�stored�outdoors,�in�plastic�and�metal�buckets,�plastic�jugs,�and�larger�plastic�drums.��In�Colaba,�the�public�street�is�taken�over�by�outdoor�water�storage.

drinking, cookingtransport

Vessels

133

Aurangabad villages

In�Aurangabad,�most�water�is�carried�by�women,�on�their�heads�in�metal�pots.

Water�for�drinking�and�cooking�is�usually�stored�indoors,�in�metal�or�clay�pots.��We�saw�one�interesting�clay�vessel,�with�a�tap�at�the�bottom.

Water�for�washing�is�stored�outdoors,�usually�in�a�clay�pot�or�bucket.��The�clay�pots�are�sometimes�built�into�the��surrounding�land.

washingdrinking, cookingtransport

134

Delivery

Delivery key points

People�are�reluctant�to�pay�for�water:�people�expect�the�government�to�provide�water�for�free,�as�a�fundamental�right.��

However,�people�are�willing�to�pay�for�delivery,�either�as�a�convenience�or�as�a�necessity�in�times�of�scarcity.

There�is�a�huge�potential�for�delivery�services,�to�expand�the�physical�reach�of�community�water�sources.

There�was�little�initiative�for�entrepreneurs�to�start�delivery�services.��Treatment�plants�had�to�recruit�and�subsidize�delivery�routes�to�get�them�started.

135

Urban delivery serviceKovali, Andhra Pradesh

An�entrepreneur�in�Kovali�buys�water�from�the�Water�Health�International�(WHI)�plant,�and�sells�it�to�people�in�a�town�12�km�away�where�people�are�willing�to�pay�more�for�water�delivery.��His�service�includes�alternate-day�pickup/drop-off�and�container�cleaning.��He�has�a�team�of�15�people�to�run�this�service,�with�workers�cleaning�and�filling�the�containers,�and�driving�the�truck.

He�charges�Rs.�300�($7.50)�to�register�for�this�service,�and�sells�each�20L�container�of�water�for�Rs.�7�($0.18)—�a�markup�of�Rs.�5.5�from�the�WHI�price,�but�a�much�lower�price�than�his�commercial�competitors.

Village entrepreneur-to-beChinthapalli Padu, Andhra Pradesh

The�WHI�plant�in�Chinthapalli�Padu�is�planning�to�encourage�a�delivery�entrepreneur,�to�serve�the�village.��They�have�purchased�a�cycle�rickshaw�for�Rs.�3000�($75),�as�a�form�of�finance�for�the�entrepreneur.��The�entrepreneur�will�deliver�WHI�water�for�a�markup�of�Rs.�1.��For�the�first�month,�he�will�receive�all�the�profits,�while�he�builds�his�consumer�base.��Thereafter,�he�will�pay�a�portion�of�the�profits�until�he�has�purchased�the�rickshaw,�at�which�point�he’ll�be�on�his�own.��

This�is�not�a�high-paying�job:�assuming�he�can�deliver�around�40�containers�a�day,�his�income�would�be�$1/day.

Delivery

136

Delivery

Shop selling chilled waterChinthapalli Padu, Andhra Pradesh

We�visited�a�small�shop�in�Chinthapalli�Padu,�where�WHI�water�was�prominently�displayed�in�the�front�of�the�shop.��The�shopkeeper�transfers�WHI�water�into�1L�water,�and�chills�it�in�a�refrigerator.��

She�buys�the�water�from�WHI�for�Rs.�1.5�($0.04)�per�20L�can,�and�buys�the�bottles�used�from�the�nearby�town.��She�sells�chilled�water�to�outsiders�for�Rs.�2�per�liter,�and�gives�it�freely�to�friends�from�the�town.��She�compares�her�price�to�branded�mineral�water,�at�Rs.�12/L,�and�unbranded�bottled�water�at�Rs.�7/L.�

Family water deliveryMolar Bund slum, Delhi

In�Molar�Bund,�we�met�a�boy�who�had�rented�a�cycle�rickshaw�to�carry�water�containers�for�his�family�and�his�neighbors,�since�they�live�far�from�the�municipal�taps.��He�hires�the�rickshaw�twice�a�day,�each�time�for�an�hour,�paying�Rs.�10�per�hour.

He�had�not�considered�starting�a�delivery�service,�but�his�practice�of�paying�Rs.�20�per�day�shows�the�value�of�the�service�to�him.

137

Large-scale village delivery serviceRajasthan

Large-scale�water�delivery�is�quite�common�in�the�villages�around�Jodhpur.��Some�villages�use�tankers�year-round�to�transport�water�from�village-owned�ponds�beyond�walking�distance�from�the�village,�while�others�hire�tankers�in�summer�when�their�local�ponds�dry�up.��Tankers�are�pulled�by�tractors,�trucks,�and�camels.

Water�is�delivered�in�4000L�increments,�to�fill�household�or�community�“thankas”�(large-scale�water�storage).��The�cost�to�deliver�a�tanker�of�water�varies�with�distance.��Delivery�from�a�local�pond�might�be�Rs.�100-300�($2.50-$7.50),�and�delivery�from�a�far-away�pond�could�cost�up�to�Rs.�600�($15).��With�a�typical�family�using�1-2�tankers�per�month,�and�average�family�income�is�Rs.�500-1000�for�a�poor�family�and�Rs.�200-2500�for�a�wealthy�family,�people�are�often�spending�10-20%�of�their�income�on�water�delivery.

Town delivery serviceBalotra, Rajasthan

In�the�town�of�Balotra,�we�saw�delivery�services�which�sell�“sweet�water”�to�shopkeepers�for�Rs.�10�($0.25)�per�25L�plastic�can.

The�water�comes�for�a�tube�well�60km�away;�it’s�transported�in�a�tanker�truck�and�poured�into�plastic�cans,�before�being�distributed�on�a�rickshaw.

Delivery

138

Village PiaoChicharli, Rajasthan

In�Rajasthan,�there�is�a�tradition�of�a�“Piao”—a�water�kiosk�sponsored�by�the�community,�serving�water�from�the�village�pond.��Anybody�who�visits�the�piao�may�drink�a�glass�of�water�for�free.��The�Piao�in�Chicharli�is�manned�by�elderly�members�of�the�village,�and�serves�people�in�the�village�as�well�as�people�passing�through,�such�as�children�on�the�way�home�from�school.��Children�drink�water�through�their�hands,�and�adults�hold�the�glass�away�from�their�face—both�in�order�avoid�contaminating�the�drinking�vessel.

Town PiaoBalotra, Rajasthan

We�visited�a�Piao�in�the�town�of�Balotra�which�is�sponsored�by�the�auto�rickshaw�union,�and�available�to�everybody.��The�union�pays�Rs.�350�($8.75)�per�day,�and�is�able�to�supply�500L�of�water.��The�water�comes�from�a�pond�outside�the�town.

Delivery

139

Women’s Self Help GroupsPachpadra, Rajasthan

We�spoke�to�two�women’s�self�help�groups�(SHGs),�sponsored�by�the�Jal�Bhagirathi�Foundation�(JBF).��Each�plans�to�set�up�a�business,�selling�water�from�JBF’s�reverse�osmosis�plant.

One�group�plans�to�sell�cups�of�chilled�water,�at�the�bus�station.��They�would�like�to�sell�bottled�water,�but�the�bottling�equipment�requires�significant�investment.��The�other�group�plans�to�deliver�water�from�the�plant�in�20L�tanks,�to�houses�in�the�village.��This�requires�investment�in�a�rickshaw,�at�Rs.�6000�($150).

Each�group�will�save�Rs.�15,000�($375),�and�receive�a�bank�loan�of�up�to�Rs.�60,000�($1500),�at�an�interest�rate�of�15%�per�month.��This�loan�is�given�on�the�conditions�that�the�group�has�12+�members,�all�women,�and�6�months�of�savings.

Urban delivery serviceDelhi, Vijayawada, Mumbai

On�the�streets�of�many�cities�we�visited,�we�saw�small-scale�delivery�services�selling�unbranded�water�in�25L�cylindrical�containers.��We�did�not�have�the�opportunity�to�interview�any�of�these�delivery�services,�but�we�learned�from�people�in�our�partner�organizations�that�these�services�are�very�commonly�used�in�households�and�businesses.

Delivery

140

Vessel cleaning

Cleaning key points

The�belief�that�water�is�intrinsically�cleansing,�tied�to�the�Hindu�religion,�is�widespread�in�India.

People�have�many�existing�behaviors�around�cleaning—such�as�cleaning�vessels�daily�before�filling�them.��However,�the�good�intention�are�often�undermined�by��the�use�of�contaminated�water�for�cleaning.

141

In�every�region�we�visited,�we�saw�positive�behaviors�around�vessel�cleaning.��People�almost�always�take�the�time�to�clean�their�vessels�before�filling�them,�so�vessels�are�cleaned�daily.��

The�main�problem�with�vessel�cleaning�is�that�people�are�cleaning�with�contaminated�water.��Even�people�who�buy�high-quality�water�for�drinking�often�use�lower�quality�water�for�cleaning.��People�often�wash�immediately�before�using,�which�means�that�the�contaminated�water�mixes�with�the�high-quality�water.

The�root�of�this�problem�is�a�lack�of�understanding�about�what�causes�contamination.��Water�is�viewed�to�be�inherently�cleansing,�and�some�people�don’t�understand�that�water�which�appears�clean�and�pristine�can�actually�contain�bacteria.��Others�know�that�they’re�washing�with�contaminated�water,�but�chose�to�do�so�because�they�always�have,�or�because�they�have�no�choice.�

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142

We�learned�about�a�host�of�cleaning�practices,�which�include�using�plastic�brushes�to�scrub�the�inside�of�bottles;�filling�a�vessel�with�water,�sand,�and�rocks�and�shaking�vigorously;�and�in�areas�of�water�scarcity,�scrubbing�food�vessels�with�cooking�ash.��

People�have�detergents�such�as�“Surf”�but�they�tend�to�use�them�only�in�special�cases,�for�example�washing�a�baby�bottle�with�detergent�or�cleaning�out�a�container�that�had�held�battery�acid.

Many�of�the�cleaning�practices�can�actually�contaminate�the�vessels,�but�they�show�the�widespread�cultural�value�of�keeping�things�clean.��This�is�important�to�note,�as�something�we�can�work�with�in�our�design�solutions.

Vessel cleaning

Acknowledgements

144

Partner organizations

The�following�organizations�were�integral�to�guiding�our�field�research�and�hosting�the�project�team�in�India.�

Thank you

WaterHealth�International�&�Naandi�FoundationVijayawada,�Andhra�Pradesh

Jal�Bhagirathi�Foundation�Jodhpur,�Rajasthan

IDE-India�Aurangabad,�Maharashtra

The�slum�visits�were�hosted�by

� CAP�Foundation�(Hyderabad)� Arpana�Trust�(Delhi)

145

Contributors

The�following�people�and�organizations�contributed�their�time�and�valuable�experience.

Jeff�Albert,�Aquaya�Insitute�Rob�Quick,�CDCRick�Rheingans,�Emory�UniversityTanvi�Nagpal�and�Paul�Faeth,�Global�Water�ChallengeGlenn�Austin,�Claudia�Harner-Jay,�Kendra�Chappell�and�team,��PATHIsha�Ray,�UC-Berkeley�Eric�Van�Dusen,�UC-Berkeley�Rural�Water�Project

Praveen�Aggarwal,�Coke�IndiaVaneet�Gupta,�GE�IndiaHH�Maharaja�Gaj�Singh,�Jodhpur

Thank you

146

Core Team

Thank you

Sally�MadsenIDEO

Aaron�SklarIDEO

�Yasmina�ZaidmanAcumen�Fund

Holly�KretschmarIDEO

Rashmir�Balasubramaniam�Bill�and�Melinda�Gates�Foundation

�Savitha�PeriAcumen�Fund