UND Student Presentations - PowerPoint Presentation

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University of North Dakota Nurse Anesthesia Specialization Student Presentations

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Transcript of UND Student Presentations - PowerPoint Presentation

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University of North Dakota

Nurse Anesthesia Specialization

Student Presentations

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Spinal Hematoma Spinal Hematoma Formation Following Formation Following

Neuraxial Anesthesia in Neuraxial Anesthesia in the Anticoagulated the Anticoagulated

PatientPatientLisa Bell, SRNA

University of North Dakota

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IntroductionIntroduction• The formation of a spinal hematoma is strongly

correlated with the use of anticoagulation medications.– Incidence of epidural hematoma formation is

1:150,000. – Ratio of hematoma formation decreases slightly

with spinal blocks, with a reported incidence of 1:220,000.

• The number of patients on medications that alter clotting status continues to increase.

• When patients present with altered coagulation, anesthesia providers are challenged with deciding which regional anesthetic procedures can be safely performed.

(Tyagi & Bhattacharya, 2002)

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ProblemProblem

• Available guidelines that focus on anticoagulation and the performance of regional anesthesia vary from source to source.

• Therefore, nurse anesthetists are required to make decisions based on their best judgment, rather than a consistent guideline, in attempt to ensure patient safety.

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PurposePurpose

• The purpose of this project was to explore the association between neuraxial anesthesia, anticoagulation therapy, and spinal hematoma formation.

• Anticoagulation guidelines were reviewed to determine when regional anesthesia could be safely performed based on available laboratory data.

• The appropriate timing of spinal or epidural needle placement and catheter removal relative to the timing of anticoagulant drug administration was also examined.

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SignificanceSignificance• This project was aimed at compiling the

diverse recommendations that are available to serve as a reference for anesthesia providers in attempt to prevent the formation of a spinal hematoma.

• The recommendations were condensed into a small pocket guide to remind anesthetists of the factors that need to be considered prior to the performance of a regional technique in an anticoagulated patient.

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MethodsMethods

• A comprehensive literature review that included: available guidelines, retrospective reviews, case reports, and prospective studies was conducted.

• The findings were compiled and presented in a power point format which displayed the association between spinal hematoma formation and anticoagulation therapy.

• The physiologic framework of adaptation and homeostasis was used as the theoretical basis for the project.

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Unfractionated HeparinUnfractionated Heparin• When heparin is administered IV, the activated partial

thromboplastin time (aPTT) is utilized to monitor its anticoagulant effect.– The normal range for an aPTT is 20-35 seconds in an

adult. (Kee, 1999)

• When patients are receiving subcutaneous (SQ) heparin in doses of 5000 Units or less, the aPTT is not usually monitored. (Tyagi & Bhattacharya, 2002)

• Needle insertion and catheter removal can occur at any time following SQ administration of heparin in doses less than 5000 Units. (UWMC, 2006)

• In doses greater than 5000 Units, and when heparin is administered IV, needle placement should not occur unless the aPTT is less than 40 seconds. Under these same circumstances, the administration of heparin should be avoided when an indwelling catheter is in place. (UWMC, 2006)

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Unfractionated Heparin Unfractionated Heparin (cont.)(cont.)

• If a regional anesthetic technique is planned on a patient that is receiving anticoagulation, the administration of heparin should not occur for one hour following the placement of the needle.

• Indwelling catheters should not be discontinued for 2-4 hours after the last administered heparin dose.

• When heparin is administered with other anticoagulant medications, there may be an increased risk of spinal hematoma formation.

• A platelet count should be drawn prior to needle insertion or catheter removal on patients that have received heparin for greater than four days.

(Horlocker et al., 2003)

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Low Molecular Weight Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH)Heparin (LMWH)

• The response of LMWH is very predictable, which eliminates the requirement for aPTT monitoring.

• A normal dose of enoxaparin is 40 mg SQ daily or 30 mg SQ twice daily.

• Needle placement and indwelling catheter removal should be delayed for at least 10-12 hours following a normal dose of LMWH.

• Higher than normal doses of LMWH include amounts of 1 mg/kg twice daily or 1.5 mg/kg daily.

• The administration of neuraxial anesthesia to patients on higher than normal doses of LMWH should be delayed for at least 24 hours.

(Horlocker et al., 2003)

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LMWH (cont.)LMWH (cont.)• If single daily dosing is planned, the first dose

of LMWH can be administered approximately 6-8 hours postoperatively. However, the second postoperative dose should not occur prior to 24 hours of the first dose.

• When continuous epidural anesthesia is planned, the catheter can be left in place overnight and removed the next day.

• The anesthesia provider should wait approximately two or more hours before administering LMWH to a patient that has just had the indwelling catheter removed.

(Horlocker et al., 2003)

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Antiplatelet AgentsAntiplatelet Agents• Platelet function must be normal before regional

anesthetic techniques are performed.– A normal platelet count generally ranges from

150,000 to 400,000 mm3 in an adult. (Kee, 1999)

• The effect of aspirin therapy lasts the entire lifetime of the platelet, which is generally 8-10 days. (Katzung, 2004)

• Other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) also alter platelet aggregation, however, normal platelet function is resumed approximately 1-3 days after the NSAIDs are discontinued. (Katzung, 2004)

• The use of NSAID therapy does not increase the risk of spinal hematoma formation following neuraxial anesthesia. (Horlocker et al., 2003)

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Antiplatelet Agents (cont.)Antiplatelet Agents (cont.)

• Clopidogrel and ticlopidine administration irreversibly inhibits platelet function. (Katzung, 2004)

• Ticlopidine should be discontinued 14 days prior to receiving neuraxial anesthesia and clopidogrel should be discontinued seven days prior to the scheduled regional procedure. (Horlocker et al., 2003)

• The risk of spinal hematoma formation following thienopyridine administration is unknown. (Horlocker et al., 2003)

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WarfarinWarfarin

• Prothrombin time (PT) and international normalized ratio (INR) are utilized to monitor the anticoagulant effect of warfarin therapy. – A normal PT generally ranges from 10-13

seconds in an adult. (Kee, 1999)

– The INR is an international standardized test for PT that should only be used after the patient has been stabilized on warfarin. (Kee, 1999)

• Central neuraxial procedures should be delayed until the INR is within the range of 1.0-1.3. (Horlocker et al., 2003)

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Warfarin (cont.)Warfarin (cont.)• Warfarin administration must be stopped 4-5 days

before a regional procedure is performed.• If a dose of warfarin is administered before a

scheduled surgery, a PT and INR level need to be checked prior to the regional technique.

• The PT and INR also need to be assessed prior to discontinuing an indwelling catheter on a patient that has received low doses of warfarin, 5 mg or less, throughout continuous epidural therapy.

• The catheter should not be removed until the INR is less than 1.5.

• Concurrent use of anticoagulation medications may increase the risk of spinal hematoma formation without affecting the PT or INR.

(Horlocker et al., 2003)

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SummarySummary

• In attempt to reduce the occurrence of spinal hematoma formation, anesthesia providers need to be aware of all the risk factors, in addition to anticoagulant medications, that may contribute to this undesirable complication.

• This may be achieved by conducting a more complete assessment of the patient’s physical presentation, medical history, laboratory data, and current medication history prior to the administration of regional anesthesia.

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ReferencesReferences• Horlocker, T.T., Benzon, H.T., Brown, D.L., Enneking, F.K.,

Heit, J.A., Mulroy, M.F. et al. (2003). Regional anesthesia in the anticoagulated patient: Defining the risks. Retrieved April 15, 2007, from http://www.asra.com/Consensus_Conferences

• Katzung, B.G. (2004). Basic and clinical pharmacology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.

• Kee, J.L. (1999). Laboratory diagnostic tests with nursing implications (5th ed.). Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.

• Tyagi, A., & Bhattacharya, A. (2002). Central neuraxial blocks and anticoagulation: A review of current trends. European Journal of Anesthesiology, 19, 317-329.

• University of Washington Medical Center. (2006). Anticoagulation guidelines for neuraxial procedures: Guidelines to prevent spinal hematoma following epidural/intrathecal/spinal procedures. Retrieved April 15, 2007 from http://www.uwmcacc.org/pdf/neuraxial.pdf

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Perioperative Myocardial Infarction

Lorrissa Bohlman, SRNAUniversity of North Dakota

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Introduction• Today, many patients who undergo

surgery are older with more chronic comorbid medical illnesses.

• Complications are common in this population and cardiac complications, including perioperative myocardial infarction, remain the leading cause of perioperative morbidity and mortality.

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Purpose

• The purpose of this project is to examine the perioperative identification and management of surgical patients at risk for perioperative myocardial infarction.

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Review of Physiology: Myocardial Oxygen Balance• Coronary perfusion pressure is determined

by the difference in the arterial end-diastolic pressure and the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure.

• Decreases in aortic pressure or increases in ventricular pressure severely compromise coronary perfusion.

• Myocardial oxygen demand is directly proportionate to myocardial blood flow. Any increase in demand must be met by an increase in blood flow.

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Factors that Affect Myocardial Oxygen

Supply and Demand• Supply

– Heart rate– Coronary

perfusion pressure

– Arterial oxygen content

– Hemoglobin– Coronary vessel

diameter

• Demand– Basal

requirements– Heart rate– SBP– Preload– Contractility

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Determinants of CO and BP

• B.P. = C.O. x T.P.R

• C.O. = S.V. x H.R

• BP = Blood Pressure• HR = Heart Rate• TPR = Total Peripheral Resistance• CO = Cardiac Output

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Surgical Triggers of Myocardial Infarction

• This type of ischemia is characterized by ST segment depression and is usually proceeded by an increase in heart rate.

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Preoperative History• Active Cardiac Conditions for Which the Patient

Should Undergo Evaluation and Treatment Before Noncardiac Surgery (Identified by ACC & AHA)

• Condition Examples: – Unstable coronary syndromes – Unstable or severe angina* (CCS class III or IV) Recent MI

Decompensated HF (NYHA functional class IV; worsening or new-onset HF)

– Significant arrhythmias: High-grade atrioventricular block, Mobitz II atrioventricular block, Third-degree atrioventricular heart block, Symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias, Supraventricular arrhythmias (including atrial fibrillation) with uncontrolled ventricular rate (HR greater than 100 bpm at rest)

– Symptomatic bradycardia – Newly recognized ventricular tachycardia– Severe valvular disease

• Severe aortic stenosis (mean pressure gradient greater than 40 mm Hg, aortic valve area less than 1.0 cm2, or symptomatic)

• Symptomatic mitral stenosis (progressive dyspnea on exertion, exertional presyncope, or HF)

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Preoperative History: Functional Capacity

• Functional capacity, exercise tolerance, is expressed using metabolic equivalent treadmill study levels (METs). Functional capacity is classified according to the level of daily activity the patient can tolerate.

• A study of 600 patients found perioperative myocardial infarction was increased in patients unable to meet a 4 MET demand.

• Noncardiac functional limitations (back/joint pain) may falsely elevate cardiac risk.

• 1 MET – Can you take care of

yourself?– Walk indoors around the

house?• 4 METs

– Climb a flight of stairs or walk up a hill?

– Scrub the floor or move furniture?

– Golf? Bowel? Dance?• 10 METs

– Swimming? Tennis? Basketball?

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Clinical Assessment

• The American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA) group clinical predicators associated with increased perioperative cardiovascular risk into three main groups:

– Major clinical predictors: The presence of 1 or more of these conditions mandates intensive management and may result in delay or cancellation of surgery unless the surgery is emergent: unstable or severe angina, significant arrhythmias, and severe valvular disease.

– Intermediate: ischemic heart disease, compensated or prior heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus and renal insufficiency, history of MI, abnormal Q waves by ECG.

– Minor: (markers for cardiovascular disease that have not been proved to increase perioperative risk independently) advanced age (greater than 70), abnormal ECG (LV hypertrophy, LBBB, ST-T abnormalities), rhythm other than sinus and uncontrolled systemic hypertension.

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Surgery Specific Risk

• The ACC and AHA guidelines grade the surgery specific risks as high (cardiac risk greater than 5%), intermediate (less than 5%), and low (less than 1%).– High: emergent major operations particularly in the

elderly, aortic and other major vascular surgery, peripheral vascular surgery, and anticipated prolonged surgical procedures associated with large fluid shifts and/or blood loss.

– Intermediate: carotid endarterectomy, head and neck surgery, intraperitoneal and intrathoracic surgery, orthopedic surgery, and prostate surgery.

– Low: endoscopic procedures, superficial procedures, cataract surgery and breast surgery.

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Framework for Determining which Patients are Candidates for Further

Cardiac Testing

Fleisher, L. A. et al. Circulation 2007;116:e418-e499

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Proposed approach to the management of patients with previous percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) who

require noncardiac surgery

Fleisher, L. A. et al. Circulation 2007;116:e418-e499

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Beta-Blockade

• Current studies suggest that beta blockers reduce perioperative ischemia and may reduce the risk of MI and death in high-risk patients.

• The dose should be titrated to achieve a resting heart rate of 60 beats per min (bpm) to increase the benefit of beta blockade.

• Rate control with beta blockers should continue during the intraoperative and postoperative period to maintain a heart rate of 60 to 65 bpm.

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Intraoperative Technique and Agent

• There is no “ideal” agent or technique • All anesthetic agents have some degree of

effect on the cardiovascular system• The choice of anesthetic technique and

intraoperative monitors is left to the discretion of the anesthesia care team

• Recognition of the perioperative plan is helpful in guiding intraoperative decisions– Remember to consider:

• Postoperative monitoring, ventilation, analgesia• Use of antiplatelet agents or anticoagulants

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Myocardial Infarction: Management

• Despite the classification of myocardial infarction management is dictated by the patient’s hemodynamic status– Treatment of a hemodynamically stable patient

should incorporate beta-blockers and intravenous nitroglycerine

– Treatment of a hemodynamically unstable patient should focus on supporting circulation with positive inotropes and intra-aortic balloon pump

– Involve a cardiac expert in management immediately

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Myocardial Infarction: Management

• While fibrinolytic therapy reduces mortality a substantial risk of surgical site bleeding exists

• Time to reperfusion is critical in outcome– Patients with acute coronary occlusion benefit

from angiography and revascularization within 12 hours

– These reperfusion procedures should not be performed unless acute coronary occlusion is the suspected cause

• Example: Hypertension and tachycardia increasing myocardial demand

• Treatment: Lowering the heart rate and blood pressure provides increased benefit and decreased risk

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Postoperative Period

• Goals during the postoperative period do not differ significantly from the preoperative and intraoperative period– Prevention of ischemia

• Adequate pain management• Pain can lead to increased myocardial oxygen

demands• Continue supplemental oxygen

– Early detection of myocardial ischemia or infarction

– Prompt treatment as dictated by the patient’s level of hemodynamic stability

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References• Adesanya, A.O., de Lemos, J.A., Greillich, N.B., & Whitten, C.W.

(2006). Management of perioperative myocardial infarction in noncardiac surgical patients. Chest, 130(2), 1-21.

• Agency for Health Care Research Quality. (2001).Beta blockers and reduction of perioperative cardiac exerts. In: AHRQ Publication No. 91-EO58, Rockville, MD: Retrieved March 15, 2007, from http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/ptsaftey/chap25.htm

• Akhtar, S. (2006). Ischemic heart disease. Anesthesiology Clinic, 24, 461-485.

• American College of Cardiology. (2002). Guideline Update on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery (Committee to Update the 1996 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery). Retrieved February 1, 2007, from http://www.acc.org/clinical/guidelines/perio/dirIndex.htm

• American College of Cardiology. (2006). Guideline Update on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery: Focused Update on Perioperative Beta-Blocker Therapy (Committee to Update the 2002 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery). Retrieved February 1, 2007, from http://content.onlinejacc.org/cgi/content/full/47/11/2343

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References• American Society of Anesthesiologists. (2005). Standards for basic

anesthetic monitoring. Amended: October 25, 2005; Approved: House of Delegates October 21, 1986. Retrieved February 15, from http://www.asahq.org/publicationsAndServices/standards/09.htm

• Ashton, C.M., Petersen, N.J., Wray, N.P., Kiefe, C.I., Dunn, J.K., Wu, L., et al. (1993). The incidence of perioperative myocardial infarction in men undergoing noncardiac surgery. Annals of Internal Medicine, 118(7), 504-510.

• Badner, N.H., Knill, R.L., Brown, J.E., Novick, T.V., & Gleb, A.W. (1998). Myocardial infarction after noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology, 88(3) 572-578.

• Baxter, A. & Kanji, S. (2007). Protocol implementation in anesthesia: Beta-blockade in non-cardiac surgery patients. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 54(2), 114-123.

• Boersma, E., Poldermans, D., Bax, J.J., Steyerberg, E.W., Thompson, I.R., Banga, J.D.,et al. (2001). Predictors of cardiac events after major vascular surgery: Role of clinical characteristics, dobutamine echocardiography, and B-blocker therapy. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(14), 1865-1873.

• Bois, S., Couture, P., Boudreault, D., Lacombe., Fugere, F., Girard, F., et al. (1997). Epidural analgesia and intravenous patient-controlled analgesia result in similar rates of postoperative myocardial ischemia after aortic surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 85(6), 1233-1239.

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References• Breen, P., Lee, J., Pomposelli, F., Park, K.W. (2004). Timing of high-risk

vascular surgery following coronary artery bypass surgery: a 10 year experience from and academic medical center. Anaesthesia, 59(5), 422-427.

• Deveraux, P.J., Goldman, L., Yusuf, S., Gilbert, K., Leslie, K., & Guyatt, G.H. (2005a). Perioperative cardiac events in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a review of the magnitude of the problem, the pathophysiology of the events and methods to estimate and communicate risk. CMAJ, 173(7), 627-634.

• Deveraux, P.J., Goldman, L., Yusuf, S., Gilbert, K., Leslie, K., & Guyatt, G.H. (2005b). Surveillance and prevention of major perioperative ischemic cardiac events in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a review. CMAJ, 173(7), 779-788.

• Dodds, T.M., Stone, J.G., Coromilas, J., Weinberger, M., & Levy, D.G. (1993). Prophylactic nitroglycerin infusion during noncardiac surgery does not reduce perioperative ischemia. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 76(4), 705-713.

• Dupuis, J.Y., & Labinaz, M. (2005). Noncardiac surgery in patients with coronary artery stent: what should the anesthesiologist know?. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 52 (4), 356-361.

• Eagle, K.A., Rihal, C.S., Michel, M.C., Holmes, D.R., Foster, E.D., & Gersh, B.J. (1997). Cardiac risk of noncardiac surgery: Influence of coronary artery disease and type of surgery in 3368 operations. Circulation, 96(6), 1882-1887.

• Ellis, J.E., Drijvers, G., Pedlow, S., Laff, S.P., Sorrentino, J.F., Foss, J.F., et al. (1994). Premedication with oral and transdermal clonidine provides safe and efficacious postoperative sympatholysis. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 75(6), 133-1140.

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References• Frank, S.M., Fleisher, L.A., Breslow, M.J., Higgins, M.S., Olson,

K.F., Kelly, S., et al. (1997). Perioperative maintenance of normothermia reduces the incidence of morbid cardiac events: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(14), 1127-1134.

• Hebert, P.C., Wells, G., Blajchman, M.A., Marshall, J., Martin, C., Pagliarello, G., et al. (1999). A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. The New England Journal of Medicine, 340(6), 409-417.

• Houge, C.W., Goodnough, L.T., & Monk, T.G. (1998). Perioperative myocardial ischemic episodes are related to hematocrit level in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Transfusion, 38(10), 924-931.

• Joint European Society of Cardiology & American College of Cardiology.(2000). Myocardial infarction redefined. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 36(3), 959-969.

• Joint International Society and Federation of Cardiology & World Health Organization. (1979). Nomenclature and criteria for diagnosis of ischemic heart disease. Circulation, 59(3), 607-609.

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References

• Landesberg, G. (2003). The pathophysiology of perioperative myocardial inarction: facts and perspectives. Journal of cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, 17(1), 90-100.

• Landesberg, G., Morris, M., Wolf, Y., Vesselov, Y., & Weissman, C. (2002). Periopertive myocardial ischemia and infarction. Anesthesiology, 96(2), 264-270.

• Landesberg, G., Mosseri, M., Zahger, D., Wolf, Y., Perouansky, M., Anner, H., et al. (2001). Myocardial infaraction after vascular surgery: The role of prolonged, stress-induced, ST depression-type ischemia. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 37(7), 1839-1845.

• London, M.J. (2002). Multilead precordial ST-segment monitoring: The next generation?. Anesthesiology, 96(2), 259-261.

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References• London, M.J., Hollenberg, M., Wong, M.G., Levenson, L., Tubau,

J.F., Browner, W., et al. (1988). Intraoperative myocardial ischemia: Localization by continuous 12-lead electrocardiography. Anesthesiology, 69(2), 232-241.

• Mangano, D.T. (1990). Perioperative cardiac morbidity. Anesthesiology, 72(1), 153-184.

• McFalls, E.O., Ward, H.B., Mortiz, T.E., Goldman, S., Krupski, W.C., Littooy, F., et al. (2004). Coronary-artery revascularization before elective major vascular surgery. New England Journal of Medicine, 351(27), 2795-2804.

• Nyhan, D., & Roger, A.J. (2005). Anesthesia for cardiac surgery procedures. In R.D. Miller (Ed.), Miller’s Anesthesia (6th ed., pp.1941-1995).Philadelphia: Elsevier.

• Morgan, E.G., Mikhail, M.S., & Murray, M.J. (2006). Clinical Anesthesiology. New York: Lang Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division.

• Oliver, M.F,. Goldman, L., Julian, D.G., & Holme, I. (1999). Anesthesiology, 91(4), 951-961.

• Poldermans, D., Boersma, E., Bax, J.J., Tjhomson, I.R., Louis, L.M., Ven, V.D., et al. (1999). The effect of bisoprolol on perioperative mortality and myocardial infarction in high-risk patients undergoing vascular surgery. New England Journal of Medicine, 341, 1789-1794.

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References• Polanczyk, C.A., Marcantonio, E., Goldman, L., Rhode, L.E., Orav,

J., Mangoine., et al. (2001). Impact of age on perioperative complications and length of stay in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Annals of Internal Medicine, 134(8), 637-643.

• Raby, K.E., Brull, S.J., Timimi, F., Akhtar, S., Rosenbaum, S., Naimi, C., et al. (1999). The effect of heart rate control on myocardial ischemia among high-risk patients after vascular surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 88(3), 477-482.

• Reilly, D.F., McNeely, M.J., Doerner, D., Greenberg, D.L., Staiger, T.O., Geist, M.J., et al. (1999). Self-reported exercise tolerance and the risk of serious perioperative complications. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 2185-2192.

• Rodgers, A., Walker, N., Schug, S., McKnee, A., Kehlet, H.,Van Zundert, A., et al. (2000). Reduction of postoperative mortality and morbidity with epidural or spinal anesthesia: Results from overview of randomized trials. British Medical Journal, 321 (7275) 1493-1497.

• Selzman, C.H., Miller, S.A., Zimmerman, M.A., & Harken, A.H.(2001). The case for B-adrenergic blockade as prophylaxis against perioperative cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Arch Surg, 136, 286-290.

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References• Sista, R.R., Ernst, K.V., & Ashley E.A. (2006). Perioperative cardiac

risk: pathophysiology, assessment and management. Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy, 4(5), 731-734.

• Sprung, J., Abdelmalak, B., Gottlieb, A., Mayhew, C., Hammel, J., Levy, P.J., et al. (2000). Analysis of risk factors for myocardial infarction and cardiac mortality after major vascular surgery. Anesthesiology, 93(1), 129-140.

• Symons, J.A., & Myles, P.S. (2006). Myocardial protection with volatile anaesthetic agents during coronary artery bypass surgery: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 97(2), 127-136.

• Warltier, D.C., Pagel, P.S., & Kersten, J.R. (2000). Approaches to the prevention of perioperative myocardial ischemia. Anesthesiology, 92(1), 253-259.

• Wijeysundera, D.N., & Beattie, W.S. (2003). Calcium channel blockers for reducing cardiac morbidity after noncardiac surgery: A meta-analysis. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 97(3), 634-641.

• Wilson, S.H., Fasseas, P., Orford, J.L., Lennon, R.J., Horlocker, T., Charnoff, N.E., et al. (2003). Clinical outcome of patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery in the two months following coronary stenting. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 42(2), 234-240.

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Cerebral Oximetry Monitoring in Adult Cardiac Surgery

Kate Busker, SRNA

University of North Dakota

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Objectives

• Provide education on cerebral perfusion during adult cardiac bypass surgery.

• Provide information on cerebral oximetry application, benefits, and limitations.

• Discuss anesthetic interventions with cerebral oximetry.

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Goal

• To optimize care of adult cardiac bypass patients.

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Introduction

• 40% of myocardial revascularization has evidence of persistent cognitive decline

(Edmonds et al. 2004)

• On average, a patient ends up staying a minimum of 3 days longer in hospital

(Yao, et al. 2001)

• The neurological deficits seen post-cardiac bypass has accumulated an increase in patient costs up to 11%

(Edmonds, 2002)

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Cerebral Oximeter

• Produced by Somanetics in Troy, MI

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What is Cerebral Oximetry?

• Utilizes Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)– various wavelengths of infrared light that are

transmitting through the skull into the cerebral tissue

• Monitoring regional saturation of oxygen (rSO2) of grey matter in brain.– 75% venous and 25% arterial volume

• Healthy levels of rSO2= 58% to 82%.• Data collected and displayed every 4-5 sec.

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Research Questions

• The following research questions guided this study:– 1. Does cerebral oximetry monitoring

decrease the incidence of post-operative cognitive dysfunction in the adult cardiac surgical patient?

– 2. Does cerebral oximetry decrease the length of hospital stays for adult cardiac surgical patients?

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Significance

• The central nervous system is the least monitored physiological system during anesthesia.

• Current neurological monitoring modalities include EEG, cerebral oximetry, and transcranial Doppler.

• Cerebral oximetry detected cerebral desaturation in 38% of cases, EEG in 22% of cases and the Doppler in only 6% of cases. (Ganzel et al., 2002)

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Theoretical Framework

• Technology utilizes two different wavelengths of light: 730nm & 810nm

• Beer-Lambert Law: with a known intensity of light with a known dimension of chamber > concentration of dissolved substance can be measured– Same concept as pulse oximetry – The difference between oxyhemoglobin

and deoxyhemoglobin• Shallow signal vs deep signal > can eliminate

extra-cerebral perfusion

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How the Infrared Works…

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Review of Literature

• Cerebral autoregulation remains intact when CPP is 70-90 mmHg.

• A CPP change > 30 mmHg results in severely compromised CBF

• Oxygen levels directly affect perfusion– Hyperoxia has little effect– Hypoxia (PaO2 < 60 mmHg) causes

vasodilation leading to an increase in CBF

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Review of Literature • CBF has linear relationship with PaCO2.

– If PaCO2 were to increase from 20 to 40, CBF would double

– CBF changes 1-2 ml/100 g/min for every 1 mmHg change in PaCO2

– Altering PaCO2 immediately affects CBF & returns to normal within 6-8 hours.

• Relationship not valid when PaCO2 < 25 mmHg

• Temperature: for every 1 degree decrease, cerebral metabolic rate decreases 6-7%

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Anesthetic Considerations

• Normal venous sat. : 58%-82%– Pediatric will be higher (70%-92%)- incr

EBV• Intervention threshold: anything < 50% or

decrease of 20% from baseline• Very important to have established baseline

cerebral saturations• Cerebral autoregulation impairment:

– This is due to supply and demand imbalance (Coming off pump: incr. metabolism with incr. temp > decreased perfusion > unable to meet demand)

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Anesthetic Considerations

• Reasons for low cerebral sat’s:– High cerebral metabolism, hyperthermia– Low Hgb, Anemia– Low PaCO2, alkalosis– Low CBF (cannula or head position)– Hypoxia– Vasoconstriction

• Intervention: Increase Oxygen– Incr. FiO2– Incr. hematocrit (RBC’s)– Incr. BP / CO– Incr. CO2 > incr. CBF

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Anesthetic Considerations

• Anesthetic Interventions: Decrease metabolism– Decrease temperature– Incr. volatile anesthetic

• < 1 MAC : CMR decreased > CBF increased• 1 MAC : unchanged (both equal)• > 1 MAC : CBF increased > CMR decreased

– IV anesthetics (benzo’s, barb’s, propofol, & etomidate) will reduce CMR up to 30%

• But autoregulation sets in quickly d/t quick metabolism

• Ketamine exception d/t SNS stimulation

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Assumptions & Limitations

• Assumptions:– Literature was collected accurately and is

the most recent data available– Anesthesia providers will be interested in

this project– Participants in this presentation will benefit

from the information provided

• Limitations:– Small sample sizes in studies– Information collected limited to adult

cardiac surgery– Information provided is limited to those

attending presentation

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Results

• Cerebral oximetry has been shown to:

– Decrease hospital stay by minimum 3 days– Improve cerebral perfusion– Reduces incidence of neurological deficits– Reduce costs to patient by up to $11,000– Can have beneficial effects on all major body

systems

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Questions??

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References

• Barash P. B., Cullen, B. F., Stoelting, R. K. (2006). Clinical Anesthesia (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

• Barash P. B., Cullen, B. F., Stoelting, R. K. (2006). Handbook of Clinical Anesthesia (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

• Casati, A., Fanelli, G., Pietropaoli, P., Proietti, R., Montanini, S. (2003). In a population of elderly patients undergoing elective non-cardiac surgery cerebral oxygen desaturation is associated with prolonged length of stay. Journal of American Society of Anesthesiologists, 99, 551.

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References

• Casati, A., Spreafico, E., Putzu, M., Fanelli, G. (2006). New technology for noninvasive brain monitoring: continuous cerebral oximetry. Minerva Anesthesiology, 72, 605-625.

• Edmonds, H. L. (2002). Multimodality neurophysiologic monitoring for cardiac surgery. The Heart Surgery Forum, 3, 225-228.

• Ganzel, B. L., Cerrito, P. B., Edmonds, H. L. (2002, January). Multimodality neuromonitoring improves CABG recovery. Paper presented at Society of Thoracic Surgeons Annual Meeting, Fort Lauderdale, FL.

• Miller, R. (2005). Miller’s Anesthesia (6th ed). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.

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References

• Talpahewa, S. P., Lovell, A. T., Angelini, G. D., Ascione, R. (2004). Effect of cardiopulmonary bypass on cortical cerebral oxygenation during coronary artery bypass grafting. European Journal of Cardiothoracic Surgery, 26, 676-681.

• Yao, F. F., Levin, S. K., Wu, D., Illner, P., Yu, J., Huang, S. W., Tseng, C. (2001). Maintaining cerebral oxygen saturation during cardiac surgery shortened ICU and hospital stays [Abstract]. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 92, 133.

• Yao, F. F., Tseng, C. A., Ho, C. A., Levin, S. K., Illner, P. (2004) Cerebral oxygen desaturation is associated with early postoperative neuropsychological dysfunction in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, 18, 552-558.

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Twelve Lead ECG Interpretation

Christian Conner, SRNAUniversity of North Dakota

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Twelve Lead ECG

• Been around since the late nineteenth century

• Mid 1800s- Alaxander Kollicker and John Mueller– Sciatic nerve of a frog falls into its heart– Both contract simultaneously

• 1872- Muirhead and Sanderson– First to put electrical activity on paper

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Twelve Lead ECG

• Turn of the century- Augustus Waller– Able to place electrical activity on paper in

a “real-time” manner

• Willem Einthoven– Credited with inventing the

electrocardiogram by placing letters to the cardio-electric current recorded on paper and relating them to the heart beat

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ECG and Anesthesia

• Anesthetists routinely look at 12-lead ECGs pre-operatively

• Good predictor of intra-operative cardiac complications

• Look at multiple areas of the heart in terms of electrical current

• Determine areas of infarct/ischemia

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Problem• Twelve lead ECG interpretation is

not routinely taught to ICU nurses• Also not included in many nurse

anesthesia programs• Limited research available when

looking at accurate ECG interpretation among nurse anesthesia students

• Where do we learn twelve lead ECG interpretation?

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Current Research

• Medical schools only introduce med-students to twelve lead ECG interpretation (Hurst, 2006)

• Study- Only 17-63% of medical students are able to correctly interpret twelve lead ECGs (Hatala & Brooks, 1999)

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Current Research

• Other studies– 57-95% of non-cardiologists routinely determine

ST-segment abnormalities (Brady, Parron, & Ullman, 2000)

– 25% of non-cardiologists routinely identify accurate PR and QT intervals ( Montomery, et al., 1994)

• Yet, Storey, Rowley, and colleagues found that nurses demonstrated an 84-94% accuracy rate when identifying criteria on an ECG that required thrombolytic therapy (1997)

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Purpose of Project

• Purpose– To educate a class of first year nurse

anesthesia students on how to perform a basic interpretation of a twelve lead ECG

– To provide a summery of cardio-electrophysiology

– To educate these students on what specific things to look for when looking at a twelve lead ECG in order to better predict potential intra-operative cardiac complications

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Significance

• SRNAs/CRNAs are expected to provide a detailed pre-operative assessment on every patient they plan to anesthetize

• Accurate twelve lead ECG interpretation can predict intra-op and post-op cardiac complications

• Twelve lead ECG interpretation results may influence the type of monitor or type of anesthesia a patient receives.

• Most importantly- patient safety!

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Physiological Framework

• Includes– Cellular physiology– Electrophysiology– Anatomy– Gross physiology– Hemodynamic physiology

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Research Questions

• How well do current SRNAs interpret twelve lead ECGs without any formal training?

• Will a twelve lead ECG workshop significantly improve a SRNAs performance when interpreting twelve lead ECGs?

• Will current SRNAs feel as though a twelve lead ECG workshop has improved their education?

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Method

• Develop a twelve lead ECG workshop• Presentation including:

– Anatomy/Physiology of the Heart– Basic Heart Rhythms– Electrical Waveform Morphology– Axis Deviations– Chamber Hypertrophy– Q-T Intervals– Bundle Branch Blocks– Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) versus Supraventricular

Tachycardia (SVT)– Acute Coronary Syndromes

• Sample ECGs

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Evaluation

• Two fold

– Likert scale with short answer option

– Before and after testing utilizing four sample ECGs

• 90% accuracy rate is hoped to be gained among those SRNAs participating in the project at workshop conclusion

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References

• Brady, W. J., Perron, A. D., & Chan, T. (2001). Electrocardiographic ST-segment elevation: correct identification of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and non-AMI syndromes by emergency physicians. Adademy of Emergency Medicine, 8, 349-360.

• Hatala, R., Norman, G. R., & Brooks, L. R. (, 1999). Impact of a clinical scenario on accuracy of electrocardiogram interpretation. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 14, 126-129.

• Hurst, J. W. (2006). The interpretation of electrocardiograms: Pretense or a well-developed skill?. Cardiology Clinics, 24, 305-307.

• Montgomery, H., Hunter, S., Morris, S., Naunton-Morgan, R., & Marshall, R. M. (1994). Interpretation of electrocardiograms by doctors. BMJ, 309, 1551-1552.

• Storey, R. F., & Rowley, J. M. (1997). Electrocardiogram interpretation as a basis for thrombolysis. JR Coll Physicians London, 31, 536-540.

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia to Nurse Anesthesia Students

Garrel Kinzler, SRNA UND Nurse Anesthesia

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• This independent study examines methods used to teach regional anesthesia to students

• The field of anesthesia is growing more complex and there is more material for students to learn

• Increasing numbers of aged patients (baby boomers) needing surgery dictates the use of regional anesthesia due to increased comorbidities

• With obesity on the rise regional anesthesia is becoming a safer alternative with less cardiovascular effects, less respiratory changes, and decreased blood loss

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• This demands more focus and more study/practice on regional methods from emerging practitioners

• How is this being done?

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Purpose

• The purpose of this study is to review current thoughts and methods of teaching regional anesthesia

• Use the described methods to teach a regional lesson on cadavers to the nurse anesthesia students

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Purpose

• A careful review of the principles of pharmacology, instrumentation, landmark/anatomy orientation on cadavers and models better prepares students to provide regional anesthesia for patients undergoing surgery

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Significance

• SRNAs are expected to provide, under CRNA supervision, safe and effective regional anesthesia to patients undergoing surgery and painful procedures

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Significance

• There is a profound learning curve influenced by many variables including the practice and teaching styles of the CRNA and the past experiences of the student

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Significance

• With patient safety and comfort as primary goals of practice, the better prepared the student is the safer and more effective the regional anesthesia delivered

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Theoretical Framework

• Study was based on Malcolm Knowles adult learning theory and Androgogical model

• Knowles believes adult learning is separate and distinct from child learning and that adults are motivated differently

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Theoretical Framework

• Six assumptions about adult learning including:– need to know– self-concept– experience– preparedness– orientation– motivation

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Method

• Review of literature was done using PubMed, SCOPUS and CINAHL databases

• Findings showed that there are over forty distinct blocks to learn in regional anesthesia

• Limited research on how to appropriately teach regional methods

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• Conclusion is that regional anesthesia skills should be continuous, repetitive with consistent technique

• All graduates should master the most commonly used blocks, femoral, interscalene, axillary, spinal and epidural

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• Teaching methods should include variety– video, models, cadavers, supervision

• Students should be coached by an experienced mentor until consistent success is achieved and the mentor approves of the technique

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• There is no standard minimum number or type of blocks to be completed

• Regional skills are much more difficult to learn then general anesthesia skills

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Teaching Regional Anesthesia

• The best teaching method would be a repetitive multiformat approach with as much hands on as possible

• Student progress should be used to plan clinical rotations accordingly

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Application

• A lesson on brachial plexus anesthesia was offered to the first year nurse anesthesia students

• Video cadaver lessons were utilized to augment regional knowledge

• The cadaver lab was utilized for hands on experience

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Application

• History and utilization of Interscalene blocks and axillary blocks reviewed

• Anatomy reviewed including landmarks and positive nerve stimulator signs

• Coverage achieved with each block reviewed

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Application

• Preparation, including equipment for each block

• Commonly used recipes and volumes for each block

• Level of sedation along with proper positioning and technique

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Application

• Proper method

• Adverse reactions discussed – hemidiaphragmatic paralysis– risk of epidural injection– Horner’s syndrome

• “Pick up” injections identified

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Application• Cadaver lab experience included:

– Identification of the brachial plexus– Nerve arrangement around

vasculature in the sheath– Injection angles, landmarks– Location of surrounding structures

such as phrenic nerve and epidural root sheaths

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Application

• Evaluation of learning will be done with pre- and post- testing

• Results pending

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References• Carpedivila, X. & Dadure, C. (2004). Perioperative management for

one day hospital admission: Regional Anesthesia is better than General Anesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica, Supplement, 55, 33-36.

• Hadzic, A., & Vloka, J., (2004). Peripheral nerve blocks: Principles and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill.

• Hadzic, A., Vloka, J., & Koenigsamen, J. (2002). Training requirements for peripheral nerve blocks. Anaesthesiology, 15(6), 669-673.

• Knowles, M. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.

• McDonald, S., & Thompson, G. (2002). “See one, do one, teach one, have one”: A novel variation on Regional Anesthesia training. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, 27(5), 456-459.

• Miller, R., Fleisher, L., Johns, R., Savarese, J., Wiener-Kronish, J., & Young, W. (Eds.) (2005). Miller’s anesthesia (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.

• Morgan, G., Jr., Mikhail, M., & Murray, M. (2006). Clinical anesthesiology (4th ed.). New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division.

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Clinical application of the LMA CTrach

Kent Moser,SRNA

University of North Dakota

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Introduction

• Through improved technology, experience, and education, anesthesia providers are better prepared to effectively manage a difficult airway.

• Because of visual confirmation of tracheal intubation, fiberoptic devices are preferred for management of the difficult airway by most anesthesia providers.

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Problem

• Anesthesia departments often have several fiberoptic devices available, it is difficult to maintain skills with these devices or to stay current with new technology.

• CRNAs tend to only use the devices they are familiar with

• However, it is very important to have a back-up plan when a difficult airway arises (sometimes more than one)

• To be able to use new devices successfully, proper training and skill maintenance is important.

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Purpose

• The purpose of this study is to review the LMA CTrach and to apply its use to clinical practice to assist CRNAs so they can make an informed decision when to use this device if they so choose.

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Significance

• Time is the worst enemy for any anesthesia provider trying to ventilate a compromised difficult airway resulting in inadequate oxygenation.

• Therefore, it is important for CRNAs managing these airways to have knowledge of equipment needed to establish an effective airway before permanent brain injury or death ensues.

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LMA/ILMA

• LMAs have been well established as an effective airway adjunct for many years.

• The LMA and intubating laryngeal mask airway (ILMA) or Fastrach are devices that are useful in patients that are difficult to ventilate with a bag/mask and have the capability of acting as a conduit to place an ETT.

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LMA CTrach

• The LMA CTrach is the newest version of the intubating LMA.

• It is essentially the LMA Fastrach with integrated fiberoptic technology that allows direct visualization of the larynx and vocal cords while the ETT is advanced through the glottis.

• The CTrach is composed of two parts: the airway itself and the viewing screen.

• The viewing screen connects to the end of the CTrach airway making it easily portable.

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Unique Components of the LMA CTrach

• The epiglottic elevating bar (EEB)

– has an aperture or window to allow for visualization of the larynx from two fiberoptic channels which terminate at the distal end of the airway tube.

• 2 Fiberoptic channels– light source – 10,000 pixel image guide that broadcasts the image of the larynx

to the viewer.

• On the top portion of the LMA is a magnetic latch connector which allows for easy attachment and detachment of the viewer.

• Has a rechargeable battery – up to 30 minutes of continuous use

• The viewer is a high resolution, 86 mm LCD display and is lightweight (about 200 grams).

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LMA CTrach

• Sizing, placement, indications, contraindications, warnings and adverse effects are the same as the LMA Fastrach

• Will focus on pertinent findings from studies and case reports using the CTrach.

• Then, discuss the keys to successful intubation.

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Findings in initial Clinical studies

• The CTrach gives real time images of the common causes of intubation failure with the Fastrach with a 96-98% success rate of intubation. (Goldman, Wender, Rosenblatt, and Theil, 2006)

• The time interval for intubation using the CTrach takes longer (119 ± 44 seconds) than DL (69 ± 52 seconds). (Dhonneur and Ndoko, 2007)

• The most common causes of the poor views with the CTrach were noted to be a downfolded epiglottis, the arytenoids(LMA in too deep), and secretions. (Liu, Goy, and Chen, 2006)

• There is no correlation between Cormack-Lehane grade and successfully obtaining a view of the larynx (P=0.110) or between the Cormack-Lehane grade and success of intubation (P=0.38). (Liu, Goy,

and Chen , 2006) • One patient who was approximately 74 inches in height was not

successfully intubated with the CTrach due to long neck. The CTrach could not be advanced any further into the mouth because the handle was at the maxilla (Limitation for tall or long anatomy). (Timmermann, Russo, and Graf, 2006)

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Findings with Obesity

• Oxygenation was always maintained with ventilations through the LMA with the obese patient. (Dhonneur et al , 2007)

• Used less propofol with induction suggesting that insertion of the CTrach is less stimulating than DL. (Dhonneur et al , 2007)

• There is a risk for aspiration with the obese patient even without a history of GERD with increased intragastric pressure and that any LMA does not fully protect against aspiration.

• Positioning (ramping patient or reverse trendelenburg) and cricoid pressure can be done to prevent upward migration of stomach contents.

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Obesity case report

• Abdi, Ndoko, Amathieu, and Dhonneur (2008) – The CTrach was used as a rescue airway for a morbidly

obese patient with symptomatic gastric reflux .

– This was the first reported case of aspiration of stomach contents into the lungs using the CTrach even though it was used as rescue airway and with successful intubation.

– The article does not state whether cricoid pressure was used throughout the procedure which may have prevented gastric contents migrating upward.

– None-the-less, any LMA, including the CTrach, does not fully protect the lungs from aspiration.

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Difficult airway case reports

• With several case reports of expected and unexpected difficult airways, even though the Cormac-Lehane grade was poor after failed attempts with DL and bougie, the view with the Ctrach gave a full view of the glottis for intubation.

• In one article, Fiberoptic bronchoscopy failed in two patients secondary to increased secretions and blood in the airway, but the CTrach was successful. (Goldman

and Rosenblatt, 2006) • The theory why the CTrach was able to visualize the

glottis better than the bronchoscope was that the laryngeal mask tamponaded the bleeding in the airway and isolated the larynx from the bleeding.

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Awake intubation case reports

• Wender and Goldman (2007)– Used the CTrach LMA for awake intubation in three

morbidly obese patients with Mallampati class 3 airways and history of sleep apnea.

– These patients were ramped with a foam wedge and the oropharynx was anesthetized with topical lidocaine 4%, however, below the glottis was not anesthetized.

– The CTrach was inserted, once the vocal cords were in view the sevoflurane vaporizer was set at 5% and spontaneous respirations were maintained with some assisted respirations→ intubated.

– Advantage is the continuous 100% oxygenation throughout the procedure with less risk of desaturation.

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Awake intubation case reports

• Bilgin and Y’ylmaz (2006)– CTrach for awake intubation in three patients with an

unstable cervical spine. – Dexmedetomidine infusion for sedation– Lidocaine 10% spray was applied and let set-up for two

minutes. – The CTrach was lubricated with lidocaine 2% jelly and

inserted, and when a clear image of the glottis was attained, 3 ml of lidocaine 2% was then injected into glottis and upper trachea.

– The ETT was then introduced. – The cervical spine easily remained in neutral position, but

one issue that may cause difficulty with an unstable c-spine is a restricted mouth opening.

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Keys to Success for intubation

• Prep CTrach– Prefocus, antifogging solution, lubricate

• Prep patient– Antisialogogue, oral suction prior to insertion

• Visualizing glottis– Whiteout in viewer (epiglottis, secretions, lubricant)

• Adjust brightness, up-down maneuver(x2), pass suction catheter, may need to remove LMA to clean fiberoptic lens

– Dark view• Adjust brightness

– Chandy maneuver, side-to-side manipulation, laryngeal manipulation cephalad or caudad, jaw thrust, or simple cricoid pressure

• If unable to visualize, try to insert ETT 1 cm beyond 15 cm depth marker on ETT, consider different size, try gentle blind insertion

• Can use FOB

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Summary

• Initial clinical studies suggest– That the CTrach increases the intubation success rate of the

Fastrach • Fastrach ≈ 80% success rate

• CTrach ≈ 96-98% success rate

– There is no correlation between Cormack-Lehane grade and the glottic view obtained with the CTrach

• Can achieve full glottic view with a grade IV

• and is effective with a difficult airway (including obese)

– CTrach has been used successfully in Awake intubation– However, intubation time is longer for LMA CTrach than DL– Also, the LMA CTrach does not protect against aspiration

• Can do maneuvers such as cricoid pressure, ramping patient’s head or reverse trendelenburg to minimize upward flow of stomach contents

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Conclusion

• Anesthesia providers should continue to use the equipment they are comfortable using

• It is important to be trained using different intubation equipment to be prepared for a worse case scenario (can’t ventilate/can’t intubate with low O2 sats.)

• The LMA CTrach is easily inserted as an airway , but does have a learning curve when trying to achieve a full glottic view for intubation

• Finally, it is important to practice using a new intubating device such as the CTrach with normal airways to become proficient before use with a difficult airway.

• Questions?

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References

• Abdi, W., Ndoko, S., Amatheiu, R., and Dhonneur, G. (2008). Evidence of pulmonary aspiration during difficult airway management of a morbidly obese patient with the LMA CTrach. British Journal of Anaesthesia; 100(2): 275-277.

• American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult

• Airway. (2003). Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology; 98(5): 1269-1277.

• Barash, P. G., Cullen, B. F., and Stoelting, R. K. (2006). Clinical Anesthesia. (5th edition). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.

• Bilgin, H. and Y’ylmaz, C. (2006). Awake intubation through the CTrach in the presence of an unstable cervical spine. Anaesthesia; 61: 505-517.

• Bjerkelund, C.E. (2005). Use of a new intubating laryngeal mask- CTrach- in patients with known difficult airways. Acta Anaesthsiologica Scandinavica; 50: 388.

• Bokhari, A., Benhan, S. W., and Popat, M. T. (2004). Management of unanticipated difficult intubation: a survey of current practice in Oxford region. European Journal of Anaesthesiology; 21: 123-127.

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References

• Goldman, A.J. and Rosenblatt, W.H. (2006). Use of the fibreoptic intubating LMA-CTrach in two patients with difficult airways. Anaesthesia; 61: 601-603.

• Goldman, A.J. and Rosenblatt, W.H. (2006). The LMA CTrach in airway resuscitation: six case reports. Anaesthesia; 61: 975-977.

• Goldman, A.J., Rosenblatt, W.H., and Theil, D. (2006). The fibreoptic intubating LMA-CTrach: an initial device evaluation. Anesthesia & Analgesia; 103(2): 508.

• Greenland, K.B. (2007). Fastrach tubes: modifying the design for use with the LMA CTrach. British Journal of Anaesthesia; 62(9): 948-951.

• Henderson, J. J., Popat, M. T., Latto, I. P., and Pearce, A. C. (2004). Difficult Airway Society guidelines for management of the unanticipated difficult intubation. Anaesthesia; 59, 675-694.

• Kristensen, M.S. (2006). The LMA CTrach for awake intubation combines the features of the LMA Fastrach and the fiberoptic bronchoscope, but cannot replace this combination in all patients. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica; 50: 526.

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References

• Liu, E.H.C. and Goy, R.W.L. (2006). The LMA CTrach for unanticipated difficult intubation. Anaesthesia; 61: 1007-1019.

• Liu, E.H.C., Goy, R.W.L., and Chen, F.G. (2006). The LMA CTrach, a new laryngeal mask airway for endotracheal intubation under vision: evaluation in 100 patients. British Journal of Anaesthesia; 96(3): 396-400.

• Liu, E.H.C., Goy, R.W.L., and Chen, F.G. (2006). An evaluation of poor LMA CTrach views with a fibreoptic laryngoscope and the effectiveness o corrective measures. British Journal of Anaesthesia; 97(6): 878-882.

• LMA CTrach Instruction Manual. (2006). Retrieved December 4, 2007, from http://www.lmana.com/docs/US%20CTrach%20IFU.pdf

• LMA CTrach in three morbidly obese patients with potentially difficult airways. Anaesthesia; 62: 948-951.

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References

• Maurtua, M.A., Maurtua, D.B., Zura, A., and Doyle, D.J. (2007). Improving intubation success using the CTrach laryngeal mask airway. Anesthesiology; 106: 640-641.

• Micaglio, M., Ori, C. and Bergamasco, C. (2006). Use of the LMA CTrach in unexpected difficult airway: a case report. European Journal of Anaesthesiology; 23: 440-448.

• Miller, R. D., Fleisher, L. A., Johns, R. A., Savarese, J. J., Wiener-Kronish, J. P., and Young, W. L. (2005). Miller’s Anesthesia. (6th edition). Philadelphia: Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone.

• Peterson, G. N., Domino, K. B., Caplan, R. A., Posner, K. L., Lee, L. A., Cheney, F. W. (2005). Management of the difficult airway: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology; 103: 33-39.

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References

• Ramachandran, K. and Santhanagopalan, K. (2004). Laryngeal mask airway and the difficult airway. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology; 17: 491-493.

• Smith, C. E. and DeJoy, S. J. (2001). New equipment and techniques for airway management in trauma. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology; 14: 197-209.

• Timmermann, A., Russo, S., and Graf, B.M. (2006). Evaluation of the CTrach- an intubating LMA with integrated fibreoptic system. British Journal of Anaesthesia; 96(4): 516-521.

• Walls, R. M., Murphy, M. F., Luten, R. C., and Schneider, R. E. (2004). Manual of Emergency Airway Management. (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.

• Wender, R. and Goldman, A.J. (2007). Awake insertion of the fibreoptic intubating LMA CTrach in three morbidly obese patients with potentially difficult airways. Anaesthesia; 62: 948-951.

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Unique Challenges to Nurse Anesthetists in Rural Settings

Jeffrey Olson, SRNA

University of North Dakota

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Introduction

• Background• Study ideas sparked by upbringing• Small town values referred to as

Gemeinschaft (Strasser, 2003)• Unique challenges for anesthetists in

rural settings• Urban areas have many resources…

(ancillary staff, difficult airway equipment)

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Statement of the Problem

• Lack of resources

• Lack of staffing

• Educational needs – training r/t unique rural settings

• Stress on staff

• Patient safety

• All lead to potential lack of funding from third party payers

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Purpose of the Project

• Educate new clinicians on how above listed problems manifest in clinical settings

• Expose new problems causing patient safety issues and unwanted stress

• Discover new ways of effectively dealing with situations

• Develop brochure for anesthesia providers new to rural healthcare

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Significance of Project

• Enhanced knowledge regarding quality of practice issues

• Suggestions of remedies for some rural healthcare issues

• Take away information to make improvements to individual practices

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Assumptions/Limitations

• Rural practices already practice safely and effectively

• Hope to provide at least some new ideas

• One must assume there are areas for improvement

• Limited to number of practices able to reach– Rural areas are more difficult to reach, and those

practicing in these areas may not be able to get away for a weekend to attend presentation

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Review of Literature

• “…nurse anesthetists have been and continue to be the principle anesthesia providers in rural hospitals in the United States.” (Gunn, 2000)

• One of the biggest problems in rural healthcare is uneven distribution of providers, which causes shortages in certain areas (Hart et al, 2002)

• According to Strasser (2003), the foremost issue in rural healthcare is accessibility to resources

• Other problems in rural healthcare include provider supply and recruitment and retention

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Review of Literature• CRNA’s in rural areas provide a broader

array of services with less resources (Gunn, 2000)

• *Standards of practice are the same in rural settings*

• Shortages cause difficulty with meeting external standards. *Third party payers then refuse to contract in rural areas* (Moscovice & Rosenblatt, 2000)

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Review of Literature

• “Rural residents are poorer and less likely to have job-related health insurance.” (Gunn, 2000)

• This is why it is important to keep CRNA’s in this area due to the ability to provide more cost effective care

• *Patients still expect same level of care no matter where they receive it*

• Difficulty meeting standards becomes a vicious cycle with keeping staffing adequate

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Review of Literature• Higher rates of avoidable death in rural areas

cannot be blamed on lack of healthcare services– Stoic population (particularly farmers)– Danger in rural activities (eg. Mining,

fishing, timberwork)– Rural residents spend more time traveling

at high speeds on highways to reach destinations

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Review of Literature

• Rural CRNAs already providing very high level of care– Rural CRNA average

response time from home = approx. 20 mins

– Urban CRNA average response time from in-house = approx 20 mins

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Solutions

• WONCA Rural Health Initiative – collaborating with WHO to improve health of rural health population (Strasser, 2003)

• “to establish rural health administrative structures; for the allocation of financial resources; to increase rural health research; and to enhance the development and representation of rural doctor issues.”

• Side note – WONCA stands for the World Organization of Family Doctors. The name comes from the first letters of the first five words of World Organization of National Colleges, Academies and Academic Associations of General Practitioners/Family Physicians. (www.aafp.org)

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Preparing students

Preparing Students• Halaas, Zink, Brooks, and Miller developed a model

for students• Case studies developed for patients who presented

with common diagnoses in the rural setting• Goals:

– distinguish urgent from non-urgent clinical presentation– use clinical guidelines for making decisions– communicate effectively in stressful situations– uncover a significant clinical issue with a different

presenting complaintCould a similar plan be developed for SRNAs?

-Present with difficult airway scenarios and require the student to practice delegation skills in these situations

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Description of Audience

• All CRNA’s working in rural settings in the state of North Dakota

• Preferably new employees as well as anesthesia department managers

• Anesthesia students• Brochures distributed to CRNAs at the

2008 Spring NDANA convention

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Procedures/Plan

• Literature Review• Individual interviews during rural

clinical rotation – Still open for suggestions!!!

• Distribution of brochures to those willing to participate at NDANA convention

• Distribution of pre- and post- tests

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Evaluation Plan for the Project

Evaluation Should Include:• Pre- and post-tests distributed to

audience• Success measured through test

scores• Open for suggestions for

additions to brochure following presentation

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Expected Results of the Project

• Bring to light difficulties in rural anesthesia practice

• Discover new ways of coping with rural anesthesia issues

• Development of brochure that is useful to all who are new to rural anesthesia practice

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Expected Implications for Nursing

Practice• Decrease stress on staff• Increase patient safety

Research• Bring to light the need for further

education in preparation for rural practice

• Develop new ideas for further studies in this area

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Expected Implications for Nursing (cont’d)

Education

• Provide a tool for rural hospitals to educate new staff

• Educate existing facilities to make practice run more smoothly

• Spark ideas for educating SRNAs about rural practice

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References

Gunn, I.P. (2000). Rural health care and the nurse anesthetist. CRNA, 11(2), 77-86

Hart, L.G., Salsberg, E. Phillips, D.M., & Lishner, D.M. (2002). Rural health care providers in the United States. Journal of Rural Health, 18, 211-232

Moscovice, I. & Rosenblatt, R. (2000). Quality-of-care challenges for rural health. Journal of Rural Health, 16(2), 168-176.

Strasser, R. (2003). Rural health around the world: challenges and solutions. Oxford Journal of Family Practice, 20(4), 457-463

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References cont’d

• Interviews with Robert Splichal, CRNA; Heidi Generou, CRNA; and Rita Vaughn, CRNA

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Spinal vs Epidural Anesthesia for the Management of Patients with

Preeclampsia

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Intro & Problem• Hypertensive disorders related to pregnancy

cause the greatest number of maternal complications worldwide.

• HTN disorders related to pregnancy are the direct cause of 17.6% of maternal deaths in the US.

• Preeclampsia creates complex situations for anesthesia providers performing regional analgesia & anesthesia for pain management during labor & delivery.

• Decisions about which regional technique, spinal or epidural, are important in providing the best overall obstetric outcome.

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Purpose• Understand pathophysiology of preeclampsia &

its effects on the decisions CRNAs make while providing obstetric analgesia & anesthesia

• Understand how regional anesthesia affects maternal hemodynamics

• Discuss the pros/cons of regional as well as general anesthesia in patients with preeclampsia using current evidence-based research

• Determine which type of regional anesthetic, spinal or epidural, is the best option to obtain adequate analgesia and anesthesia in patients with preeclampsia without affecting maternal and neonatal outcomes

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Areas of Inquiry• Pathophysiology of hypertensive

disorders of pregnancy– Categories

• Gestational HTN &Transient HTN• Chronic HTN• Preeclampsia & Eclampsia• Preeclampsia Superimposed on Chronic HTN

• Spinal & epidural analgesia & anesthesia use in preeclampsia– Benefits– Risks– Best practice

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Evidence Based Research

• Establishes the basis for best practices in administration of analgesia & anesthesia to women with preeclampsia during labor & delivery

• Educates nurse anesthesia providers using the most current information available about obstetric analgesia and anesthesia in patients with preeclampsia

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Findings• Comprehensive literature review

• Pamphlet containing “Fast Facts” about PIH syndromes & Regional Anesthesia

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Findings• As epidural anesthesia was initially the

regional anesthetic of choice due to the more gradual onset and lesser degree of hypotension, the recent literature provides data that indicate the safety & effectiveness of spinal anesthesia in patients with preeclampsia needing cesarean deliveries, especially if it avoids the use of general anesthesia.

• Previous perceptions of anesthesia providers was that spinal anesthesia in patients with HTN & preeclampsia are at an increased risk for substantial decreases in blood pressure thus placental perfusion, causing hypoxic incidences in the fetus

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Findings• More recent evidence states that spinal

anesthesia does provide a safe & efficient means of anesthesia for patients who are undergoing elective or urgent cesarean sections

• The majority of findings show no significant differences in decrease in BP of preeclamptic patients when comparing spinals & epidurals

• Additionally, spinal anesthesia offers many advantages compared to epidurals in situations requiring urgent cesarean delivery– Less technically difficult, quicker onset,

greater reliability

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Summary• CRNAs work as part of a collaborative

team properly managing analgesia and anesthesia in women with preeclampsia during labor and delivery

• Because of the complex nature of preeclampsia & direct effects anesthesia has on hemodynamic stability, providing regional analgesia and anesthesia, such as spinals and epidurals, needs careful planning.

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Selected References• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Practice

Bulletin (2002). Diagnosis of management of preeclampsia and eclampsia. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 77(1), 67-75.

• Hood, D. D. (2002). Spinal anesthesia is the preferred technique for cesarean section in severe preeclampsia: a proponent position. Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica, 53, 305-310.

• Bloom, S. L., Spong, C. Y., Weiner, S. J., Landon, M. B., Rouse, D. J., Varner, M. W., et al. (2005). Complications of anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 106(2), 281-287.

• Mandal, N. G., & Surapaneni, S. (2004). Regional anaesthesia in pre-eclampsia: advantages and disadvantages. Drugs, 64(3), 223-236.

• Morgan, G. E., Mikhail, M. S., & Murray, M. J. (2006). Clinical Anesthesiology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy (2000). Report of the national high blood pressure education program working group on high blood pressure in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 183(1), S1-S22.

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Perioperative Considerations of a Patient with

an Implantable Pacemaker

Cloris Schmidt, SRNAUniversity of North Dakota

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Problem• Patients with implantable pacemakers are

more frequently being encountered by anesthesia providers – Over 1 million Americans currently have

pacemakers– More than 325,000 pacemakers are implanted in

the USA each year• Nurse anesthetists often have limited

knowledge of the perioperative management of patients with these devices

• Although complications from electromagnetic interference are rare, they are serious and often life threatening when they do occur

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Purpose and Significance

• To enhance the anesthetists knowledge of how to care for a patient with an implantable cardiac device throughout the perioperative period – Educate participants on pacemaker function– Pacing modes– Effects of electromagnetic interference– Perioperative management of these patients

• Should facilitate safe, effective care and reduce the incidence of adverse events

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Methods• Extensive review of current

literature– Practice Advisory for the

Perioperative Management of Patients with Cardiac Rhythm Management Devices

• Developed by the American Society of Anesthesiologists

– Case reports of adverse outcomes– Published articles by credible sources– Personal interview with Guidant

representative

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Findings• Pre-operative evaluation

– Determine type and mode of the cardiac device

– Consult with a cardiologist or pacemaker programmer highly recommended

• Perform a thorough interrogation of the device• Provide recommendations for perioperative

programming

– Examination of EKG to determine proper pacemaker function

• Appropriately sensing• Appropriately pacing• Appropriately capturing

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Pre-operative Evaluation

• Determine the patient’s underlying rhythm and if they are pacemaker dependent– Usually performed by the programmer

or cardiologist • No spontaneous ventricular activity when

the pacemaker is programmed to VVI pacing mode at the lowest programmable rate

• A spike is noted prior to every beat on the preoperative EKG

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Pre-operative Preparation• Determine whether EMI is anticipated

during the planned procedure– Electrocautery is most common source – Pacemaker senses cautery as a tachyarrthymia

and fails to pace• If the patient is pacemaker dependent

– The device should be reprogrammed to an asynchronous mode above the intrinsic rate

• If the patient is not pacemaker dependent– Programmed modes should not be changed – Anesthesia provider should have a magnet

available to place pacemaker in asynchronous mode, if severe EMI inhibits pacing or causes hemodynamic instability

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Pre-operative Preparation• Rate-responsive pacemakers should be

reprogrammed out of the rate-responsive mode prior to surgery– These devices rely on minute ventilation or

movement sensors for rate modulation• Prevent inappropriate tachycardia as a result of

mechanical ventilation changes, shivering, or other operative movement

– Two ways the rate responsive mode can be shut off prior to surgery

• Mode deactivated by a programmer • Placement of a magnet over the device

– Will also place the pacemaker in asynchronous mode

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Pre-operative Preparation• Magnet placement on pacemaker

– Will not hear a tone emitted from device

– Places the pacemaker in asynchronous mode

• Usually set for a rate of 85, 90, or 100 depending on the model

• No longer senses or responds to EMI or patients own intrinsic activity

– Paces at set rate regardless

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Intraoperative management

• Intraoperative monitoring of the device and heart function– Routine monitors required by ASA standards– Continuous five-lead ECG monitoring – Mechanical evidence of pacemaker capture

• Palpation of the pulse• Pulse oximetry• Auscultation of heart sounds• Arterial line tracing• Ultrasound peripheral pulse monitoring

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Intraoperative management

• Potential influences on cardiac device function – Hyperkalemia– Hypokalemia (hyperventilation)– Myocardial ischemia– Arterial hypoxemia– Severe hyperglycemia– Acidosis– Alkalosis– Bradycardia– Type I antiarrhythmic drugs

• Cause an increase in pacing threshold– May cause failure to pace

• These factors should be avoided whenever possible

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Intraoperative management

• Potential influences on cardiac device function– Succinylcholine

• Should be used with caution in patients with unipolar pacemakers

• Skeletal muscle fasciculations may result in pacemaker oversensing and ultimately failure to pace

• Defasciculating dose of non-depolarizing relaxant recommended prior to administration of succinylcholine

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Intraoperative management

• Minimizing sources of EMI– Bipolar or ultrasonic (harmonic) scalpel

should be used in place of unipolar cautery whenever possible

• Bipolar cautery causes significantly less EMI with the pacemaker

• Ultrasonic scalpel completely avoids EMI with the pacemaker

– Disposable set has increased cost compared to reusable electrocautery

– Provides slower cutting and coagulation

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Intraoperative management

• Minimizing EMI produced during unipolar cautery– Use of short, intermittent bursts at the lowest

possible amplitude– Pauses of at least 10 seconds between bursts – For special head, neck, or thoracic procedures,

the grounding pad may need to be placed on a site other than the thigh

• Careful to avoid positioning the cardiac device between the grounding pad and cautery tip

– The path between the grounding pad and the electrocautery tip should be as far from the device as possible

• 15 cm being the minimum

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Intraoperative management

• Emergency equipment should be available, especially if patient is pacemaker dependent– External temporary pacemaker– Defibrillator– Atropine– Contact numbers for pacemaker

representative

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What If a Life Threatening Arrhythmia Develops?

• Asystole– Atropine may not work, if patient is

pacemaker dependent or has underlying 2nd degree type II or complete heart block

– Temporary external pacing may be necessary

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What If a Life Threatening Arrhythmia Develops?

• Pulseless V-tach, V-fib, or unstable tachycardia– Emergency defibrillation or cardioversion

necessary• Current flowing through the pulse generator and

lead system should be minimized – Pads should be positioned as far from the pulse

generator as possible and in an anterior-posterior position

• Despite these recommendations, damage to the device, an increase in pacing threshold, or a reversion to a backup mode may still occur

– A thorough pacemaker interrogation should occur after defibrillation or cardioversion

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What if the Case is Emergent?

• Use bipolar cautery with short bursts • Place a magnet on the device until you can

find out if the patient is pacemaker dependent and if the device is a pacemaker or ICD– May be able to get this information from the

patient, family, or medical record– If need more information about the device, call the

pacemaker representative • Run EKG strip to determine if there is a

pacer spike prior to each P-wave or QRS complex– May be pacemaker dependent

• Pacing impulses followed by a paced beat and arterial pulse should be confirmed

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Post-operative Considerations

• Post-operative interrogation of the device by a cardiologist or programmer is required any time electrocautery was used in a pacemaker dependent patient – Assures proper functioning of the device and

that the device was not inadvertently damaged or reprogrammed during surgery

• Continuous EKG monitoring is recommended until the postoperative interrogation of the device can be made