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1928, pagas 603-605.j

1-Jitor I s '-zo te~ ~ 7azr-aiy of t'.z s ycar ~9231 t.% aut orde~ierc-.c a 1-O*ý':ro_1 b.-~OrQ a 3r2.. scica.ti ic sociat~.

* .-torested L= national econoz.-y, in ich.h cast,~onr, 1the pro!b1 c-- of fr.?krcotics i~d alcica" -- ~ tha tadr3

*ocoýo~io and SOOL.1Zogica1 Point o Ii~: are presentingt:;ose reatkz o1: '-.is that mi:-)t '-- littlo kn~ova to our read-czrs and mi&gt, b11e of interest to thc=.)

... o dif ic-ltiLs -W*.ý4 ar'e assoojatod Lziti~ combating the misuse of~cs are basece. r.~ain-ly on the fact Ztht narcotics are not crtly xiar-

zzutlso, elt t:. -:, time, cZ.dsýj:nsabla m~edicines or their rxiM.Tus opi¶.i is at the 8='a ti--.. the prin~cipal "Lehammedcn-A51-

occand teo 'basic product 14or thrt saries of -.edcomavts W-iong- ... ..owe-is and heroin again oce~py a &=al position as narcotic n.nd as

- c.tie home of poppy cuflti.vation and c-px= pradw:.'..ýon is that__

S to Eohn' w cll-1cnom clea~r stateMe~ts, so mrny of our vaz.ueclecv. _z.vzted plu-ants- have come. Poppy raising znd opi¶.i production migrat-

std of -Ul, indeed quite late-, wastward frori Asia XLinor to tho Ba3.--aiclt then eastm-rd, together -Ith% Islami. over all Asia, first

'ý -_sia =d from there, in tvio streams, over Affgh-anistan and Tuei~stenM .o Xorh and Central Ca-ine and over IXhdia and Southeast Asia to South

- Afer Ikiglad !Ard acred itself, in the so-called opium w-s -he-w J -.Vort Iopiurz in C-hina, its export from Midia to China rose cat-r?-

y z ear 1858. It rc.:;aincd constant from 1858 to 3.892* Zii.-ýL.Iymeons a. r ::i_=vcly sharp decline, fror the Chiznase cc is ution

=8grown ccz-.tirnuousl~r. was being met, however, by its o=a p:.-o*' xandinig from year toyear on en increasing

~J..Sinoe 1893, tkhe exort.- c,; opium from India to China was absolutely

V d7,0A,,7Au o~ ticsr~d to be 0 a p,

b)y 19)17 CIUULoý1py1 cutvao .a wý pUrevlaio~zwere supplemented bytra-ati-Ls ;rlthr -crL %~ o

Which, ozncrgwith I darnuzr; 190n, f:-c Of.~.

tually carried Out, but the hi story of its a.cco.7 aL- tiL* much a history of hunan tragedy as the history of opzuiow s pZ. t

self, Thec poppy growers worei in no way pe b y the ro-adjus-t.::cn.t. Latheir despe)ration, lin many pke-es thcv lot. mattors coen to arzxsd rosist-ancec. GovernaMent Officials were, murdereci, hu~ndrods of fI)anners wor sOt,whil-e Vilagos welre bi-rnejd doun-z. xoMu.itaes ndinoividu~as were in.-i-erested pecuniarily in the excution of the lawqs. Thus an iniformer sys-tem flourished w-ithit deoaizn ffects, Thdi-vidual provinelsfavored by natu,,rb for exariple, Shensi, thecre opiun had circulated in-stead of scarce money as a nedium of exhngeuld not recover. at all.

Itspite of a3ll this, iLn 1917, 2n Thaglish Commi~ssion that was touaringthe covntr-y was able to determine that poppy growing nd opium-r predue-t' on had practicalIly ceased to excist, end accordingly Chin~a w as justi-fied in prohibiting the impnort of opiuvm, and it did so.

Thai came the dnwttflU of" the central guvenauent, and since t~hen,t- poppy growing and opiuu production, also consumption, naturally, h-ave

boon f~loiutting again in China, T2he military lords in the pr-ovincesne~aedo wnxey for themsele, for their troops and for buying weapn, anthere is wa mora approriate object of taxation than opium, flthou6it the

laws o t& ti e. BuOlic punith severely any handling of opiuth1-t- z-fa-attte~i-wot -eagerly--takce -Up*PPY ngug9-VaiaU n Of

thctr olen gacord, ware directly compelled to do wo. The fins Providedby law were actwUaly trned into licenses, In some provinces mono1polieSwere eet4,vlished tha&t sold witi 300% to 44O$ profit-, in other provincescr* o lyndirecot taxes were laid on opium. end duty is always paid whnitPasses fomt~ the sphere of Linfuence of oue general to thre sphere of n-o-t-hor one, frnxs-portation was usually made under military escort, and

andval andy ficers at present are the greatest opium dealer; inCbina. 7o be suars poppy gro-ving =nd opium production newer rose to the

leve of 93. Vow extensive opium meuggling poured out of China int-othe nelGa&borting Asiatic countries; on the other hand, the IuroPeano.onies and settlements in China are consumption and mnugg7 *g centers fromuhich Tzdian, opi~um is i.ntroduced into China. The rob6 Of the Portuguesecolony of %,aace is especially sad i-n Th~is respecOt. Furthermore, China is

t arge1 of an extwnsive smuggling trade from the other Asiatic spheresOfptohuct In those times whon it was still legal for China to ouyPersian opimu, it moved over Meshed and Herat, through Afghanistan and.uchara to Cohan and further to Kashgar. Opiwm from Asia Minor accompan-ied the Persia opium, which at present follows the sme route, but Inillegal trade. Along the way Afghan opium is added to it, for at presentAfghEan1 is also a production area, as is Russian ?urkistan also. Therehas alirays existed there a limited, uithou&h prohibited, production ofopi'u. In the war, the Russian government encouraged poppy growing whichqjickly expanded and overlapped into Chinese Turkistan. To be sure stillno poppies are groin in Lainese Tuarkistan. How'ever, annually thousandsof Chinese, Moslem Chinese and NuVomans cross the borders in order togrow poppies in the vicinity of Dzharkent. On their return home, theybrijg the drug into Cinese Turkiatn. i report made by the $rLtiah Con-sul General in Xashgar describes extraordinarily graphically how, on theone hand, the Persian and Afghan product and, on tie other hand, theTurkoma•n opium are wwuggled into China. Since the border between Russimnand GCniese Turkistan is only tended here and there by Chinese troops,the ierchandise is transported over unfrequented passes through RussiaPaniir. Kirghia serve as guides and provide the meana of transportation.in Yaxrkod and Yangi-iiassar, two opium trading centers in Chinese Tuarii-stan, where the merchandise caravans end, the opium is sold already quiteopenly. Principal trading places are Urumchi and Xashgar. Since Chineseofficials are interested in this trade, nothlng. is done, naturally, tosuppress it. The merchandise that is produced in Russian Turkistan us-ually goes in caravans from Przhevalak to Uahb-murfan. This trade is inthe hands of Kirghiz and Moclem Chinese, %to exchange the opium in Uoh-Turfua for cotton material, footwear, %ool and Raglith yar and muslin.

2Fnally, China is also favored with opium from the north., Afterthe war, Vladivostok has become a center of opium consumption and trad.i.ng, in the vicinity of vhich poppy growing and opium extraction is en-gaged in. Vladivostok obtains opium from Persia and Asia la r princi-pally by mater from the Persian port of Bushire; in part also by land

7 0over23iberia.-utbonntrow nadivostok, the narcotic is smuggled toChina along the South Mnehurian railway. Business was g•ing-along so, plendidly that there was thought about setting up an opiuM monopoly, andthe people to whom it was transmitted, Koreans, had, it gay be said, theimpudence to make a request of 3ndia to supply 90,000 kg, of opium, whichwas, naturally, refused.

In Midia, tthe Mogls already had an opium monopoly wlich the EastIndla Company took over after its victory and which passed over to theBritish-Midi=n govenmment after its dissolution. However, this monopolyinclided only the provinces of Bengal, Agar ýnd Oudh. The cultivationof poppies in these provinces takes place only =der license. All opiUMmust be tuned over to the government at fixed prices. The goverimentdoes not allow the opi= grvers a greater profit than they might have,had by cultivating other field-produce, but it ouravges its cuItivatin

* by granting advances. The collected juice goes t the gowrumt factory

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in Ghazipur and is processed there. The export opim is mostly solddirec•ly to other Asia iýic goveznment opium monopoly administrations; therest is sold by auction in Calcutta, In addition to the ronopoly opiumthat is aIso called Bengfl opium, there is the so-called mallow opiumthat cornos from certain native states and from the states under the con-trol of the Rajrutana Agency. In these regions, poppy growing and opium"extraction is free. Poppy raising lands have been decreasing since 1906in Tlhe monopoly area, due to the Qhinese opium prohibition. This decline

S was interrapted only d&ring the war, huie Fagland was shut off from 'thePersia, Trkish and &alkan markets. In the same way the export of opiumfrom India has been declin•ng annualy, not only in comparison uith thehighest figures, but also after the war. Mallow opium &hich formerlywent in 1-re a=ots to China, is as good as no longer eiported. Itserves nai4y rfor conumption in the states in h-ich it is produced. Cer-tata a =ounts are tWen over annuallyr by the monopoly administrationi.

It mu•t be mentioned by way of completeness that Buma, FrenchTndo-Q2ina, Siam, Japan and Egypt pursue poppy cultivation and opium ex-traction on a =4a1 scale.

• HNow, with ragard to consmption. There are opium-consuming count-* ' ries, India and Persia; conmtries in which opium is eaten and smoked,

Buxia mnd Ceylon. Tz an the other Asiatic countries, it is moked, andavong t'hese couatries China is the leader. Japan is the only country InAria that has never become acquainted with opiomnla in its borders. ThePhilip-pins and h md Fous should pass as cured. •tile raw opium itself isused fo eatin�g, lor smoking it must -undergo a simple =anufacturing pro-

cess. In order to obtain moking opium, so-called chandu, raw opium isdissolved, cooked and femented. is takes plae partly in govermentfactories; traders and consmers themselves partly undertake its produc-ion. The Chinese are especially addicted to opium, and as a resuIt of

this a social problem cones up for the other Asiatic countries that ared dependent on coolie labor. Mhe colies come only if they receive their

. narcotic, and then they infect the native popUlation that might have want-"ed to be kept free from the misuse of opium. In this respect, the condi-tions in Burma are especially characteristic. As bad as things are in

-Qoiw mdeifmlitt AO loImger As high as before the 1906 pro-hibition of Opium.

v.iile &iglnnd should not be held solely responsible for the pre-S - a•aet-•da conditions in the Far East, (the key to tic situation in Cina

lies there now), India, on the other hand, has been burdened with a ser-ious guilt. In India, opiommia is a serious social problem for uhich• the responsibility falls on the British-Indian gover=ment, for, as weh.ave already see, it has a firm grip on oplum production and distribu-tion. The Pi r jij cosumption of opium in India is indeed not bad,but there is no basis for reassurance. The rural populaU is almostentLrely free from addiction, doubtless due to strict religious obliga-tions. an the contrary,'it is bad in the industrial cities, as well asin Ass= and Buaria, ad that is worst of ali, cmsmptiom is iacreasing.This iv doubtless mainly attributable to tho fact that ang omen em-

ployed in the cotton Liustry the practice of utranqu-lhizSlg" their

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childrcr uith opium before they go to work is spreading. This so-called

-o l OZ te children is practised by 986 of these mothers and is

doutbtlos5 t:20 cause of the absolutely appalling children's mortality inthe Th.di'im industrila districts. While the average consumption in indiaatounts to 24 Iglish pounds per 10,000 inhabitawits annually, industrialcenters lJco Calcutta and Rangoon consume 288 and 216 pounds, respective-

It iould be false to asome that the consumption of opium as anarcotic has remalned confined to Asia. We disregard the fact that inalmost all port cities that have traffic with East Asia there are placesin which a Chinese seama flnds his narcotic (in 1hgzand these placeshave been legal even up to a aiort time ago), and we disregard the factthat rmay Europeanw have become addicted in East Aj•z and, on t.eir returnto Europe, can no loner give up the narcotic,-- Zowever, at the beginningof th 19th cantu-y Ebgland experienced an epidemic of opiophay thti1hat that time woas as wide-spread in the highest saociety circles as amongthe young factor; uorkers. And if Liverpool still demanded, in the year1913n, energetic laws against opi-a, it may be well assumed from that,that addiction in Ehgland is still not yet completely extinguished. Inthe Uknited States,. which is especially susceptible to addictions, opiumsmokig has even appeared epidemically among the white Wiabltants. Chan-

du, was brought in officially until 1909, amd, in fact, this importation* increased seven times from 1860 to I900, tho total population Uilarasedtwo and one half times, the Chinese population merely doubled. Beforethe prohibiticn of importing chamdu, the number of mokers is estimatedat 100,000 to 150,000. New Orleans, New York, San Francisco and Albarywere consumption centers. In addition to the legal importation, therew as suggling import, that at present is not yet extinct, from Canadawhere there is a dhandu factory In Chinese handso

ýbaeraas up to now we have considered the production of opium thatt is used directly as a narcotic, we come now to those countries that pro-duce opium solely, or for the most part, as the raw material for manufac-} tur•in, mwoThito. Airopean, Asia Minor and Persiam opium comes above allinto questioe ae raw material for the manufacture of norphie, since

types. Poppy grouIng and opium extraction have spread considerably onthe Balkan Parinsula, especially in Macedonia, only in the second hal:of the 19th century. Before the war, Greece was the leader among the

- Balkan states, but it has lost this position. The export of Greek opiumtakes place through Salonika and Kavalla& The Bulgarian production wasal-ays relatively insignificant and went from times immemorial to Con-

S stantinople, tsere it comes on the madket together with the Ttnaihx pro-duction and as a A1trkish commodity.

1The focal point of poppy growing end opium production on the Bal-kan Peninsula lies today in Yugoalavlia.

m e most important opium extraction region for further processinginto morphine is the ancient homeland of opium extraction, Asia Minor." he regions of Konya and Afiim-Rarahissar ('Opi'a.BlaokburC") are extrac-tion centers. Before the war, the main outbound port for opium was

X'

- Adoe' the AnatoL.an railway was built, Constantinople becrzn tot": Q.- tahe ofu to itself. ad at Present týo-thirds of the

outjut .s tZaded •i .onsv.uMinople and only one-third i4 bmyrna. L- A.SaMinor, Lc in Yt&oslwvia, by-product industries have affiliated with theproduction of opitz. In some places, the extraction of poppy oil is moreimwpýant even than the production of opium. The poppy oil that is pro-duced serves not only as a salad-oil but also as buning-ol and as rawmaterial in the soap and varnish industries. Some of the poppy seeds amexported for oil-paint manufacturing. Lhe opium market i4 oxtraordinar-ily esttbe mad speculative. During the war, Germany end Austria con-trolled it, naturally. Tamediat•ly after the Armistice. Japan comneredit: at present, the tkitsd States, Lgland and Genuany are the principalbuyers. Ibreoveor, London is the greatest lite••ational trading post foro- A-m and derves therafrom cons•i•ra•la ad=ant4ge for its manufacture

* of~ aalkaloida.SIf we now treat Persia as the last of the opium producing regions,

SIt must be made clear that only part of the Persian opium is used for2 manufacturing morjpne. The greatest part is consumed dt-mstically as a

* 'narcotic and, as we have already seen, goes to the Far East for the same* T parpose. Persia, as a supplier of raw material, appears to be affected

prlmrly by the decline in world production of alkaloids that has oc-curred in raecent years. Ia the last few years, larger lots of Persian,and also of Asia Minor, opim are rqepatedlfy reported to be no longersaleable in Lodokn and therefore have to be sent back, Ten, natura-ly,. they were��auggd to China. If we disragard the production of petrl-cum, Lhe extraction of opium in Persia has definitely become 'he pivotalindustr.y. Except in the northern part of the country and on the PersianCulf, ;po"es are groin everytere. In many provinces, opium is the

only product tkat is generally profitWale. Me, of the principal citiesin Persia, Isfahan, is a true opium city. Before the hiOnese productionof opium, the greater part of the Persian comodity zigrated to xinat,

Spartly by land, partly by water; later increasing amuots migrated overteranshah, Bagdad, fmuru and Trabzo to Oonstnt•lnopla and from &here

_ spcially to Landon. Even at prekat very •c.siderable amounts am

xsire is, at prsent, the most important point of departure of the il-legal opi,m trade.

iae reverse side of the coin now is the constantly increasing Con-Som~ption of opium domestically, so that the Persian govenieAt undertookto combat it in the year 1910. In order to control coamptiom, a gov-eznmt monopoly %as to be established and all opium was to be sent togoveranment wmrehouses and vorked up there exclusively. As a result ofthe var, the laws were not executed. The measures encountere.dthe strong-est resistance of the population, and they succeeded in compell-ng thedelivery of the juice to the government warehouses In only a few provin-aes. The matter was taken up again only in 1922 together with revisionof '&e budget. Ceatralisatio Was successful i some province. Seriousriots occurred in Isfabm on account of tbat. A general strike prevailedfor one =mth. About 7,000 farmers moved into the oit and by way of

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I potcl; oCcu)i Cd Z .ir ' p office, Order could be rnstored aud the~u'blo2 of law: ao2lc onlyafter declaration of a state of warbattloa. Since th•en, centralization has progressed

aand ier y c-f ctior. syste2 for production and trainsportationl• boon pti~e.... ,,U'- - ,-L. Recently a monopoly is being plamled ar-aiul in

coInoction ith a tax rafom. If they want to restrict POppy grotganid otwi etraction in Persia, they must first of all improve the meansof transportation, so that definitely more profitable products can cometo tt i....kot. It is necessary to expand the irrieation system, because"any other product needs more and regUlated water than the poppy. The£anaers should be retrained and supplied with ag ri-cultural equipment;now occupation possibillties should be created for labor and capital ea-ployed at present in opium procuction, - i, finally, the Persian govern-mont should get time to change their tax Aon system which is based atpreseat, for the most part, on opium. All that, naturaly, requiresconsiderable resources,

iese matters have been described in so much detail, in order toshow -.Aat difficulties there would be if there were an earnest desire toset &aout reducing the production of opium in 2urope, Asia Minor andPersia, t •ch is greatly in excess of the medical and ecientifio re-quirement.

.Then Zagland iras shut off from these maekets during the war, itimported, as we already mentioned, Thdian opium for morphine prodaction.This cotu'odity, however, is not processed systematically, but the aglishalkaloid factories have become accustomed to it and import the comnoditypartly in the torm of raw morphine that is produced in Ghazipur by theIndian opium monopoly adklnistration doubtless more for imperialisticand rolitico-economica2 reasons.

The alkaloid factories are now producing morphine from the above-described raw material. Before The war, Germany &nd rgland controlledthe world market and tbey had indeed so divided it =p that fLgauLnd sp-plied the Far East and Germany te rest of the world. Also after thewar, '•±gand and Germmny are leaders in the production. The United Statesand Japan have typically come up to them. &wtzerland, France, Hollandand HI•nmar alsoproduce muor ne and ia among the Asiatic countries3,as we already mentioned, Just li2ke India. Japan had establiahed its pro-duetion of morphine in the mother-coumtry, in Formosa and in Korea, onthe basis of domestic raw opium, ailzna and Persia have not bean able to

"* put sinflar piaus in effect. On the thale, the production of morphinehas been decliLnng in recent years.

As is wanlcniotcm, morphine is the basic product for the most dan-gerous of all narcotics, diacetylmorphline, uhich uas discovered Ln 1098in the dye factories, formerly Friedrich Bayer & Go., that belong todayto tie 1. 0. Farbenindustrie, aad for which the name Oheroin) was creat-ed at that tine. Uhile before the war Germany doubtless had, naturally,a production monopo3y, after the war it has also beer produced in rgland,France, Switzerland, the Uait&4 States Wiese, meanwhile, its productionhas beean prhibited, and Japan. Its production in Japan was quite atu-"pendous and indeed the greater part of itrhas ben- sAged to China and

cc! Tt Msuc. tate-e t of all ono to four s lcllion adyicts reportedSt o C: • L ; e r a p'T n o x:.. _ tat l y a t l e a s t 7 u s e d ~i a c c t hy l .m o r h :L n c. A c -certfy:: to .,.p........ .... .... ;av haveben i-_ado w-th it, he.aivi prohalbly de-Svalopr, =!;x:,•.a te-nde-ncies in Its addicts still more thmi cocaa~e, and.Stherefore, Ia. t. ilted Sta~tes it is probably th•e most waiLly danger-•" ; our, od' _ narcoticu.

Zh ý- o .-Dt Lit.Qrmst'ing of &U narootics sociolovicaii17 in Conaine,.4 .% is 10M2 se IM)kOVM. it ¢eM 0s frMM the leaVUs Of the eOCa YlAi

C.2.3conone

Already t•a•n The SpauLards tere conquering the empire of the In-cas, they fonmd extensive coaa oultivation, IYhe plant played a great

--part in the r 4ng.ious and politieal life: the leaves wers a very impor-tant traduig p.o-itt. AXter the Saniard had at flrst attempted toeradicate the cultivation Ard use of coca because of its oonnection withthe heathan *ult, they took over its cultIvation and derived a stupendousprofit thierefrom, The development of La Paz, capital of Bolivia, is veryclosely dqpendent on coca growing. 11s cultivation orny achieved Wrld-wide oaconoxi o mprtance ±e~n, intemiddle of the 1lB0os, it was instro-dured into ohthalm~ologr. A strong demand for coca leaves was imediate-ly e-stahlihed, and a considerable export sta&ted up from Peru. Hamburgwas on top by far, since Gersany had alsst monopolized the productionof cocaine mtil thf oýeutbreak of the ware A large part of the coca leavesunrived spoiled, due to the long transportaton, with the result that anindustry came into azstnce in Pena that extracted raw cocaine from theleaves and worted it. Hamburg and New York were also the principaltrading caters for this produat. The raw cocaine industry, in Ahidh Ger-man capital •a aleo invested, was or:=ted" in its location either by the'raw materal or b, the shipping points and in this case it dragged cocacultivattm after it. Zhis indust-ry nar its developmet period far bekindit, Just as the export of coca products from Peru has fallen off consid-arably, They have been supplanted In the world market by Dutch East In-ditan production.

- t 'ti'V-atiDX V a trst establiiae&i% Java in 13860 May, uc- -oeeded in inoreaairg the cocaine content of the leaves from 10% to 15%.

They iwe able to b!rig the conm dity -4thout loss to the places of pro-* duction, by moa i of proper treatment and packdng of the leaves. For

sbecit& rea=na - raw cocaine industry could not be developed in JavaSas in Peru. Sin e the Dutch goven•meant strongly encuraged its cultiva-tien and the Javane• planters were finely t.ited in a combine at the

- head of tiiich was the Coca Bureau in Amsterdam, the Javaiese product a-4ethved a. complete victory in the nrld market, Due to this developRmeat,

the position of Hamburg as principal trading center passed over to Am-sterdam, especially also since Gorzany during the war could not maintain"its cocaine produotion owp0oly. !Ie neutral couttries (Holland and"&witzerlad) created for themseves in the war a coasiderabl cocaine in-dustay, =nd at preset F• ce, the United States and Japan are also pro-duaers, in addition to the alrvady meatioAed cointrIes.

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