TX Marketing II: Negotiation Techniques Marketing I: Negotiation Techniques 6 Multimedia:...

TX Marketing II:

Negotiation Techniques

MODULE ONE: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ............................................................ 2

MODULE DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................ 2

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 4

KEY TERMS ......................................................................................................................... 4

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC AND COMMUNICATION ......................... 8

LESSON 2: EFFECTIVE USING INARTISTIC INFORMATION ........................................ 25

LESSON 3: THE ETHOS OF AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR ................................... 59

LESSON 4: THE PATHOS OF AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR ................................ 84

LESSON 5: THE LOGOS OF AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR/

REAL ESTATE PRACTICE ............................................................................................... 85

2 TX Marketing II: Negotiation Techniques

Module One: Effective Communication

Module Description

Professional success, as well as the ability to close important real estate transactions,

depends upon the ability to communicate effectively. Fortunately, the basics of

effective communication are similar for most professional mediums, including

business letters, presentations and one-on-one or group discussions, negotiations

sessions and interviews.

In essence, all effective communication is logically structured and appropriately

presented. Knowing how to structure, and then appropriately present your ideas, is

not always easy. By studying rhetoric—the ability to identify the available means of

persuasion in a particular situation, and then utilizing those means effectively—you

will be able to connect with the people around you and present your ideas in a clear,

appropriate, and efficient manner.


This module will outline how to communicate effectively in most business-related

correspondence. Initially, this module defines rhetoric. It then explains the

differences between inartistic, or found, information and artistic, or invented,

information, as well as how these groupings impact the structure of your argument

and ideas. As we will see, persuasion affects only the delivery of artistic information,

so it is on this topic that this module will focus.

The majority of this module will focus on defining and discussing three classic

approaches to persuasion: logos, ethos, and pathos, and how you can use them

effectively in your daily real estate negotiations and correspondence. Consequently,

many topics, with which the student may already be familiar, will be addressed, such

as business etiquette and "professionalism;" the role of empathy, and how to

develop empathy in an audience; and the importance of concise language, proper

diction, and logical structure.

This module will conclude with a series of ten case studies and an interactive activity

that will require you to utilize the information presented in this module. This portion

of the module will integrate the different ideas presented throughout the module to

help ensure that you have a comprehensive understanding of the material

presented.


Module Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

Explain the difference between "artistic" and "inartistic" information and the

order in which they should appear in a well-structured argument.

Define the three different approaches (ethos, pathos, and logos) used to

present persuasively artistic information.

Define "rhetoric" as the act of identifying and utilizing the means of persuasion

available in a given situation.

Use and present effectively inartistic information, or data.

Present himself or herself as a respectable professional whom people will

trust.

Produce and manage emotions in a negotiation session.

Utilize logic, emotion, and the appearance of ethical character as persuasive

tools.

Identify some common ‘extreme’ persuasive techniques that other people

may attempt to utilize.

Key Terms

Active Voice: The condition of verbs found in conventional sentence structures in

which the subject is performing the action.

Artistic Information: A stated conclusion or deduction; a conveyed invention.

Bar Graph: A representation of the X- and Y-axis with a series of blocks running along

either the X-axis or the Y-axis that correspond in either height or length (relatively) to

the numerical values on the opposing axis that is constructed in an attempt to

illustrate the relationship between the values listed.

Buzz Words: Fashionable, industry-specific terms.


Connotation: The unsaid implications of a specific term or phrase that arises

because of a term or phrase's usage.

Denotation: The literal definition of a word that one obtains from a dictionary or

other, similar language authority.

Diction: Word choice, especially when commenting on the appropriateness of word

choice.

Direct Object: The part of a sentence that is being acted upon; a complement that

completes the reader's understanding of a verb or verb phrase.

Ethos: Utilizing authority and moral character to persuade; appealing to an audience

by focusing on a speaker or writer's assumed moral or ethical character.

Etiquette: The appropriate behavior in a given situation or environment established

by an authority or tradition.

Inartistic Information: Data, research, testimony or other "found" materials.

Indirect Object: To whom/what or for whom/what a direct object is directed or

intended.

Line Graph: An illustration of numerical values plotted on a grid made of the X- and

Y-axis with a line connecting the points together.

Logos: Presenting logic to persuade; appealing to an audience by focusing on the

logical progression of a communicator's thoughts.

Modifier: A term that specifies the meaning of another term; an adjective or adverb.


Multimedia: Computer-assisted or generated colors, images, animations, and

sounds that are meant to engage an audience.

Outline: A document or computer-generated image that contains diminishing

Roman and Arabic numerals and phonetic characters that correspond to increasingly

specific points of a piece.

Passive Voice: The condition of verbs when the subject of a sentence is acted upon,

as oppose to the conventional, active sentence structure in which the subject

performs the action.

Pathos: Engaging emotions to persuade; appealing to an audience by pushing their

"emotional buttons."

Pie Chart: A circular illustration sectioned off in relation to the parts of some whole

in an attempt to show the relationship of data, which is usually represented as a

percentage.

Rhetoric: The ability to see the best means of persuasion and effectively utilizing

those means.

Spreadsheet: A form comprised of corresponding rows and columns used to store

information.

Synonym: A word that has a similar meaning to a given word (e.g. tiny, small and

little).

Thesaurus: A published collection of terms or headings organized with a series of

cross-references that you can use to locate words with similar meanings.


Tone: The implied attitude of a communicator inferred from a communicator's

diction and style.

Venn Diagram: A series of interlocking circles that illustrate group membership by

placing an item in a circle group or overlapping region of two or more circle

groupings.

Verb Phrase: The phrase used to describe the action in a sentence when it involves

more than one word, which is usually a conjugation of the verb "to be" or "to have"

(am, is, are, were, have, etc.) and either a past participle (hid, sat, jumped, sold, etc.)

or a gerund (singing, laughing, selling, jumping, etc.); for example, was hiding, had

hit, is sending and was sent all are verb phrases.


Lesson 1: Introduction to Rhetoric and

Communication

Lesson Topics

This lesson focuses on the following topics:

Introduction

Inartistic Information vs. Artistic Information

Approaches to Artistic Information: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Rhetoric and Effective Communication


Lesson Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain the difference between "artistic" and "inartistic" information and the

order in which they should appear in a well-structured argument.

Define the three different approaches (ethos, pathos, and logos) used to

present persuasively artistic information.

Define "rhetoric" as the act of identifying and utilizing the means of persuasion

available in a given situation.

Explain how ethos, pathos, and logos are used in business situations.

Explain advantages and problems of ethos, pathos, and logos.

Introduction

Defining rhetoric as an art form is not of primary interest to many philosophers

today. Nonetheless, it is of principle concern to the topics we will address in this

module and fundamental to understanding successful communication.

Consequently, we will utilize antiquity's dialogues and essays on rhetoric to obtain a

common language that we will then use to discuss many important communication

topics with which the student may already be familiar, such as persuasion, tone, style,

and business etiquette.

Rhetoric involves effectively relaying deductions from data in the best way possible; it

refers to identifying the means of persuasion open to you in a given situation and

utilizing those means. Specifically, well-composed rhetoric successfully delivers

artistic conclusions pulled from inartistic data.

This lesson will introduce the student to the uses of and relationship between artistic

and inartistic information. In addition, it will outline the different approaches to

effective artistic expression while defining ethos, pathos, and logos—three classically

defined approaches to persuasion.


Upon completion of this lesson, the student should have the terminology that he or

she will need to complete the latter lessons in this module, as well as the language

he or she would need to discuss and understand rhetoric and its role in effective

communication.

Inartistic Information vs. Artistic Information

In order to effectively communicate, you must be able to present your information

in a way that your audience can understand. Reaching most of the audience

members in a large auditorium, or effectively persuading a person reading your

business letter, can indeed seem like a daunting task, but clarity can help you ensure

that your ideas at least reach the appropriate party.

Information must be properly structured to be clear. Consequently, the first step to

effective communication is learning how to properly queue different types of

information in a way that flows logically. For example, a poor word choice here and

there can mean little over the course of a well-constructed, ten-minute oration, but

a poor construction almost guarantees that no one will understand you. Regardless

of whether you are delivering a short presentation, composing a letter, writing an

essay or simply engaging in a one-on-one conversation during a negotiations session:

If the other party is going to understand and then subsequently believe you, then

your ideas must connect.

Different types of information have different purposes and should, therefore, follow

a specific order in your essay, letter, presentation, conversation, etc. At the most

basic level, there are two types of information: inartistic information and artistic

information. Inartistic information is found in the world, while artistic information is

personally deduced or invented. For example, Scientist X is studying the sleep

patterns of England's migratory coconuts. Her inartistic information would be the

data she collects during her study. Her artistic information would be the conclusions

that she draws from the data she collects.


It might seem tempting to think of inartistic information and artistic information as

just fact vs. deduction, but the terms are actually a little more particular, and they

carry important implications.

Inartistic Information

Inartistic information is anything that you find in the world; however, this does not

mean that it is inherently true. To get a better idea of what this means, consider the

following examples:

Example #1: Person X asks Person Y what she did yesterday, and Person Y replies

that she fed her pet snake. This is a testimony, which means that the information is,

for Person X at least, "found" information. Let's say that in fact Person Y did not feed

her pet snake yesterday—the information is then untrue. Regardless, the

information is still inartistic for Person X because he did not invent it; it exists

independent of him.

Example #2: Scientist X is studying whether it is healthier to stay home and play

video games on Saturday nights or go out with friends. The problem is that Scientist

X loves video games. He has a bias and, unbeknownst to him, this bias affects his

ability to collect data. Since he doesn't know about the problem, he types up all his

data and publishes his conclusion that staying home playing video games is safer.

Even though the data may be inaccurate, because of his bias, it still constitutes

inartistic information, and his conclusion that staying home is safer constitutes

artistic information.

In this module, we will not focus on the impact of "truth" on the definitions of artistic

and inartistic information. Instead, for our purposes, we will say that inartistic

information is anything that exists independent of you.


It is information that is not your creation and includes:

Data

Testimony

Research

Surveys

Documents

Artistic Information

Deductions and conclusions, along with all other types of "invented" information, are

considered artistic. The defining characteristic of artistic information is that it only

exists because you exist and created it; it's your invention. Examples of artistic

information include:

Conclusions

Deductions

Opinions

Inferences

Anytime someone states an inference the information is artistic. More often than not,

artistic information occurs as a result of "interpreting" inartistic information. This

carries important structural ramifications when considering effective

communication.

Quick Tip

Rhetoric comes into play when considering the various

approaches to artistic information. Rhetoric refers to a person's

ability to pick out the correct means of persuasion and then

use those means effectively. Keep this in mind as we progress.

We will be discussing this in more detail soon.


The Relationship between Inartistic and Artistic Information

Effective oral and written prose is clear and easy to understand because it flows

logically—that is, it usually presents a premise and then presents a conclusion.

Placing inartistic information first and then offering your artistic information second

is a good way to ensure that your written or spoken prose also flows logically. This

type of construction encourages a proper premise/conclusion ordering that is easy

for people to understand.

Organizing your ideas so that they connect properly is important because it makes it

easier for people to follow your "train of thought," and it's a good way to critically

examine your own position and the positions of others. Unfortunately, you cannot

usually "win people over" with logic alone. There is great license when it comes to

the format of artistic information and many variables to consider—all of which

impact your ability to effectively communicate.

Approaches to Artistic Information: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Inartistic information is found outside ourselves and, thus, is rigid in form. It is, in

general, the "evidence" we use to argue our position. Consequently (providing that

you are composing your prose sincerely), there is little (if any) license that you can

take with inartistic information—it tends to be either true or untrue. The

effectiveness of artistic information, however, depends heavily upon how an author

or speaker approaches it. As previously mentioned, it depends upon rhetoric.

Inartistic Information

(Premise)

Artistic Information

(Conclusion)


Aristotle identifies three approaches to delivering artistic information that we will

also examine:

1. Ethos: Utilizing authority and character to persuade

2. Pathos: Engaging emotion to persuade

3. Logos: Presenting logic to persuade

The student may note that the third approach, logos, is closely tied to the information

covered in this lesson thus far. While effective communication depends

fundamentally upon clear and well-connected ideas, how heavily you focus on logic

as your means of persuasion should depend, as we'll see, upon your goal and your

audience.

Ethos: Utilizing Authority and Character to Persuade

Ethos refers to utilizing authority and moral character to persuade. It involves

appealing to an audience by focusing on a speaker or writer's assumed moral or

ethical character. When a business appeals to its longevity and respectability (i.e.,

statements such as, "Company ABC, the company you've come to know and trust …"),

the business is using ethos; and when people offer their various academic and

professional distinctions prior to a presentation, they are using ethos as well. To

understand this idea better, consider the following example.

Example: Person X is giving a presentation before the entire executive board of the

company for which he works. He has a decent presentation, but is dressed in tattered

clothes and has only been in the company for a few months. Person Y, a longtime

member of the company, well-dressed and generally respected, disagrees with many

of the points that Person X makes in his presentation. Person Y tells the other board

members that she has "been a trusted member of the board for many years and has

seen many presentations." She then proceeds to explain that "while Person X's

presentation was decent," she's "not confident in the new associate's ability to deliver

results."


In the previous example, Person Y is utilizing ethos to persuade her fellow board

members to believe as she does. Initially, she appeals to her authority and ethical

character. She then challenges the authority and character of the other speaker.

The Validity of Ethos

Ethos can be a validly persuasive approach to delivering artistic information. While it

might be inappropriate in some situations, and almost certainly suspect in

advertising, one could see its appropriate application in the business world, life, and

academia.

It is not necessarily wrong for less experienced members of a group to be persuaded

by the thoughts of older, respectable members of a group simply because of the

older persons' ethical character, experience, and education. It's also reasonable that

most people prefer the opinions of "respectable" and "responsible" people to the

opinions of those people viewed as "flakey" or "untrustworthy." That is to say, it's not

necessarily wrong that most people would rather act on the opinion of a well-

educated, respectable neighbor than the opinion of a three-time convicted murderer

and bank robber.

Problems with Ethos

There is an assumed bias when dealing with ethos that can have problematic effects.

For example, could it be more difficult for a minority in a group to use ethos to

persuade than the average majority member of that group? How could ethos

perpetuate social, gender, and racial stereotypes? If ethos favors one person over

another because of a perceived ethical authority, then does it lock individuals into

roles they might not always fulfill? That is, couldn't a murderer reform and a

respectable neighbor loose his or her temper one day and commit a violent crime?


"Professionalism" and Ethos

Regardless of the complications associated with it, ethos is very important in the

business world because, in a sense, "professionalism" is nothing but ethos. Every day

that you actively affect a "professional" demeanor and appearance, you are, in a

sense, delivering artistic information through ethos—you are projecting an image to

which people respond and appreciate. In general, there's nothing wrong with this. If

people are going to take you seriously, then it is important that they perceive you as

an ethical and competent fellow professional.

How people initially perceive you and how their perception of you develops greatly

influences your ability to persuade them, if not their willingness to listen to you at all.

Learning to capitalize on your authority and moral character is important in all kinds

of professional exchanges. We will discuss how ethos and professional etiquette,

appearance and attire affect your ability to communication in greater detail in Lesson

3.

Pathos: Engaging Emotion to Persuade

Pathos refers to engaging emotions to persuade. It involves appealing to an audience

by pushing their "emotional buttons." Pathos could aim to make people feel angry,

sad or happy. Communicators will often use different emotions depending upon the

audience and what they ultimate want the audience to believe. Consider the

following three examples.

Example #1: International children sponsorship programs utilize pathos in their

television commercials to persuade you to sponsor needy children. They contrast the

close-up images of children's faces and eyes with depictions of the children's

deplorable situations, often including shots of their bare feet and empty bowls. In

essence, they are "pulling at your heart strings" with moving and saddening images

in an attempt to get you to act in a particular way; in this case, they want you to

sponsor needy children.


Example #2: Cigarette Manufacturer X publishes an advertisement that depicts

young, attractive people, all of who are smoking, at a big party. Everyone's smiling.

This advertisement wants you to associate feelings of pleasure and fun with smoking.

It is trying to persuade you to purchase cigarettes by making you feel good.

Example #3: Environmentalist X wants to get you and the rest of the audience to

donate money to saving a section of forest that houses several endangered species.

Consequently, she shows you images of dying animals in the at-risk parts of the

forest, and most of the animals in the pictures are very young. She then displays and

discusses images from a protected section of forest. These pictures contain vibrant

colors and happy, living animals.

There are few people in the world that would not be touched by images of dying baby

animals. She is hoping to capitalize on this and energize an audience to act in the way

she wants by appealing to their emotions—in this case, the communicator wants the

audience to help endangered animals.

The Validity of Pathos

If we reconsider two of our previous examples—the needy children, the endangered

species—then we can see that, as with ethos, pathos has valid applications. There is

nothing wrong with being emotionally moved or taking an interest in moving an

audience. In fact, we tend to think of people who do not react emotionally to some

situations as either cold and cruel or simply psychotic.

When used sincerely, pathos can make for interesting and engaging exchanges that

could lead to real emotional progress. Moreover, when the cause for persuasion is

valid and right, good comes out of the use of pathos.


That is, if in fact Environmentalist X (from our previous example) is sincere and her

information is "true," then people probably should empathize with the struggling

animals and help them out. The same would apply for the needy children.

Problems with Pathos

Persuading by emotion can leave much to be desired both in the audience and

communicator. Effective communicators must understand that sincere and ethical

uses of pathos should be well-balanced with logos (and possibly ethos). This is true

first because most people will become reasonably suspect of rhetoric that seems

focused on energizing their emotions. That is, too much pathos could (quite rightly)

make you seem unreliable. Second, if people are too emotionally charged, then they

often are incapable of the kind complex thought patterns necessary for professional

agreements and situations. For example, when engaged in negotiation sessions you

would probably be better off trying to manage emotion than you would be trying to

energize it.

Pathos has many questionable applications. For example, propaganda and

advertisements love to rely on pathos because it makes it difficult for people to think

rationally and can shield people from the logical truth of a matter. Consider our

previous example about cigarettes—is it really wise to associate pleasure with a

dangerous and possibly deadly product such as cigarettes? Often pathos is exploited

at the expense of truth and honesty.

Pathos in the Business World

There is a time and place for most types of persuasion and this includes pathos. The

ability to induce empathy in those around you is a valuable communication tool and

necessary for many types of communication. It helps you get your point across, and

it can make you a more effective manager, salesperson, employee, and

businessperson.


Understanding the delicate balance between reasonable, ethical uses of pathos and

the uses of logic and authority can be, nonetheless, quite difficult. Consequently,

Lesson 4 will focus exclusively on the proper uses of pathos and the benefits of

emotion management, the strength of proper tone, and effective word choice, as well

as the role of empathy in the business world.

Logos: Presenting Logic to Persuade

Logos refers to the presentation of logic to persuade. It involves appealing to an

audience by focusing on the logical progression of a communicator's thoughts.

Possibly to the approach's credit, advertisements often avoid logos. Its most

common uses are in the business and academic spheres.

Note: Regardless of whether logos comprise the bulk of your

persuasion efforts, your prose should still follow the logical

structure previously covered in this lesson. Focusing on logic

as a means of persuasion and the inartistic/artistic structure of clear

communication should not be confused. While the ideas are

interrelated, they are not the same. Logos is logic as a means of

persuasion. The previous information in this lesson presented

a pattern for constructing clear prose: move from inartistic

information to artistic information. It just so happens that this

too is a logical progression.

To understand logos better, consider the following example.

Example #1: Company Associate X presents data indicating that sales are declining

and then offers an idea as to how to handle the situation that she came up with after

considering the collected data.


To convince the other company members that her idea will work, she walks them

through her line of thought so that they can understand how she arrived at her idea.

After walking the audience through her steps, she points out that logically her idea

should work.

Trying to make the audience associate pleasure with her solution or trying to induce

feelings of sorrow or guilt in them would probably prove fruitless—not to mention,

it might just seem weird. In addition, her ethical character will only persuade a

collection of fellow well-respected professionals to a certain degree. Probably the

best way for Company Associate X to convince the other company members that her

idea will work is to walk the other people through the same logical deduction that

she used to develop the idea. She can then use this logical progression of thought as

the means of persuading them. She can appeal to the audience by noting that her

idea is "the logical solution."

The Validity of Logos

Logos can be a very powerful approach to persuasion. If your ideas are indeed

logical and you can clearly convey them to an audience, then people will often

acquiesce. Consequently, logos nicely complement both ethos and pathos. For

example:

It helps you establish yourself as an authoritative, trustworthy communicator.

Rather than just appealing to your audience through an assumed ethical

character (ethos), logos allows you to truly come across as trustworthy

because the validity of your connections serves as your evidence; this leaves

little to be assumed except the validity of your premises.

It grounds the emotional implications of pathos. For example, if engaging

people's emotions too much can seem suspicious, then balance your delivery

by engaging people's intellect and allow reason to confirm your respectability.

It encourages the kind of complex critical thought that more difficult academic

and professional exchanges, such as negotiations, require. Rather than


clouding someone's ability to make sound decisions by inducing pleasure, guilt

or anger, ethos can help steer an exchange towards a rational and mutually

beneficial end by keeping the parties minds active and planning. Efficiency,

effectiveness, and innovation can all be hindered by excess emotion. Logos

can often persuade with less emotional confusion.

Problems with Logos

Logos presents two particular problems that we will focus on exclusively:

1. Its success depends largely on the actual logic of your deductions.

2. It assumes that people can and will follow the logic of your argumentation.

If you focus on the "logic" of your argument as your primary means of persuasion,

then you are assuming that the person whom you are addressing can follow your

train of thought and is equally concerned with logical reasoning. However, even given

a perfect, logic-loving audience, your communication will only be as persuasive as

your arguments are logical. In general, this is probably a good thing—providing you

have a good case and sound positions. But, if you are trying to convince someone of

something that is not easily "deduced," or if you do not have confidence in your

arguments, then other means of persuasion might be necessary. (In such a case,

however, it might be wise to reconsider your position anyway.)

The second problem with logos is that the perfect, logic-loving audience probably

does not exist. People communicate in different ways and some people are simply

more emotional than others. In a large audience there are bound to be those persons

that prefer a more personal, emotional approach. This is not necessarily wrong;

effective communicators cater to the needs of different types of people.

Consider this: if it is possible that pathos focuses too much on emotion for reliable

professional use, then it is also possible that logos focuses on emotion for reliable

professional use too little.


Logos in the Business World

Understanding how to "market" the logic of your position is important if you are

going to establish the "meeting of minds" necessary for mutually beneficial real

estate agreements. Being able to think logically and then being able to "sell" the logic

of your position will help you direct negotiation sessions, while allowing you to

manage problematic emotions. We will discuss the importance of taut language,

logical deduction, and effective transactions in detail in Lesson 5.

Rhetoric and Effective Communication

Now that we are familiar with the three approaches to persuasion (ethos, pathos,

and logos), we can move on to the relationship between them and the role of rhetoric

in effective communication. While these three approaches comprise our basic means

of persuasion, access to them and their relevancy varies with different individual

situations. How then do you know what approach(es) to use when and in what

capacity?

Rhetoric refers to the ability to identify the best means of persuasion in a particular

situation and then effectively utilizing those means. There is not much room for

persuasion when it comes to inartistic information. So the means of persuasion, as

previously noted, are utilized in the conveyance of artistic information, such as

opinions, deduction, and conclusions.

Artistic

Information

Ethos:

Utilizing

Character

Pathos:

Appealing to

Emotion

Logos:

Focusing on

Logic

Means of Persuasion


This means that any time we want someone to believe us, when we want someone

to see things from our point of view or anytime we want someone to agree to our

plan or course of action, rhetoric—our ability to reach that other party—will play a

huge role in whether or not the other party decides to agree.

The importance of rhetoric in effective communication cannot be overstated.

Consequently, the remainder of this module will focus on how to use inartistic

information and how to effectively and appropriately deliver artistic information—or

the basics of rhetoric. First, we will examine in detail how to use inartistic information

in your professional dealings. This will include how to deliver multimedia

presentations, as well as how to judge the relevancy of statistical information.

Second, we will examine each of the different approaches to persuasion (ethos,

pathos, and logos) and pinpoint their best uses in most professional situations. This

will help develop your rhetoric skills and, consequently, your ability to negotiate.

Lesson Summary

This lesson introduced the student to the main topics that we will discuss in this

module while defining the terminology that he or she will need to complete latter

lessons. In addition, it commented on the role of rhetoric in effective communication

and how to approach rhetoric structurally.

Initially, this lesson defined the terms artistic information and inartistic information.

Inartistic information is any materials that are found in the outside world, which

includes data, research, documents and testimony. Artistic information is any

invented, concluded or deduced information. Usually artistic information is a result

of interpreting inartistic information. We did not discuss the effects of "truth" on the

definitions of artistic and inartistic information.


Instead, we said simply that anything that originates outside the person is inartistic,

whether true or not, and anything that originates from the person, whether true or

not, is artistic information.

Whether information is artistic or inartistic will influence the order in which you

should present it. This is true for all types of correspondence, ranging from business

letters and presentations to one-on-one negotiations sessions. In general, one

should always present inartistic information and then artistic information. That is,

clear prose moves from premise to conclusion.

Inartistic information is rigid in form because it is found, not invented. There is, in

general, little license that you can take with it. However, how you approach artistic

information impacts the success of your communication efforts immensely. Aristotle

identifies three approaches to delivering artistic information (persuasion) that we

also examined: ethos, pathos, and logos.

Logos refers to presenting logic to persuade (appealing to an audience by focusing

on the logical progression of a communicator's thoughts); pathos refers to engaging

emotions to persuade (appealing to an audience by pushing their "emotional

buttons"); and ethos refers to utilizing authority and moral character to persuade

(appealing to an audience by focusing on a communicator's assumed moral or ethical

character).

These three approaches comprise our most fundamental means of persuasion—but

access to them and their relevancy vary with particular situations. The ability to

identify access to these three approaches in a particular situation and then utilize

them effectively is called rhetoric.


Lesson 2: Effective Using Inartistic Information

Lesson Topics


Introduction

Using Data and Research Findings

Presentation of Inartistic Information

Listing Presentations




Use and effectively present inartistic information or data.

Explain how and empirical data and research can be utilized in implementing

inartistic information.

Differentiate between relevant and irrelevant data.

Demonstrate how to effectively present inartistic information.

Explain how to use visual information in charts, graphs, and diagrams.

Introduction

Sound deductions should be based on sound inartistic information. For example, if

you want to change a certain policy in your office, then there must be a reason. If you

want to convince the other people in your office that the policy should be changed,

then you will probably want to tell them that reason. But, in many cases there are

lots of "reasons." So how do you know what information you should focus on and

whether you are presenting the information in a way that people will understand or

in a way that will just further confuse them?

This lesson will examine how to properly use inartistic information. In particular, it

will address the use of data and statistics and how to ensure that your inartistic

information is relevant and concise. Too many statistics can quickly complicate an

otherwise sensible argument. This lesson will examine how to choose effective

inartistic information and how to select a successful means to present it.

Using Data and Research Findings

It is important that people understand how you have arrived at a specific conclusion.

As we discussed in the previous lesson, it is best to start with your inartistic

information, or your premise(s), and move on from there.


When dealing with business-related topics and real estate negotiations, common

inartistic information will include:

Average sale prices

Sales percentages

Demographics and buying habits

Highest and best use research

Profit margins

Supply and demand ratios

Often, these types of information are represented using statistics, specifically ratios

and percentages. These ratios and percentages can serve as valuable inartistic

information, but it is important that they are used appropriately.

Too many statistics in any one piece or session can quickly make your evidence seem

arbitrary or confusing. If there are lots of percentages in your piece, then no one

percentage will carry the same impact that it would otherwise. In addition, people

often begin tuning out long lists of statistical data because it can seem

unmanageable, particularly during conversations and oral presentations. Consider

the following example.

In the following passage, try to pay attention to the "important" data and pull out the

meaning of the passage. Do not read it more than once, but read through once as if

you were only listening to it. Then we’ll view the information differently and look for

ways to more effectively present the information.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are 1,963,711 total housing units in the

State of Alabama, and 12,214,549 in the State of California. Of these total figures,

226,631 houses in the State of Alabama are vacant and 28.3 percent of these vacant

houses are for rent. In California, 711,679 houses are vacant, 26.7 percent of which

are for rent. We're building residential houses that we hope to rent.


So, to decide between building in California and Alabama we need to have other

states with which to compare the two. Consequently, consider New Jersey with 44.4

percent of its rental units vacant and Washington D.C. with 34.7 percent of its rental

units vacant. This places the rental vacancy rates as follows: Alabama at 11.8,

California at 3.7, D.C. at 5.9, and New Jersey at 4.5. These figures will dictate where

we should build our new rental housing. Naturally, we're going to build when the

rental vacancy rate is the lowest because we believe that this implies that there is a

rental shortage.

At the very least, the passage probably seemed confusing. The excess percentages

and housing numbers probably made it difficult to focus on the point of the passage,

which, incidentally, was an argument that a company should build new rental homes

in California rather than Alabama. If there are so many statistics and figures in a

passage that it could be difficult to tell "the point," then there is a serious problem

and the passage needs to be revised and streamlined. As illustrated, this is especially

true for information presented during discussions or presentations. It is very hard to

process lots of figures while listening to a person speak.

Keep the passage we just read handy so that we can review it and discuss its

strengths and weakness. We will then make changes to the passage and discuss why

the changes are successful revisions.

Using Data Effectively as Inartistic Information

Only poignant data can be used effectively. Consequently, the first step towards

clarification involves cutting out any inartistic information that we do not directly

need. Looking at your printed copy of the previous passage, mark the information

that you believe is inartistic and mark the information that you believe is artistic.

Then, continue.


The inartistic statements include all of the data, facts, and figures received from the

Census Bureau, as well as the statement that our company builds rental housing.

Whoever wrote this passage "found" the following information:

There are 963,711 total housing units in the State of Alabama.

There are 12,214,549 total housing units in the State of California.

There are 226,631 vacant houses in the State of Alabama.

28.3 percent of the vacant houses in Alabama are for rent.

There are 711,679 vacant houses In California.

26.7 percent of the vacant houses in California are for rent.

Our company builds rental housing.

Our company will either build in Alabama or California.

44.4 percent of rental units in New Jersey are vacant.

34.7 percent of rental units in Washington D.C. are vacant.

The rental vacancy rate in Alabama is 11.8.

The rental vacancy rate in California is 3.7.

The rental vacancy rate in D.C. is 5.9.

The rental vacancy rate in New Jersey is 4.5.

Everything else in the passage is artistic information. Specifically, whoever wrote this

passage "invented" the following:

We ought to compare different locations.

We ought to build in California over Alabama.


Quick Tip: Notice the terminology used in the sentences that are

artistic. Pinpointing terms commonly used for artistic ends can help

you quickly pick out the different types of information in your prose,

which can prove a valuable skill when it comes to presentation and

revision. If you use the words "ought," "should," "meaning,"

"implying," "therefore," "consequently" or any other similar

deduction phrases or words, then it is very likely that the statement

is artistic rather than inartistic.

Choosing Appropriate Figures

It is important to come across as authoritative, and statistics can help you do this.

However, you should not focus on the ethos of statistics and jargon at the expense

of clarity. No one will be able to believe you if they can't understand you.

All this passage is really trying to say is that comparing vacancy rates is important

when determining market needs and, that upon comparing vacancy rates, the

company should build more houses in California as opposed to Alabama. This means

that any facts that do not directly relate to these two ideas could, and probably

should, be cut (at least from the spoken portions of the presentation).

Look at the previous passage. Which information do you believe could probably be

cut? Remember, we only want to prove that:

Comparing vacancy rates is important.

The company should build more houses in California as opposed to Alabama.

Differentiating between Relevant and Irrelevant Data

The vacancy rental rates of the different locations constitute the most poignant

data—all of the other figures should probably be cut.


The only other inartistic information we really need to keep are the facts that, one,

we're choosing between Alabama and California and, two, that we're going to build

rental units.

The total number of houses in each location is certainly extraneous. While some

people might find these figures interesting, they are so broad that they do little to

advance our point, partly because:

They include housing that is not for rent.

They include housing that is not vacant.

The numbers are very large and, consequently, difficult to process when

pronounced aloud: one million, nine hundred and sixty-three thousand, seven

hundred and eleven.

Similarly, while some people might find the total number of rental housing available

in the various locations fascinating, the numbers:

Do not differentiate between available housing and unavailable housing.

Are very large and, consequently, difficult to process when pronounced aloud:

seven hundred and eleven thousand, six hundred and seventy-nine.

Knowing the percentage of vacant, rental housing in California and Alabama might

be useful in showing the relationship between vacancy rates and available units.

However, it is a little redundant because we are already going to present the more

poignant vacancy rental rate. If too many numbers can seem cumbersome, then we

should leave out any that are redundant and, in our example, cut the percentage of

vacant rental housing.

These edits would not only make the passage flow better because it would remove

the more difficult-to-digest numbers (mainly the number of houses and the number

of vacant houses), but it would also make the more poignant statistics stand out.


We don't want the important information about the rental rates to get lost in the

jargon. By removing the less important statistics, we make those that we need to

directly prove our point easier to grasp.

Final Revision

To finish editing the passage, let us re-examine what we want to "prove" (our artistic

information):

Comparing vacancy rates is important.

The company should build more houses in California as oppose to Alabama.

After cutting the extraneous data, we have the following inartistic information to

"prove" the previously listed artistic information:

Our company builds houses.

We need to decide between Alabama and California.

The rental vacancy rate in Alabama is 11.8.

The rental vacancy rate in California is 3.7.

The rental vacancy rate in D.C. is 5.9.

The rental vacancy rate in New Jersey is 4.5.

We want to move from inartistic information to artistic information. We should

probably start with the information that the company builds houses and that we're

either going to build in California or Alabama because these two pieces of

information present the situation at hand; explain the point of the passage; and

could lead us into our first point: that comparing rental rates in several locations is

important in determining where we should build our houses. We will then offer the

market information, and then our conclusion that we should build in California as

opposed to Alabama.

Below is an edited passage. Read it carefully and see if it's easier to pick out the

"point" of the passage. Can you tell why the statistical information is there?


Our company builds rental housing. Today, we are trying to decide whether to build

new rental housing in Alabama or California. To decide where to build and to ensure

adequate comparison, we gathered rental vacancy rates from four locations:

Alabama, California, New Jersey and D.C. According to the U.S. Census Bureau,

Alabama has a rental vacancy rate of 11.8; California has a rental vacancy rate of 3.7;

New Jersey has a rental vacancy rate of 4.5; and D.C. is at 5.9. We believe that the

smallest rental vacancy rate implies a shortage of housing because it means that

there are proportionately fewer houses on the market for the same amount of

people. Upon comparing the rental vacancy rates, we can see that California is not

only lower than Alabama, but it has the lowest rental vacancy rate of all four

locations. Consequently, building in California, as opposed to Alabama, seems like a

more lucrative endeavor.

Now, compare this to the first passage. How are the two different? Which one is

easier to understand and why?

Presentation of Inartistic Information

As we noted in the previous section, we need to make sure that our statistical

information is easy to understand. The inartistic information forms the basis for our

artistic information. If people are going to understand our position, then they will

need to be able to understand the inartistic information supporting our position.

The first thing we can do is ensure that any data or figures we offer are specific and

relevant. Next, we can try to present the information in an engaging and clear

manner. Utilizing any of the following can help us do this:

Multimedia

Charts, graphs, and diagrams

Outlines


Before continuing, it is important to note that outlines, charts, graphs, and diagrams

could all be examples of multimedia. They are separated out here so that we can

discuss each one individually and to illustrate that they can stand alone—for

example, you could have animation that is multimedia, but that contains no outline,

chart or graph. We will examine this in detail.

Multimedia

Multimedia refers to computer-assisted or generated colors, images, animations, and

sounds that are meant to engage an audience. For example, the course you are

currently taking constitutes multimedia. Unlike a standard textbook or a lecture-

based format, it involves:

Student/audience interaction

Color

Audio

Animation

During a presentation, multimedia can help you keep your audience's attention while

helping you seem well-prepared and authoritative. In addition, multimedia can offer

you ways to present even relatively boring or technical information, such as the

basics of rhetoric, in a more interesting and digestible way. To understand this better,

let's return to our previous example involving the company that builds rental

housing.

Following is an example of a script that would result in a multimedia presentation of

information that, offered simply as text would not be nearly as dynamic. Audio of the

previous example would enhance the student’s experience, and in this instance a

graph outlining the statistics would be presented, as well as moving bullets

highlighting points, pictures and written text.


After you read through how the multi-media presentation would occur, we will

compare it to the previous presentation and our discussion of it as if it were audio.

We will address clarity, digestibility, and interest level.

Effect:

Display everything except

the bullets as soon as the

screen opens and play the

audio. As the audio reads

the names of the states,

have the bullets move in

off the side of the screen.

Once the audio finishes

and the bullets are on the

screen, move onto the

next scene without

student interaction.

Also—make a transbox

out of the picture.

SPOKEN TEXT SOUND FILE NAME :

Our company builds rental housing. Today, we are trying to

decide whether to build new rental housing in Alabama or

California. To decide where to build and to ensure adequate

comparison, we gathered rental vacancy rates from four

locations: Alabama, California, New Jersey and D.C. WRITTEN TEXT

SHOULD WE BUILD IN CALIFORNIA OR

ALABAMA?

Our company builds rental housing. Today, we are trying

to decide whether to build new rental housing in Alabama

or California. To decide where to build and to ensure

adequate comparison, we gathered rental vacancy rates

from four locations:

Alabama

California

New Jersey

D.C.


Effect:

SPOKEN TEXT SOUND FILE NAME :

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Alabama has a rental

vacancy rate of 11.8; California has a rental vacancy rate of

3.7; New Jersey has a rental vacancy rate of 4.5; and D.C. is at

5.9. We believe that the smallest rental vacancy rate implies a

shortage of housing because it means that there are

proportionately fewer houses on the market for the same

amount of people. WRITTEN TEXT

Alabama: 11.8%

New Jersey: 4.5%

California: 3.7%

D.C.: 5.9%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

Alabama California

Rental Vacancy

Rates


Effect: SPOKEN TEXT SOUND FILE NAME :

Upon comparing the rental vacancy rates, we can see that

California is not only lower than Alabama, but it has the

lowest rental vacancy rate of all four locations.

Consequently, building in California, as oppose to Alabama,

seems like a more lucrative endeavor. WRITTEN TEXT

WHY WE SHOULD BUILD IN CALIFORNIA

Upon comparing the rental vacancy rates, we can see that

California is not only lower than Alabama, but it has the

lowest rental vacancy rate of all four locations.

Consequently, building in California, as opposed to

Alabama, seems like a more lucrative endeavor.

The multimedia presentation should seem a little easier to follow. This is true for a

few reasons. First, even when there are only a few statistics, especially in an oral

presentation, it can be difficult to remember them, let alone apply them to a position

or argument. The multimedia presentation addresses this problem. Second, more

technical presentations can seem boring, and the audience might not pay as close

attention, even if they are unaware of it. The multimedia presentation addresses this

problem as well.

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

Alabama California

Rental Vacancy

Rates


The multimedia presentation contains the exact same information as the original

oral presentation, but it also:

Visually represented the statistical data in two ways to help the audience

remember and utilize it: with a chart and with a list.

Utilized color, bullets, and animation to keep the audience's attention.

Displayed two titles to help the audience follow the "point." The first was

"Should We Build in California or Alabama?" and the second was "Why We

Should Build in California."

In addition to these benefits, multimedia can allow you to require audience

involvement. When delivering an oral presentation without any multimedia, many

speakers attempt to engage the audience by conducting a question and answer

session or addressing individuals. The problem is that this does not guarantee any

level of involvement from every member of the audience, especially if the audience

is large, and it can make shyer people feel "singled out."

Multimedia can address each person and, when presented on a specific PC, can

engage a person directly without making him or her feel "singled out." This means

that you can:

Keep the audience's attention better

Increase retention through application

Limit the "droning" effects of spoken presentations

Charts, Graphs, and Diagrams

Charts, graphs, and diagrams are great ways to illustrate otherwise dry information;

easily integrate into multimedia presentations; and can help demonstrate the

connections between your various statistics. Nevertheless, there are appropriate

times and effective ways to use certain types of charts, graphs, and diagrams, and,

when given a specific data set with specific connections, it is important that you

choose an appropriate one.


When used incorrectly, graphs, charts, and diagrams can confuse otherwise valid

data and further complicate the presentation of your premises/inartistic data.

For our purposes, there are five kinds of diagrams/charts:

1. Bar graph

2. Pie chart

3. Line graph

4. Venn diagram

5. Spreadsheet

We will examine each one of these and their most appropriate uses individually. We

will then examine different data sets and decide which of these graphs and charts to

use. Keep in mind that when deciding which charts to use, you should ask yourself:

How do the statistics I'm presenting relate?

What do I want to show my audience with these statistics?

These questions will help you with the activity to come and in choosing visually

pleasing and appropriate charts and graphs in the future.

Bar Graphs

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

Alabama New JerseyCalifornia D.C.

Rental Vacancy Rates


A bar graph is a representation of the X- and Y-axes with a series of blocks running

along either the X-axis or the Y-axis that correspond in either height or length

(relatively) to the numerical values listed on the opposing axis that is constructed in

an attempt to illustrate the relationship between the values listed. For example, as

illustrated above, our previous statistical data about rental rates was displayed on a

bar graph during the "multimedia presentation."

Usually bar graphs are shown vertically, but, as the definition implies, they can be

shown horizontally as well. In such a case, the axes switch roles. Instead of the

"information" being listed on the X-axis, it is listed on the Y-axis and the X-axis shows

the "values." In this case, the states are on the Y-axis and the rental vacancy rates are

on the X-axis. Comparisons would then be made by examining the bars' various

"lengths" rather than "heights."

Bar graphs are a good way to compare information from one or many data sets

because you can plot many related data sets on one bar graph. This will prove

valuable in our discussion of pie charts because it is one way that pie charts and bar

graphs differ.

Pie Charts

People's Favorite Colors

30%

40%

10%

20%Blue

Red

Yellow

Turquoise


A pie chart is a circular illustration sectioned off in relation to the parts of some whole

in an attempt to show the relationship of data, which is usually represented as a

percentage. For example, as illustrated above we could construct a "pie" and then

section off pieces of it to illustrate people's favorite colors. The chart above indicates

that:

20 percent of people favor blue

40 percent of people favor red

10 percent of people favor yellow

20 percent of people favor turquoise

Quick Tip: When utilizing pie charts in the real world, you will want to specify the

conditions of the data. So, if you were really presenting the pie chart previously listed,

then you would want to say to what "people" refers — that is, "everyone" that lives

on a particular block, "everyone" that works at a particular company, "everyone" that

exists in the world, etc. Along the same line, you would want to point out if the

preferences listed are out of "all colors" or if these percentages were true when you

polled people about their preferences in the case of red, yellow, blue, and turquoise.

Pie charts are great for representing data that inherently carries a "whole." Or, one

could say that pie charts are great for representing information pertaining to one,

individual "body." For example, the chart we just examined documented "people's"

favorite color—regardless of to what "people" really refers. If there are different data

sets, then it gets a little more complicated and a single pie chart will prove

inadequate. Consider the following example.

You want to display the color preferences of "everyone" in three different companies

while differentiating between the companies' percentages. Consequently, you will

need to construct three individual pie charts for each company and then display each

one.


This is because you can only show one "data set" pertaining to one, individual "whole"

at a time with any one pie chart. Here are the statistical preferences according to

company:

Company A:

50 percent blue, 30 percent red, 10 percent yellow, 10 percent turquoise

Company B:


Company C:


Now, you want to visually represent all this information (all the different color

preferences) while illustrating that you polled different companies and that different

companies had different percentages. While you could utilize ratios and add the

various company percentages together and then create one pie chart that represents

the color preferences of Company A, Company B, and Company C, you cannot

differentiate between the percentages according to company on one chart.

Consequently, here is how you would have to present the information utilizing pie

charts:

Company A's Favorite Colors

Company B's Favorite Colors Company C's Favorite Colors

50%

30%

10%

10%Blue

Red

Yellow

Turquoise


In general, pie charts are best used when your data implicitly carries a part/whole

relationship (like in the case of many percentages) and when the point of the data is

to illustrate the "make-up" of a single group. This is because any given group will

require its own chart. If you have three "groups," then it might be advantageous to

consider a bar graph. To illustrate this point, let's plot all the percentages from all

three companies, which necessitated three pie charts, on one bar graph.

Company A, Company B, and Company C's Favorite Colors

Pie charts are also unable to represent data that does not implicitly carry a

part/whole relationship. For example, you want to demonstrate the average cost of

buying a home in the U.S. over the course of the 1980s.

20%

20%

20%

40%

Blue

Red

Yellow

Turquoise65%

5%

15%

15%Blue

Red

Yellow

Turquoise

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

100.00%

Company A Company B Company C

Blue

Red

Yellow

Turquoise


Your data set is as follows:

1980: $80,000

1981: $85,000

1982: $90,000

1983: $100,000

1984: $100,000

1985: $120,000

1986: $110,000

1987: $80,000

1989: $90,000

Note that this data:

Does not carry a part/whole relationship that would benefit from a pie chart

illustration.

Does not carry a part/whole relationship that would allow us to use a pie

chart.

Now, if the data set was slightly different; for example, if you wanted to illustrate

what percentage of people living on Street X in 1980 paid more or less than

$80,000, then you could use a pie chart, providing that the data set is presented

similar to this:

10 percent of people paid under $80,000

50 percent of people paid $80,000

40 percent of people paid over $80,000


Then, our pie chart would look like this:

Cost of Housing on Street X in 1980

Line Graph

A line graph is an illustration of numerical values plotted in relationship to value (with

higher figures higher than lower figures), with a line connecting the points together.

They are often placed on a standard X- and Y-axis grid and are useful for showing

many things, such as:

Accuracy of data

Statistically significant relationships

Progression over time

Mathematical functions

10%

50%

40%Under $80,000

$80,000

Over $80,000


In this course, we will focus on the use of line graphs to illustrate progression over

time because this is perhaps its most common use in the business world.

A line graph is very useful for illustrating progression over time. For example, if you

want to illustrate how sales are dropping, then a line graph could prove quite helpful,

specifically if there is a large drop because a steeply sloped line will emphasize

dramatic downturns.

Consider the following data summarizing total sales per month:

January: $200,000

February: $300,000

March: $200,000

April: $200,000

May: $150,000

June: $100,000

July: $50,000

August: $20,000

We will now place this data on a line graph:

Sales Totals from January-August

$200,000

$300,000

$200,000 $200,000

$150,000

$100,000

$50,000 $20,000 $0

$50,000

$100,000

$150,000

$200,000

$250,000

$300,000

$350,000

Total Sales


Bar Graphs vs. Line Graphs

A bar graph is able to illustrate progression over time as well. When line graphs and

bar graphs are showing progression (especially over time), they are very similar, if

not the same. The image above indicates how we can fill in the space underneath

many line graphs. We could then square them off into bars, like this:

That would turn our line graph into a bar graph, illustrating that in this case, as in

many cases, they are interchangeable.

Note: While this is not of primary concern to us today, understand that not all line

graphs are fundamentally the same as bar graphs. For example, you cannot

arbitrarily fill in portions of a graph under a mathematical function if your point is

only to graph the function.

$200,000

$300,000

$200,000 $200,000 $150,000

$100,000

$50,000 $20,000

$0

$50,000

$100,000

$150,000

$200,000

$250,000

$300,000

$350,000

Total Sales

$200,000

$300,000

$200,000 $200,000

$150,000

$100,000

$50,000 $20,000

$0

$50,000

$100,000

$150,000

$200,000

$250,000

$300,000

$350,000

January February March April May June July August

Total Sales


That is, many functions are concerned with the points themselves and special

portions of the graph that, in addition to the points on the line, provide solutions to

mathematical equations. In addition, when you are using a line graph to illustrate

accuracy or the existence or absence of a statistically significant relationship, you

would not want to fill in any region below your line because it is, again, the points

themselves with which you are primarily concerned and, more specifically, how close

they are to your graphed line. "Filling in" everything below the line would hide your

data points that are below the line. In many cases, however, and in the cases we will

examine in this module, they are the same.

Both line graphs and bar graphs involve plotting points in relation to their values to

illustrate something about those points.

When choosing between them, you have to ask yourself "What do I want to illustrate

with my chart?" Bar graphs and line graphs can represent the same information, but

they tend to emphasize different aspects about the information. So which one you

choose should depend upon what you want to emphasize.

So which do you choose? Let's consider our current example involving the falling

sales totals. A line graph might be a better choice in this case because the "line" helps

illustrate the progression of time, since we tend to view time as a linear passing. In

addition, the downward sloping line might illustrate the downward sales turn more

dramatically than the rising bars.

In this case, it is a matter of taste and a matter of what you want to emphasize. For

example, if in fact the line graph heavily emphasizes the downward turn of sales

totals, then perhaps the bar graph is preferable because it might not seem so

"negative." If you were giving this presentation in a large auditorium, then the bar

graph might be preferable because it might be easier to read from afar.


Venn Diagrams

People who like pink People who like yellow

People who like both pink and yellow

A Venn diagram is a series of interlocking circles that illustrate group membership by

placing an item in a circle group or overlapping region of two or more circle

groupings. Membership in the interlocking circles also denotes membership in the

larger circles.

For example, the image above is a Venn diagram illustrating color preferences. It

groups together those persons who like pink, those persons who like yellow, and

those persons who like both pink and yellow. The 15 people in the pink circle like

ONLY pink. In addition to those15 persons who ONLY like pink, seven people like pink

and yellow. The 16 people in the yellow group like ONLY yellow. In addition to the 16

people who like ONLY yellow, seven people like yellow and pink. This means that 22

TOTAL people like pink and 23 TOTAL people like yellow.

Venn diagrams are a good way to organize information that is not mutually exclusive

without losing the complexity of the various relationships. This could be useful in a

variety of ways. For example, if you give a survey that allows people to answer the

same question in more than one way, then a Venn diagram could help you interpret

the information and present it in a way that other people can understand. Consider

the following example.

6 15 7


Example #1: Broker X is trying to figure out how to spend his marketing budget, so

he decides to poll his current customers and clients to see what method of marketing

has been most effective in the past. He gives them a survey that asks:

How did you hear about this brokerage?

Internet ☐

Billboard ☐

Radio ☐

When he gets the surveys back, he notices that some people marked multiple

marketing methods. That is, one person heard about the brokerage on the radio and

then saw a billboard, and then came in for brokerage services; another person only

saw the brokerage on the Internet, etc.

This could offer him valuable insight into how to split up his marketing budget if he

is able to properly interpret the data, which is as follows:

Person 1: Internet

Person 2: Internet, billboard

Person 3: Billboard, radio

Person 4: Radio

Person 5: Billboard

Person 6: Billboard

Person 7: Internet

Person 8: Billboard

Person 9: Internet, billboard

Person 10: Internet, billboard, radio

Broker X decides to organize the information in a Venn diagram so that he can easily

interpret it and later present to his colleagues.


Marketing Survey Results

Billboard

3

2 1

1

0

2 1

Internet Radio

This Venn diagram not only offers Broker X a way to illustrate his research findings,

it also illustrates important relationships that would otherwise be hidden or

completely lost. For example, we can see that billboards and the Internet are

probably the most effective marketing tools, but notice too that of the people that

saw the billboard, fewer of them also heard the radio advertisement than noticed

the brokerage on the Internet. Could it be that, for whatever reason, billboard

viewers are also Internet surfers that do not consistently listen to the radio?

Naturally, this is too small of a sampling to tell, but one could see how with real

market research (mainly, a larger sampling) a Venn diagram could bring to light

interesting relationships while outlining more obvious groupings and numbers. This

could prove very helpful when trying to reach a specific "target market."


Spreadsheets

Test Homework Homework Quiz

Student 1 90 100 100 85

Student 2 100 100 100 90

Student 3 75 100 100 80

Student 4 50 0 0 60

A spreadsheet is a form or table comprised of corresponding rows and columns used

to store information. They are commonly used to list large amounts of information

that would be difficult to understand if written out in standard prose or they are used

to organize mathematical information, particularly in accounting. They are extremely

useful, however, in many different fields. For example, the spreadsheet above makes

it easy to see immediately what each student got on each assignment and the rows

and columns make it easy to make necessary calculations, such as grade point

averages.

Rental Vacancy Rates

California 3.7

Alabama 11.8

New Jersey 4.5

D.C. 5.9

Spreadsheets can make almost all data easier to understand. For example, the table

above illustrates how a spreadsheet could have helped us organize the information

from our previous example on rental vacancy rates.


Note

Spreadsheets can accompany most types of graphs as a means

of outlining or summarizing information. It can be much easier

for people to understand a graph if they have the data as well.

Spreadsheets can prove quick and easy reference tools.

Outlines

When you have a lot of information to cover, often a simple outline can help. Outlines

can be as dramatic as multimedia slides that cue the audience as to what topic you

are currently speaking on and where you are going next, or as simple as a typed sheet

detailing your particular points. This can be surprisingly effective, specifically when

dealing with technical data as it allows your audience to view the information directly

and, they can take it with them for later review.

If you have a well-organized outline of your points with your inartistic data on it, then

people will better be able to connect your premises and conclusions. In order to

ensure that people can follow you, however, it's important that your presentation or

correspondence follow the outline and that the outline itself is:

Clear

Concise

Well-organized

Easy to reference


Note:

Outlines can do more than help your audience follow a presentation.

As we'll see in later lessons, composing outlines that have

well-structured points and sub-points is a good way to ensure that

your arguments follow a premise/conclusion relationship.

One way to know that you have a well-structured outline, or that you are at least on

the right track, is to utilize a set outline style. There are many different styles with

small, specific rules, but in general, most of them will involve a series of diminishing

Roman and Arabic numerals and phonetic characters that correspond to increasingly

specific points of a piece. These are helpful for referencing parts of your piece. For

example, if someone has a question about a particular piece of data, then you could

direct them to "Section A, first sub-point," etc.

Consider the following example, which outlines the first part of the paragraph about

rental vacancy rates from our previous example.

1) Whether to build in Alabama or California

a) Rental vacancy rates indicate the availability of rental housing

b) Comparing multiple rates is better than comparing only two

i) Alabama's rental vacancy rate: 11.8

ii) California's rental vacancy rate: 3.7

iii) New Jersey's rental vacancy rate: 4.5

iv) D.C.'s rental vacancy rate: 5.9


Listings Presentations

Listings give agents great opportunities. Listings are working even when you are not.

Your signs bring in buyers. Sellers turn into buyers. Sellers have neighbors and they are

watching. That can bring in more listings. Your relationship with your sellers are longer

term and sometimes more memorable than with buyers.

Good listing agents never take a listing unless they believe in their heart they can sell

this property. Do a good market analysis for the seller. Take into consideration not only

what has recently sold but what is for sale right now. Watch the competition because the

prospective purchasers are watching it. Be prepared to help the seller understand what

the purchasers are seeing.

When you are prospecting and talking with for sale by owners, owners of expired listing,

etc., your primary goal is to get an appointment to see the property, visit with the seller

to learn his or her motivation, and pursue the listing if you find you have a motivated

seller. Don’t be afraid to turn down a listing if you see the seller is not really motivated

and is going to be unreasonable regarding the price. Listings are expensive investments

in time and money for agents. Take listings you believe will sell. Remember the phrase

“I’d rather turn you down now than let you down later.”

Be prepared with all the documents you might need when you go on a listing

appointment. In addition to brochures about you or your company, include a listing

agreement, the seller’s disclosure form, a lead based paint disclosure addendum, and

any other forms commonly needed in your area.

The Listing Appointment

The first step always is to establish rapport with the seller. Getting down to business too

quickly can be a turn off for the seller. Find some common ground, maybe a hobby or a

pet.


Also, during the listing appointment, remember to:

Allow the sellers to show you their property. Take notes. Ask them what they will

miss most. What they tell you may become a great point when advertising the

property.

Tell the seller about YOU and your company. A listing presentation book or Power

Point presentation can be valuable to establish a logical system to guide you

through the process.

Educate the seller about your CMA and why it is so important to list at the proper

price. Explain how their hottest market will be right after their home goes on the

market.

Counsel with the seller about repairs. Discuss “repaired value” vs “as is” value.

Remember: sellers need permits to do any remodeling.

Estimate the seller’s net under a potential offer.

Counsel the seller about completing the seller disclosure of material facts about

the property. Be sure the seller understands that disclosing everything now

protects him or her from future law suits;

Ask for the listing.

Review the Listing Agreement with the seller. Assume the seller will sign the

agreement when you finish.

Review your company’s agency practice.

Get copies of the seller original documents if possible such as deed, title policy,

survey, etc.

Every state has laws as to how the agent does or does not represent the buyer and the

seller in the transaction. Be sure you are well aware of your state laws regarding

representation. Once you know what you can do legally, be sure all parties in the

transaction completely understand whom you are representing. Then be extremely

cautious to never do or say anything that would harm the client you are representing.

Be sure sellers understand how important it is that they disclose everything about the

property on the Seller’s Disclosure form. This is their chance to avoid future law suits.


Lesson Summary

This lesson examined how to properly use inartistic information. In particular, it

addressed the use of data and statistics and how to ensure that your inartistic

information is relevant and concise.

Initially, it addressed how to differentiate between relevant data and extraneous

data. It then discussed ways to present your relevant data to help ensure that your

audience will understand it.

It is important that people understand how you have arrived at a specific conclusion.

As we discussed in the previous lesson, it is best to start with your inartistic

information, or your premise, and move on from there. In the business world your

inartistic data will often include marketing research, sales percentages, highest and

best use analysis, average sale prices, and supply and demand relationships. These

types of information are often represented using statistics, specifically ratios, and

percentages. These ratios and percentages can serve as valuable inartistic

information, but it is important that they are used appropriately.

Too many statistics in any one piece or session can quickly make your evidence seem

arbitrary or confusing. If there are lots of percentages in your piece, then no one

percentage will carry the same impact that it would otherwise. In addition, people

often begin tuning out long lists of statistical data because it can seem

unmanageable, particularly during conversations and oral presentations. You can

only effectively use poignant data. Consequently, the first step towards clarification

involves cutting out any inartistic information that we do not directly need.

In order to tell if your inartistic information is relevant, try to separate out the artistic

information in your piece from the inartistic information. Within the artistic

information should be the point of your presentation or the argument that you are

trying to make. Unless the inartistic data relates directly to the artistic data, cut it.


Test for specificity. Do your statistics include information about houses, rates or

figures outside the scope of your presentation?

Once you are confident that the inartistic information you have is relevant, start

considering the best way to present it. Multimedia, graphs, charts, and diagrams, as

well as outlines can all help. Multimedia refers to computer-assisted or generated

colors, images, animations, and sounds that are meant to engage an audience. This

course is an example of multimedia. Multimedia allows for audience participation

and application, which can help keep attention and retention levels high.

There are many graphs, charts and diagrams that could assist you in presenting

inartistic information. For example, pie charts are useful for illustrating percentages

and other types of data that illustrate the make-up of a particular "whole;" bar graphs

can be used to compare several, related data sets of any kind at the same time; line

graphs illustrate data in reference to the passage of time, can comment on data

accuracy, and are often used to graph mathematical functions; Venn diagrams can

illustrate and bring to light complex relationships between different, but not mutually

exclusive, groupings; and spreadsheets work well for documenting large amounts of

information that would be difficult to understand if written out in standard prose. To

choose between these different graphs and charts, ask yourself the following two

questions: What am I trying to illustrate with this chart? Does the nature of the data

lend itself to a particular graph or chart over another?

When you have a lot of information to cover, often a simple outline can help. For an

outline to be effective it needs to be clear, concise, well-organized and easy to

reference. There are many books that contain standards for outlines. Using one of

these can help you ensure that you have a successful outline that people can easily

follow. The trick then is to follow your outline. Do not skip around.


Lesson 3: The Ethos of an Effective Communicator

Lesson Topics


Introduction

Professional Form, Diction and Tone

Business Etiquette

Cultural and Gender Sensitivity




Present himself or herself as a respectable professional whom people will

trust.

Effectively utilize form, diction, and tone in molding a professional image.

Incorporate effective techniques into a business etiquette that is appropriate

and effective.

Demonstrate sensitivity to cultural differences when communicating.

Apply more professional approach to achieve better results when negotiating.

Introduction

The first lesson of this course introduced you to the basics of rhetoric and

composition. It pointed out that successful prose moves from premise to conclusion

and then stated that premises are inartistic and conclusions are artistic in that

premises are "found" whereas conclusions are "invented." Because inartistic

information is found, we decided that it is rigid in form, and thus persuasion only

comes into play when presenting artistic information. We identified three

approaches to presenting artistic information: ethos, pathos, and logos.

Ethos, we said, refers to utilizing authority and moral character to persuade, or


ethical character; logos, we concluded, refers to presenting logic to persuade, or

appealing to an audience by focusing on the logical progression of a communicator's

thoughts; and we decided that pathos refers to engaging emotions to persuade, or

appealing to an audience by pushing their "emotional buttons." The ability to see the

best means of persuasion available in a particular situation and effectively utilizing

those means is referred to as rhetoric.

Properly connecting appropriate inartistic information with persuasive artistic

information is the foundation of effective communication. Consequently, Lesson 2


illustrated how to differentiate appropriate inartistic information from inappropriate

inartistic information, as well as how to present your inartistic information in an

effective and engaging way. Having established the meaning of artistic information,

the approaches to persuading people to believe artistic information and the role of

inartistic information, this module will now focus exclusively on business rhetoric, or

persuasion in the business world and in real estate transactions. This lesson will

address ethos, Lesson 4 will address pathos and Lesson 5 will address logos.

If you are talking with someone whom you know respects your person and opinion

and you draw on that in your correspondence, then you are using ethos. It's no

wonder that people prefer to listen to and subsequently believe individuals that they

view as professional equals. It is reasonable to be affected by a person's credentials,

background, and perceived ethical character. When used sparingly and in

conjunction with other means of persuasion, ethos is effective and appropriate. To

use ethos, however, you must have a professional, ethical image. Obtaining that

image can be easy.

Different environments carry different expectations. In a given setting there is a

proper way for you to act, there is an appropriate language that you should use, and

there are sensitivity issues of which you should be aware. This lesson will address

each one of these in relation to the business world to help you develop a professional

image. Upon completion of this lesson you will know how to present yourself in a

way that will keep ethos as a means of persuasion open to you in all your professional

interactions.

Professional Form, Diction and Tone

Utilizing effective diction, following the correct format, and developing an

appropriate tone can help you establish an image that you can later use to persuade

people. Most sessions and correspondence will have a format that they should

follow. This is true of negotiation sessions, informal "brainstorming" sessions,


business meetings, business letters, and interviews. It's important that in any given

situation you follow the correct format accurately — even if it is a slightly looser

format, such is the case with "brainstorming" sessions. To understand this better,

consider the following example.

Example #1: You receive a cover letter for a resume that consists (in its entirety) of

one paragraph. It is addressed to no one and the applicant has forgotten to sign it.

Would you take the applicant or his or her resume seriously?

When corresponding in a professional environment, it is important that you come

across as a respectable professional. To do this, you must pay close attention to:

Form

Diction

Tone

Form

Certain types of communications must contain information that follows a specific

format. Sometimes there are many set forms for a specific type of communication

and you should try to pick the most appropriate one. For example, the student might

recall that during our discussion of outlines we noted that different sources will tell

you to use different characters and different length indentions. The same applies to

many types of correspondence, including business letters, meetings, and

presentations. The important thing is to pick a format and stick to it consistently

throughout your correspondence, whatever that correspondence might be.

There is not always a set standard that you should use in every situation, but it would

probably be fair to say that in most cases there is a standard and you should seek it

out. Before assuming that there is no form, always make sure you look. If for some

reason you choose to deviate from a specific form, then there should be a definite

and specific reason for that deviation that your audience will quickly recognize.


Diction

Diction refers to word choice, especially when commenting on the appropriateness

of word choice. Diction establishes "tone," which we will be discussing in the next

section.

There is an appropriate professional diction that you should try to use in your various

correspondences. Sometimes proper diction is obvious, for example, cussing and

slang are, of course, inappropriate in the office. But proper diction is much more

complex than avoiding profanity and childish jokes. Consider the following

suggestions:

Consciously use contractions

Choose words with a positive connotation

Avoid excessive modifiers and "buzz words"

Speak to your specific audience

Going forward, try to notice how they are related. For example, how would

differentiating your audience and then speaking directly to them influence the use

of contractions?

Consciously Use Contractions

Contractions instantly make a correspondence less formal. This means that they

have a very specific use in the business world and should be used with care.

For example, certain formalities are probably unnecessary when speaking on the

phone or through e-mail with other associates at your level—especially if they are

your usual lunch crowd. Consequently, contractions are probably fine. This is also

true if you are trying to make information more "accessible" to a particular audience.

For example, if a rocket scientist is trying to explain to us the nature of parabolic

projectiles, then limiting the jargon and formality to a reasonable level will help him

or her and his or her information seem more accessible and less pretentious.


On the other hand, if a correspondence is meant to establish a relationship or

establish your level of expertise, then contractions should probably be avoided. In

general, they should not be used in standard business letters, resumes, employment

contracts, manuals or formal presentations in which you are addressing an audience.

Choose Words with a Positive Connotation

Connotation refers to the unsaid implications of a specific term or phrase that arises

because of a term or phrase's usage. It is different than denotation, which refers to

the literal definition of a word that you find in a dictionary or other language

authority. Sometimes, connotation can be more important than denotation because

words carry certain implications, and if you choose a word with a bad connotation,

then the literal meaning of the word might not matter to your audience, especially if

the term offends them. Look at your language: Could it be "taken the wrong way?"

Connotation is also important in the business world because sometimes you must

convey a message that another party will not want to hear. Remember: Even bad

news must be effectively communicated if it is to be understood, and you cannot

effectively communicate with angry people.

For example, if you have to fire someone, there's no sense in telling the person to

"clear your desk by noon and get out!" when you could simply say "the current

situation is not working out, so we have to let you go. Please have you things together

before this afternoon." "Have your things together by this afternoon" and " clear your

desk by noon" both tell the person the timeframe he or she has to literally exit the

building, but one carries an inappropriate connotation (and is just rude), and the

other does not. Rude is never professional. It's difficult to respect people that are

rude to others, even if they are nice to you.

Avoid Excessive Modifiers and "Buzz Words"


As the student probably knows, modifiers are terms that specify the meaning of other

terms, they include:

Adjectives

Adverbs

Compound, hyphenated adjectives, and adverbs

An adjective specifies the meaning of a noun (a person, place or thing), while adverbs

specify the meaning of verbs (words that denote action). Consider the following

example:

The quick cat runs quickly.

Quick, which is highlighted in yellow, is an adjective modifying the noun "cat." Quickly,

which is highlighted in red, is an adverb modifying the conjugated verb "runs" (from

the infinitive, or un-conjugated verb "to run”).

Quick Tip: Being able to identify different parts of speech can

help you compose strong, concise sentences that are easy to

understand. Some parts of speech can be difficult to recognize,

but looking for adverbs in sentences is particularly easy! Consider

this: While there are exceptions, most adverbs end in "ly." So if you

see an "ly" ending, then look to the left or right of it for a verb.


Buzz words are fashionable, industry-specific terms. There are many business-

related buzz words with which you are probably familiar, many of which begin with

"e" (e-solutions, e-trading, etc.). They also include terms such as:

Company-wide

Pro-active

Interfacing

Lexicon

Solutions

Neither buzz words nor modifiers are inherently bad. They have appropriate and

important uses. For example, they can help specify meaning, which helps limit

misunderstandings, they can be effective marketing tools, and they can illustrate that

you are up on current industry trends. However, when used in excess buzz words

and modifiers tend to make a presentation or passage awkward and confusing.

If you have so many modifiers or buzz words that the "meat" of the sentence (the

nouns and verbs) is lost, or if properly hyphenating the compound modifiers is

difficult because you cannot tell what is modifying what, then you need to cut some

of the excess. Buzz words and modifiers are like statistics in that they have an

important place, but when overused they make a passage difficult to follow and can

confuse an otherwise valid—and possibly simple—point.

Here are a few tips for properly using modifiers and buzz words:

Ensure that your audience will know the meaning of the terms. Fashionable

industry terms may be lost on people that do not specifically work in your

sector of a particular industry.

Properly hyphenate any strings of modifiers or buzz terms to clarify what term

is modifying what.

Do not modify any one verb or noun with more than two or three adjectives or

adverbs and, in general, use only one if you must use them at all. (There is often little


room for modifiers in professional correspondence—especially written

correspondence.)

Modifiers and buzz words should not carry the freight of your sentence.

Note: Properly hyphenating modifiers is one of the most effective ways to ensure

that buzz words and modifiers are easy to understand, but the rules can be quite

complicated. For hyphenation rules, consult a language usage guide or manual, such

as The Modern Language Association Handbook or The Associate Press Stylebook.

Speak to Your Specific Audience

Successful communication has a targeted audience. Before preparing for a meeting

or presentation or before composing a specific correspondence, you should try to

identify specifically for whom you are writing. In some cases, doing this is easier than

in others—for example, letters are often for only one person, and targeting one

person can be easier than targeting an audience. Speaking to your audience is more

than simple identification, however. It involves identifying your audience and then

choosing appropriate language for that group.

If you are trying to explain the nature of offers and counteroffers, your choice of

language will depend upon whom you are addressing. For example, if your 15-year-

old niece asks you how you negotiate for lower prices on housing you will probably

use a different vocabulary and familiarity level then you would use if a client asked

you the same question.

Tone

Tone refers to the implied attitude of a communicator inferred from a

communicator's diction and style. Attitude has a big impact on how people perceive

you and your "character," so it plays a big role when trying to use ethos as a means


of persuasion. When approaching tone, ask yourself: "What kinds of things would I

like my audience to infer about me?" "What kinds of inferences would keep ethos as

a means of persuasion open to me?"

In the business world and in real estate-related negotiations and correspondence,

you always want to establish a positive tone. This is why it is so important that you

pay attention to the connotation of words, format, clarity and your level of familiarity.

If you want to keep ethos as a means of persuasion open to you, then you want

people to read your correspondence or listen to you speak and infer that you are:

Professional

Ethical

Patient

Reasonable

Innovative

A positive tone is important for other reasons too. For example, you cannot

effectively communicate with a person who feels on the defensive—such an

individual's ability to reason is too clouded with fear and anger.

This is problematic because if a person cannot think clearly, then he or she will not

be able to assist you in reaching a mutually beneficial agreement.

Always give people the benefit of the doubt. Negotiation sessions are simply

discussions about concessions and goals with another party so that both parties can

reach their desired ends, which must be complementary for negotiations to occur in

the first place. For example, ultimately, sellers want to sell their houses and buyers

want to buy seller's houses. It is true that negotiations and concessions on certain

issues, such as sale price, the payment of fees, the payment of discount points, etc.,

must be made, but ultimately when a real estate transaction closes, both parties have


won: the seller sold his or her house and the buyer bought the house that he or she

wanted.

For these reasons, look at your diction closely:

Is the tone too familiar? Over familiarity is a big mistake. Not only does it make you

look less professional, but an overly familiar tone might make your audience feel like

you do not view them as professionals. This could quickly place them on the

defensive and limit their ability to think critically and creatively.

Is it vague? If your prose is vague, then you are leaving it up to your audience to make

sense of it. This means that your entire message could ride on your audience's ability

to properly interpret your tone. Perhaps even more problematic, however, is that if

your diction is vague, then your tone probably is too. In addition to communicating

little, if any, of your message, this could also make people think you are ill-prepared

or indifferent or that you do not take the matter at hand seriously.

Is the tone just rude? A rude tone will meet with short, rude responses and little else.

Business Etiquette

Etiquette refers to the appropriate behavior in a given situation or environment

established by an authority or tradition. Some etiquette is established strictly by

rankings and stated rules of conduct, but much of the etiquette we adhere to on a

daily basis is more loosely defined by historical and cultural practices and traditions.

This is true of business etiquette.

Over the years, the proper way for a real estate licensee to act developed, and it

continues to evolve to this day. Failing to act in this "correct" matter will make you

seem unprofessional and ill-informed. As we previously saw in this lesson, diction,

tone, and form helps you establish the image that you want to convey—mainly, one

of professionalism. But, linguistic techniques cannot entirely establish the "ethical


and professional character" necessary for effective ethos. Your behavior must speak

for itself as well.

To come across as authoritative and ethical, you must understand the differences

between:

Appropriate and inappropriate attire

Appropriate and inappropriate phone conduct

Appropriate and inappropriate conduct regarding written correspondence

If you are dressed inappropriately, or if you do not know how to conduct yourself

over the phone, over e-mail or over Internet messenger programs, then it will be

difficult to persuade those around you.

Appropriate Attire

Business attire should be worn at all times. As the student probably knows, this

means, nothing:

Too revealing

Too casual

Too dressy

In general, business attire means dress pants and long-sleeved shirts—possibly with

a coat and/or tie—for men, and dress pants or knee-length or longer skirts and

blouses for women. Dress pants should not be made of denim, although other types

of cotton or cotton blends are acceptable and common. Short-sleeved dress shirts

and dresses can be appropriate for informal or particularly hot days (especially if you

are going to be outside in the field); however, men should not wear ties with short-

sleeved shirts.

Quick Tip: Remember that above all, you should just appear well-groomed. Keep your

clothes pressed and dry cleaned; keep your hair and nails trimmed and clean; and

always wear reasonable amounts of make-up and hair products.


Carefully select and use scented products, such as deodorants, aftershaves,

perfumes, and lotions. Strong scents give some people headaches.

These general standards leave a lot of room for self-expression and personalization,

and different business attire can help you send different messages to your clients

and co-workers. For example, certain colors and accessories can help you seem

more:

Open, fun or innovative

Traditional, reserved or authoritative

Efficient

This does not mean that one style of dress will make people think that you are an

innovative speaker while another will make you seem less innovative but more

efficient. These groups are not mutually exclusive, and people's responses to certain

attire are always going to be influenced by their own preferences.

Here we simply mean to suggest associations that people commonly make in relation

to color, fabrics, and accessories and ways that, in general, you can use this to your

advantage when trying to create an "image" to which people will respond.

For example, while taste and preference constitute huge variables, most people

would probably agree that you should not wear old tennis shoes and shorts when

giving a presentation to the CEO of your company and that certain colors "stand out"

more than others. We are NOT advocating that we judge people based on the quality

or brand name of their clothing.

Appearing Open, Innovative, and Fun

Brighter colors tend to make you seem more edgy and innovative than muted colors.

While florescent or neon colors should certainly be avoided, colored shirts in general

are becoming much more accepted and can help you:

Get attention easier

Stand-out


Seem more approachable

Appear friendly and open

Whether brighter colors or muted, more traditional colors are better probably

depends upon the nature of your clientele, your corporate atmosphere, and your

job. If you are a salesperson for a brokerage that serves a young college-aged crowd,

then bright colors might be a good choice. If you are a new boss for a relatively small

or young start-up company, then bright colors are probably a good idea because they

can help you seem approachable, innovative, and considerate of new ideas. In

general, if you are trying to "sell" an image of a person that "thinks outside the box,"

then a traditional black pants suit is probably not the best outfit.

Appearing Traditional, Reserved or Authoritative

While brighter colors have their place, muted colors and traditional suits do as well,

and, when in doubt, should probably serve as your default wardrobe. If you are

unclear as to the nature of a certain business, what the level of formality is in a

business' corporate atmosphere or whether they favor tradition over innovation,

then you should probably cater to a more traditional ideal of professionalism.

This could hold especially true when you are first meeting clients or going to a job

interview because while brighter colors tend to imply your love of individuality and

"standing out," traditional attire does not necessitate a lack of innovation.

Muted colors, traditional fabrics, and classic cuts do tend to establish you as a source

of:

Structure

Tradition

Dependability

Authority


As with bright colors, the use of muted colors and traditional fabrics will depend upon

the nature of your clientele, your corporate atmosphere, and your job. If you want to

appear traditional and authoritative, then "sea foam green," "apple red," "margarita"

or "plum" might not be the best choices. For example, while it's probably true that a

younger crowd will not respond well to an older person in a stiff, three-piece black

and gray suit, it's probably also true that the financial adviser for the world's largest

bank should avoid clothing in colors named after fruits, flavors, and beverages if he

or she wants to appear authoritative and efficient.

Appearing Efficient

Simple attire can be a great bet! If you're not sure what to wear, then traditional, but

also simple, attire with few accessories can help ensure that you won't be improperly

dressed. Moreover, sharply pressed clothing with few accents can help you seem:

Efficient

Reliable

Reasonable

Some people don’t respond well to color or don't like particular colors. For example,

showing up yellow isn't inherently wrong, but if you do not know who will be

interviewing you and, consequently, how that person might feel about yellow or any

other color, then simple dress with few colors can at least ensure that you won't be

an eye sore. It might be better to wait to be creative until you "get the feel" for a

particular person or audience.

Appropriate Phone Conduct

The telephone plays a big role in most real estate brokerages, so it is important that

you understand phone etiquette so that you do not unwittingly send someone the

wrong message. There are certain, accepted ways to answer the phone, make

outgoing calls, and end a phone call.


Answering the Phone and Making Outgoing Calls

The way you greet incoming callers or persons who answer outgoing calls says

something about you and your entire company. In the case of cold calling, the first,

initial greeting might make the difference between obtaining a new customer or

client and the recipient simply hanging up. When greeting people on the phone you

should always follow these steps:

1. Say hello and "good morning," "good day" or "good evening" (respectively).

2. Identify yourself and the company for which you work.

3. Either ask "how can I help you" (for an incoming caller) or state why you have

called (for an outgoing call).

Note: Automated answering services and machines should follow a similar polite and

informative structure. Your answering machine should state who you are, who you

work for, any alternative ways to reach you and that all messages will receive prompt

replies.

Similarly, when you leave a message, you should state your name; the name of the

company for which you work; your phone number; and a brief message describing

why you called. Make sure that you say your number slowly so people can

understand you.

Real estate brokerages should establish a scripted greeting that all employees use.

This will help ensure that all callers receive the same information and that all callers

receive fair and equitable treatment. This important for two reasons:

Real estate brokerages fall under fair housing legislation, so brokerages should make

sure that all salespersons and brokers treat all callers the same, regardless of any

accents they might think they hear. This will help ensure that a brokerage adheres to

the law, while helping to limit unethical and unjust discrimination.


When placed "on the spot" or when dealing with an unusual caller or a caller with

immediate questions, some people might leave out important information about the

brokerage. You want to be sure that all callers receive as much information about

your brokerage as possible.

Ending a Phone Call

Sometimes phone calls can drag on and in the high-paced real estate industry this

can be complicated. Nevertheless, you do not want someone with whom you are

negotiating to think that you are trying to "get rid" of him or her.

To help prevent phone calls from lasting longer than they need to, try to guide your

callers into telling you the necessary information that you need straight away.

Specifically, ask them:

How you can help—this will establish a goal

The timeframe with which you are faced—this will establish a deadline

In addition, try to avoid open-ended questions and end excessive small talk by re-

asking them how you can help them in a different way. For example, consider "What

can I do for you today?" "Has the status of XYZ changed since the last time we talked?"

If a caller persists and you cannot get a conversation to conclude, then you may need

to use a "canned ending." A canned ending is planned phrase that you can use in

certain situations to stop an excessively long conversation. You should come up with

several so that you do not unintentionally tell someone the same thing every time

the two of you speak. You might consider:

"Well, that sounds good. I'm going to look over my notes and see what I can come up

with and I'll give you a call back on Friday, if that's convenient."

"Let me talk with our manager about the issues that you have brought up, and one

of us will get back to you by tomorrow afternoon."


Sometimes irate callers will call without a belief that you can really correct whatever

wrong they feel might have occurred or they might be so angry at the given time that

they cannot explain to you what they want done. In this case, depending upon your

position in the company, you should either refer them to a manager or a more

appropriate department, or simply tell them:

"I'm sorry, but I do not think that we are going to be able to resolve this issue at the

present time. Could you reconsider what you feel could be done to right the problem,

and then give me a call back?" <caller response> "Thank you, and have a good day."

Appropriate Uses of Written Correspondence

The real estate industry will require you to communicate through the printed text.

This might include communications via e-mail, Internet messaging programs, and

traditional post. Internet messaging services can be particularly tricky because they

are written exchanges that occur in real time. When utilizing Internet messaging

services, just remember:

Type patiently to avoid excessive errors.

Look at what you have typed before sending it, but do not dwell on it so much

that you hold up the conversation.

Allow the other person to respond to one question or comment before giving

another—even if he or she types slowly.

Most programs will tell you whether a person is typing a response or waiting

idly. Try to obtain one of these programs to help limit dead time.

In general, the same standards are not placed on Internet messaging

correspondence as are placed on other types of written communication. Most people


will not reread a messaging conversation, and if they do they will likely be forgiving

of any small mistakes, so do not shy away from it as a means of communication

simply because of the difficulties it may pose. In fact, messaging programs can be

particularly useful in relocation negotiations or other long distance transactions that

could make phone calls expensive.

Other types of written text, particularly e-mails and traditional postal letters, must be

perfect because unlike spoken prose (and messaging conversations) they can be

reexamined and usually are. So before sending a correspondence, make sure that it

is:

Necessary, poignant, and brief. Most professional letters should only be one

page.

Correct regarding spelling and grammar. You cannot come across as

authoritative and professional with frequent misspellings and improper

punctuation.

Signed by an actual individual with that individual's contact information listed.

Cultural and Gender Sensitivity

The workforce is becoming increasing diverse and, consequently, businesses are

starting to benefit from the talents, input, and innovation of persons that were

previously excluded. In addition, businesses are enjoying:

An increase in the amount of different points of view they receive, which fosters an

increase in the receipt of new ideas and new ways to approach old problems.

A workforce representative of the populations that they service.

A larger pool of talents, education and backgrounds.

People who do have a harder time seeing the relatively apparent benefits of diversity

should at least keep in mind that discrimination on the basis of irrelevant, personal


characteristics unrelated to someone's education, talents or business sense is

unethical and illegal and often a violation of both state and federal law.

Quick Tip:

This is especially true for the real estate industry. While equal employment laws and

antidiscrimination legislation apply to most, if not all, positions, the real estate

industry has the federal Fair Housing Act to consider. This act prevents discrimination

on the basis of gender, race, national origin, disability, color, religion, and familial

status in the hiring and treatment of brokers and salespersons, as well as in the

availability of housing and brokerage services on behalf of consumers.

Many local jurisdictions will pass their own employment and fair housing laws. For

example, sexual orientation, sexual identity, and age are some additions that local

jurisdictions have made to the list of state and federally protected classes.

Antidiscrimination legislation changes, so you should identify the various

jurisdictions (state and local) that apply to you and read their publications regularly.

Discrimination and Character Perception

So what does all of this have to do with ethos as a means of persuasion? While some

ethos issues depend upon personal preference (like whether it is in fact a bad idea

or a good idea to wear a tie with a short-sleeved shirt) and situation (like whether

deviating from the standard form of a business letter is a good idea or a bad idea in

a specific case), this ethos issue is rather simple:

There is no room for racism, sexism, sexual harassment or any other kind of abuse

or discrimination in a work place that wants to appear professional and efficient.

It is impossible to appear ethical, professional or innovative if you unreasonably or

unjustly discriminate against the persons with whom you work or the persons you

assist with real estate brokerage services.


Finding ways to illustrate your dedication to equality is a great way to help others

perceive you as a moral and ethical person because it indicates your dedication to

positive and just causes.

The image above is the fair housing logo. In addition to displaying posters with the

fair housing logo in a conspicuous place in your brokerage, as required by law, it's

also a good idea to place the logo on advertisements and business cards to indicate

a brokerage's or particular licensee's dedication to equality. You can download

differently sized fair housing logos from the Department of Housing and Urban

Development's Web site for free at the address listed below.

Equal Housing Opportunity Graphics for Printing

http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/library/bookshelf11/hudgraphics/fheolo

go

There are ways that your company can illustrate its dedication to equality in its daily

operations, and we will now examine some of these ways.

While a failure to heed some of this advice would actually prove a violation of state

and federal (and possibly local) law, others are just suggestions for ensuring that you

help your office project the best image it can.

http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/library/bookshelf11/hudgraphics/fheologo

http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/library/bookshelf11/hudgraphics/fheologo


Make sure that your advertisements are diverse. Do not have photographs of just

one sex, one type of household or one racial group. Try to compose advertisements

and postings that contain people of different genders, familial groupings, races,

colors, etc.

Do not give directions to open houses or showings or provide any location references

in relation to landmarks that could illustrate a preference for a particular class. For

example, "Turn left on Second Street" is okay. "Turn left at the Synagogue" is not

okay.

Do not have magazines, calendars or photographs that could visually insult the

sensibilities of coworkers, clients or customers.

For example, magazines or photographs that contain scantily clad women or women

in compromising situations are inappropriate in the workplace.

Outline a harassment policy in your company manual or handbook that encourages

anyone who feels that he or she has been harassed or discriminated against for any

reason to notify Human Resources or management so that the problem can be

considered and appropriately handled.

Reach out to your surrounding community and find ways to better meet their needs.

There are lots of community programs that promote equality, community safety, and

education that could sincerely use your company's assistance.

Not only is this a great way for your company to appear active and concerned about

its clientele, but assisting in community projects can be a great way to bring your

associates together and encourage teamwork.

Lesson Summary

Ethos, we said, refers to utilizing authority and moral character to persuade, or



ethical character. In general, it is reasonable to be affected by a person's credentials,

background, and perceived ethical character, and when used sparingly and in

conjunction with other means, ethos is an effective means of persuasion. This lesson

examined ways that you can keep ethos as a means of persuasion open to you. We

looked at diction, tone, and form; business etiquette; and the importance of cultural

and gender sensitivity.

Form, diction, and tone relate to the linguistic ethos of your communications. For

most standard, business-related correspondence there is a set form that you should

follow. If a person receives a correspondence from you that is not in the proper form,

then they might think that you don't know what the proper form is or that you didn't

take the time to look it up.

It is probably fair to say that in most cases there is a standard and that you should

seek it out. Before assuming that there is no form, always make sure you look. If for

some reason you choose to deviate from a specific form, then there should be a

definite and specific reason that your audience will quickly recognize.

Diction refers to word choice, especially when commenting on the appropriateness

of word choice. You want to choose language representative of your educational and

professional background. This means that you should consciously use contractions;

choose words with a positive connotation; avoid excessive modifiers and "buzz

words;" and speak to your specific audience.

Tone refers to the implied attitude of a communicator inferred from a

communicator's diction and style. Attitude has a big impact on how people perceive

you and your "character," so it plays a big role when trying to use ethos as a means

of persuasion. In the business world and in real estate negotiations and

correspondence, you always want to establish a positive tone.


Etiquette refers to the appropriate behavior in a given situation or environment

established by an authority or tradition. To come across as authoritative and ethical,

you must understand the differences between appropriate and inappropriate attire;

appropriate and inappropriate phone conduct; and appropriate and inappropriate

conduct regarding written correspondence for any given situation; in our case it is

real estate negotiations.

Regarding wardrobe you should, above all, appear well-groomed. Keep your clothes

pressed and dry cleaned; keep your hair and nails trimmed and clean; and always

wear reasonable amounts of make-up and hair products. Carefully select and use

scented products, such as deodorants, aftershaves, perfumes, and lotions. Strong

scents give some people a headache. In addition, some people don’t respond well to

color or don't like particular colors.

When in doubt, remember that simple dress with traditional colors will at least

ensure that you won't be an eye sore.

The way you greet incoming callers or persons who answer outgoing calls says

something about you and your entire company. In the case of cold calling, the first,

initial greeting might make the difference between obtaining a new customer or

client or not.

When greeting people on the phone you should always follow these steps: 1. Say

hello and "good morning," "good day" or "good evening" (respectively); 2. Identify

yourself and the company for which you work; and 3. Either ask "how can I help you"

(for an incoming caller) or state why you have called (for an outgoing call). Traditional

post letters and e-mails should be thoroughly checked to be sure that they are:

Necessary, poignant and brief (most professional letters should only be one page);

correct regarding spelling and grammar, because you cannot come across as

authoritative and professional with frequent misspellings and improper punctuation;

and signed by an individual with that individual's contact information listed.


While some ethos issues depend upon personal preference and situation, ethos

issues regarding harassment and discrimination are rather simple. First, there is no

room for racism, sexism, sexual harassment or any other kind of abuse or

discrimination in a workplace that wants to appear professional and efficient. Third,

it is impossible to appear ethical, professional or innovative if you unreasonably or

unjustly discriminate against the persons with whom you work or the persons you

assist with real estate brokerage services. Last, finding ways to illustrate your

dedication to equality is a great way to help others perceive you as a moral and

ethical person because it indicates your dedication to a positive and just cause.


Lesson 4: The Pathos of an Effective Communicator

Lesson Topics


Introduction

The Importance of a Sympathetic Audience

Producing Emotions

Managing Emotions




Produce and manage emotions in a negotiation session.

Identify the common persuasive tools that other people may attempt to utilize.

Create a sympathetic audience.

Use color to make an audience more sympathetic.

Apply language to make an audience more sympathetic.

Introduction

Pathos refers to engaging emotions to persuade or appealing to an audience by

pushing their "emotional buttons." Pathos could seek to make people feel happy,

sad, angry or guilty, depending upon the situation.

While pathos can prove quite successful with simple information, as is the case with

many pathos-based advertisements, it can be difficult when it comes to more

complex information. Utilizing pathos as a means of persuasion in the business

world should be done carefully.

This lesson will examine how to properly use pathos. First, we will discuss the

importance of establishing a sympathetic audience. We will then address two ways

that you can help keep pathos open to you by this establishment of a sympathetic

audience. The first way is by producing persuasive emotions. The second is by

managing problematic ones.


The Importance of a Sympathetic Audience

It's important that you are able to create a sympathetic audience because a

sympathetic audience is:

More likely to listen to you

More likely to believe you

Will prove easier to address

Will seem less intimidating

One way that you can create a sympathetic audience is by helping them feel a certain

way. If you can help an audience associate good feelings with your ideas and

positions, then you will have an easier time persuading them because they will feel

more at ease and they will more readily identify with you. To do this, however, you

must identify what particular emotion in the given situation could prove helpful and

then you must perfect generating that emotion in the greater portion of your given

audience.

In addition to producing certain emotions, you must be able to manage them as well.

If an audience is too taken with particular types of emotion, it can complicate the

people's ability to think critically and creatively. Consequently, good communicators

can manage difficult emotions as well as they can produce persuasive ones.

Producing Emotions

To a certain degree, all people respond differently to different stimulus, which can

make establishing a sympathetic audience difficult. For example, as the student

might recall from our discussion about clothing, you never fully know how a

particular garment or color is going to affect a particular person. However, studies

have been conducted on people's general responses to certain colors, and examining

common usage can tell you something about the emotional effects of particular

words.


Consequently, it is possible to create a specific emotion or feeling in most people,

provided you spend time carefully choosing your language and images.

We will outline how you can use color and language to produce certain emotions in

your specified audience. Keep in mind that these are general rules, and, as you will

notice, the implications of all of the terms and colors will depend upon the situation

and use.

Utilizing Color

We will outline the different emotional associations that most people have with

particular colors. This information could be especially useful when:

Choosing or designing stationary

Selecting business cards

Compiling a multimedia presentation

Building a Web site

Choosing clothing color

Decorating an office or conference room

Red

Many people associate red with revenge, aggression, impulsiveness, violence

licentiousness, power, creativity, and innovation. In addition, it is one of the most

common colors used in restaurant décor because it has been shown to induce

physical hunger.

The shade of red and its location matters. For example, blanketing a room in red with

red light shades and long, ornate, red drapery will probably NOT produce the kind of

environment that is conducive to real estate negotiations. However, the use of a

maroon couch or a small, muted red logo on your business card could be quite

pleasant and will likely produce the more positive associations we have with the color

red.


As with most colors, a slightly muted or softer red will have fewer of the more

dramatic (and probably negative) associations. For example, a very red room might

make your clients' thoughts move from your presentation to lunch, but a maroon or

a light shade of red is probably less likely to do so. So how can you apply this

information directly? Well, if you want to liven up a conference room with a red,

wooden table, then maybe you could consider red stain instead of paint. This could

help you realize the inspirational benefits of red, minus the hunger.

Blue

Most people's favorite color is blue, and it is the easiest color on the eyes.

Consequently, it has many appropriate uses and many shades and tones of blue are

appropriate in many instances. Blue is commonly associated with patience,

compassion, softness, tranquility, and relaxation. If it is used excessively, however,

or in the wrong ways, it could result in feelings of depression and sorrow.

Yellow

Yellow poses an interesting challenge because it is commonly associated with many

positive emotions and thoughts, such as: intelligence, memory, joy, happiness, and

rejuvenation, but it is also the most difficult color on the eyes and people can have a

hard time resolving yellow text and shapes. This is especially true if your yellow

figures appear on a bright background or without an outline. Improperly used yellow

will produce negative associations, such as frustration, sarcasm, cynicism or doubt.

When this happens, it is usually because an inappropriate shade is being used and

the color is probably hard on the viewer's eyes. In general, you should only use paler

shades of yellow.

As previously mentioned, yellow has been linked to intelligence and memory, and

studies have indicated that yellow can actually help people commit things to memory

more easily.


This means that while you probably shouldn't paint your conference room bright

yellow, a handout on a pale yellow sheet, or an advertisement with a short message

in bright yellow with a black outline could prove quite effective in helping the

audience remember the contents while making positive, emotional associations with

the contents.

Green

All of the colors we have discussed until now have all been primary colors with their

own, specific effects. The way that secondary and tertiary colors (those colors made

up of primary colors, e.g. yellow and blue make green) affect people commonly

depends on the prevalence of the primary colors. For example, a bright, yellow-green

is going to carry more of the emotional associations of yellow than of blue. A green-

blue is going to carry more of the effects of blue than yellow.

In general, however, green tends to induce feelings of relaxation, rejuvenation,

success, health, vitality, and freshness. When used in certain ways, it can induce

feelings of envy, greed, and jealously.

Orange

Like green, orange is a secondary color whose effects rely heavily on the prevalence

of the two primary colors that comprise it. In general, however, orange can induce

feelings of courage, joyfulness, and cheerfulness, and it is often thought of as a

stimulating color that can help encourage socialization and friendliness. Like yellow,

brighter shades of orange can be "a bit much" for professional environments; they

can be hard on the eyes; and they can induce feelings of frustration and inferiority.

Utilizing Language

As we learned in Lesson 3, connotation refers to the unsaid implications of a specific

term or phrase that arises because of a term or phrase's usage.


We already learned that in the business world and in negotiations you should always

try to establish a positive tone with diction that carries a positive connotation, but

how specifically do you persuade someone to act and what role does connotation

play? For example, how do you select language that will encourage people to believe

you, accept your offer or develop sympathy for your position? There are two main

approaches:

1. Cater your language

2. Color your language

Catering Your Language

The first way to persuade people with emotion is to identify their emotional

"buttons," and then select your language so that it caters to those feelings.

That is, identify what emotions, thoughts or feelings are currently driving your

audience, and then use emotional cues to help them feel like your position coincides

with those feelings. For example, if you are trying to convince a seller to accept your

offer, then you should identify what specifically, in the current negotiation session, is

driving him or her and then use language that speaks particularly to that drive.

For example, you are negotiating the sale price of a house with Seller X. Seller X's

current drive is probably money—he wants the highest sale price possible for his

home. Consequently, you should choose language that induces feelings of monetary

success and security. You want to say something along the lines of "I think this sale

price will be mutually beneficial." But, before deciding on an exact phrase, you might

want to consider replacing the word "beneficial" with the more money-specific term

"lucrative."

You might also consider leaving out the word "mutually," and rearranging your

thoughts so that you can use the word "agreement," "contract" or "deal," because


these terms also have specific, monetary meanings when applied to our current

transaction.

Quick Tip

Notice that none of the words we would consider carry a negative

connotation. For example, "agreement" might be more specific

than "mutual" but both carry positive connotations of compromise,

cooperation, and shared success.

Consider a different situation. You are trying to convince a neighborhood association

to allow you to cut down a very old oak tree because you think its root system is

responsible for the damage to your foundation and you believe that it will cause

further damage. Your deed states that no trees in your subdivision 50 years old or

older may be cut down without a 2/3 vote from the neighborhood association.

While you would probably want to explain the essence of the problem with your

foundation, you probably would not want to choose words that highlight the

monetary implications of the situation. This is because a neighborhood association

that monitors that kind of deed restriction is probably more concerned about habitat,

tradition, aesthetics, and the environment than money. Consequently, choosing

language that highlights the monetary issues of the problem will probably make you

come across as greedy and exploitative, even though the individual terms may carry

positive connotations. For example, consider the term "lucrative" from our previous

example. Would it be persuasive in this case to say, "I think cutting down that 100-

year-old tree would prove quite lucrative?"

Given this, how could you select words to better package the idea: "I want to cut

down that very old tree so that it doesn't cause thousands of dollars’ worth of


damage to my house's foundation?" You could select language that conjures images

of family and tradition when discussing your home.

You could also try to select language that objectifies the tree and removes it from the

concepts of "environment" and "habitat." We will cover how to identify and select

such language over the next pages.

Coloring Your Language

The connotation of certain language can help establish a tone, and that tone can

generate certain emotions. Many words have synonyms, words that have a similar

meaning to a given word (e.g. tiny, small, and little). Synonyms are not all the same

and never have the exact same meaning. For example, if you really consider tiny and

small, they're different—specifically, tiny seems a little smaller than small.

By using a thesaurus—a published collection of terms or headings organized with a

series of cross-references that you can use to locate words with similar meanings—

or contemplating synonyms, you can carefully select language that will create the

right mood and that will, in turn, generate the right emotions. Examine your diction

and consider synonyms. Is there a word that would work better? If so, then use that

term. Consider the following example.

You want someone to buy a product that you are selling. What you want to say is that

the product is "appropriately priced." That is to say, your product is inexpensive

considering what a consumer gets—it’s a good deal.


What are some colorful synonyms for the word "appropriately" that you could use to

induce certain emotions? Consider:

Reasonably

Affordably

Smartly

Tastefully

So how do you pick from this list? The exact word you choose should depend on your

audience and theme. For example, if you were trying to play-up the inexpensive cost,

would "affordably" work? Would "smartly" work better? Clearly either term would

work, and, in this case, the two terms are more or less synonyms, but it's probable

that "smartly" is a better word choice because "affordably priced" might imply that

the product is "inexpensive" or possibly just "cheap." "Smartly priced," on the other

hand, seems more likely to conjure images of an "informed consumer" or "wise

shopper."

By carefully selecting language that will help you establish an appropriate tone, you

can generate emotions that will persuade people. Consider our last example. If

people think of your product as "cheap" because you used the word "affordable,"

then they might be less likely to buy. On the other hand, if they have an image of an

"informed consumer" purchasing your product, then they are more likely to buy

because they probably identify themselves with the thought or concept of an

"informed consumer." Coloring your language by selecting it carefully is a great way

to create manageable levels of emotion that you can use to persuade people.

If you carefully select your diction, then you can say more with less. Funny jokes,

persuasive advertisements, and beautiful poetry all illustrate the capabilities of

finally crafted diction: they deliver so much with so few words. Because of the scarcity

of language, the words that are present in such pieces carry more weight.


Consider our previous example. If the phrase "smartly priced" does conjure images

of the "informed consumer" and "affordably priced" does make people think that a

product is "cheap," then with selecting the word "smartly" over the word

"reasonably" you said a mouthful! Specifically, you implied with one colorful and

carefully selected term that:

"My product works great, and it's reasonably priced. That's not to say that it's cheap,

but as the informed consumer knows, it's very affordable once you consider what

you receive for the price—you get a lot for your money and it's a great deal!"

Words: Positive and Negative

There are some words that can make a positive impact on your negotiations but also

some that can create a negative result. Also, there are two types of benefits: actual

and implied benefits.

Actual benefits refer to time and/or money saved and/or earned with a product or

service. These would be very important to investors. For example a service such as

your marketing plan that will “enhance the chances of a quicker sale at a better price”

is illustrative of this concept.

Implied benefits are those that push the “hot buttons” of the prospect that truly get

them excited at the prospect of you serving their needs. Sellers who are in distressed

situations on their properties and owner-occupant buyers would relate to these

benefits. For example a marketing plan is designed to “take the burden of the details

of marketing their home off their shoulders and to make the process as easy as

possible for them” is an implied benefit. Examples of hot emotional hot buttons are

convenience, peace of mind, less stress, safety, security, and ego.


The following is a categorization of some words and phrases to use and avoid when

selling the benefits of your services to help you send messages that have more

meaningful impact for your prospect. Start practicing using the words and phrases

that have positive impact for you.

Positive emotion packed words:

Admired

Advise

Ambition

Availability

Bargain

Beauty

Capacity

Confidence

Cost-effective

Courtesy

Elegance

Expandable

Fun

Guaranteed

Health

Hospitality

Independent

Investment

Maximize

Modern

Necessary

Peace of mind

Professional

Progress

Proven

Quality

Respected


Safe

Stylish

Support

Tasteful

Value

Neutral, non-assertive, or negative-influence words to avoid:

Possibly

Could

Should

Sometimes

I think

Probably

I feel

I don’t know

Perhaps

The following phrases create “positive” reactions and encourage interaction:

What do you think?

I beg your pardon?

It’s been a pleasure

I’m so sorry….

You were very kind.

What do you consider……?

What happened then?

Please…

The following words and phrases are irritating and can create negative reactions:

Me, my, mine

Okay!!

Ya know….

Old friend!

See what I mean?

You don’t say?


I’ll tell you what…..

To be honest with you …….

Are you following me?

Sorry, what did you say?

What’s up?

Uhmmm………

The following phrases have proven to give very positive results, especially when

building a business-to-business referral network.

Maximize your potential.

Increased efficiency.

Control your cost.

Educated choice.

Make decisions faster.

Eliminate hidden costs.

Encourage new business.

Develop new markets.

Get your share of the market.

Simplify buyer’s purchase selections.

Stay ahead of your competition.

Receive the best value.

Offer the best.

Save you time.

Offer you peace of mind.

Secure your financial stability.

Provide convenient and reliable service.

There are thousands of words and phrases that will help motivate your prospects.

Practice using select words and phrases for 21 consecutive days and watch your

messages become more powerful.


Managing Emotions

In complicated negotiations sessions, it is important that you are able to manage and

prevent more problematic emotions that may arise in both you and the party with

whom you are negotiating. These problematic emotions might include:

Anger

Frustration

Annoyance

Anxiety

It's impossible to have a sympathetic audience of frustrated or angry people. When

people are angry and annoyed it is more difficult to communicate with them and few

beneficial agreements can be made. This is because difficult emotions, such as anger,

frustration, and annoyance, affect the part of the brain in which problem solving,

communicating, thinking creatively, and planning for the future occur. While it is

helpful to induce emotions that can further your case and develop empathy for your

position, it is as important to make sure that you work at managing problematic

emotions as well.

Properly framing information so that it doesn't cause another party to feel frustrated,

or framing information in a way that helps to calm a party (in the event they're

already mad) is important. Sometimes you have to discuss a topic with someone that

that person may not want to discuss. Sometimes we have to deliver bad news.

Ensuring that we are sensitive in our delivery will help prevent and manage

frustration and anger in others. Consider the same steps you would take to persuade

an audience with emotion. Could you do the same to prevent and manage

problematic emotions?

In our previous examples, we considered the term "lucrative" over the term

"beneficial" and the term "smartly" over the term "affordably" in an attempt to

generate a specific image and emotion.


Similarly, could you choose a word that will prevent anger or frustration? If so, then

choosing that word would limit problematic emotions and help ensure that you get

to establish the emotional mood of a session or correspondence—ideally a

persuasive mood.

Naturally, prevention is better than a cure when it comes to anger in negotiations. If

you can prevent a problematic emotion from coming up, then you won't have to work

at managing it later. Preventing excess emotion in general is a good idea in business.

One way to limit the production of problematic emotions is to promote a healthy

emotional distance between your audience and your message. Limiting pathos and

focusing more on logos, logic as persuasion, is a good way to do this. Using language

that will keep emotions in check and establish a healthy distance between the

negotiators and the material they are negotiating will help prevent personal insults

and grudges.

Managing Your Emotions

It will be difficult for you to effectively communicate if your working memory, the part

of the brain utilized for all daily tasks and temporary retention, including self-control,

self-motivation, and problem solving, is compromised by overwhelming anxiety, fear,

frustration or anger. Pathos will not be available as a means of persuasion if you are

obviously frustrated, because it is impossible to induce helpful emotions in others if

you yourself are overwhelmed with anger or anxiety.

Anger and Frustration

In general, the effects of some problematic emotions such as frustration and anger

subside with time. If you can physically and emotionally control yourself until the

initial flood of frustration or anger passes, then it will usually diminish, or at least

diminish to a manageable degree, permanently.


The amygdala, a small, almond-shaped section of the brain, is responsible for our

"fight or flight" response system, as well as the production of very basic emotions,

such as anger. When we become frustrated, we receive very strong signals from this

portion of our brain that causes us to either prepare to "fight" in a situation or run.

If you know something in a particular session is probably going to annoy you, for

example, if you know that the other party is going to want to discuss a very important

term of a particular deal with which you disagree, then prepare for it. Try to really

prepare yourself mentally so that the physical effects of the emotion are limited. You

do not want to display the physical signs of anger while communicating with others.

If you become physically angered, then that will be the emotional cue onto which

your audience or fellow negotiators will latch and the production of persuasive

emotions in your audience will become limited or impossible.

If the feeling is unexpected, then management can be a little more difficult. In this

case, you should take preventative steps. If you are in the middle of very frustrating

or very intense negotiation sessions, then try to be in your peak mental condition.

Get plenty of rest, take a walk in the evenings, find an outlet for your daily

frustrations, such as journals or meditation, and try not to dwell on the day’s activities

as you fall asleep. Start fresh every day. If you are calm, well-rested, and alert, then

you will be less likely to give into the problems associated with minor daily setbacks.

It may seem cliché, but counting to ten really works for many people. This is because

once the initial flood from your amygdala passes, usually the initial drive for action

does as well. If you receive frustrating news give yourself a few seconds. Do not say

the first thing that comes to mind. If actual counting helps, then count.


Fear and Anxiety

Anxiety is not the same thing as stress. Anxiety is unhealthy, cyclical, stress

impervious to logic that usually long outlasts the cause. Anxiety can lead to persistent

fear and phobias. Speaking and writing is a major source of anxiety for most people

and, consequently, a common phobia. In fact, many people list public speaking as

their biggest fear (over the fear of dying)!

You don't have to fear writing or public speaking. You can learn to address a

conference room, negotiating table or auditorium with confidence. Here are a few

suggestions:

Practice speaking in front of smaller, familiar groups such as family or friends.

Many phobias and fears are conquered through patient desensitization.

Desensitization involves slow exposure to something or a situation that makes

you uncomfortable so that you slowly become used to it.

Remember that people do not want to see you uncomfortable; they are not

quick to judge or assume things about a speaker. When people sit down for a

presentation, they are not expecting to be bored or think badly of the

presenter; they are expecting to be informed and entertained. Don't let self-

defeating thoughts feed a phobia.

Prepare through communication classes. Classes are a great way to keep your

communication skills sharp. If you keep your communication skills up to

speed, you'll have more confidence and, consequently, less anxiety.

Managing Time

One of a real estate agent’s biggest challenges is time management. It is very easy to get

to your office and find yourself visiting with other agents. It takes self-discipline to get

started on your day.


Part of the discipline can come from a schedule you created yesterday. Carry a schedule

with you and somewhere you can write down the activity you want to accomplish each

day. Use as much of that time on production that you can.

Try to add at least five new contacts to your database every day. Ask people (your doctor,

your dentist, the pharmacist, your neighbor) if you can add them to your database and

send them a newsletter periodically with information about the real estate market.

Real estate agents have to get in front of buyers and sellers every day or they are not in

business. Keep in mind that being with a buyer or seller is top priority; it’s your bread and

butter.

Schedule time for interruptions. They are going to happen. Try to limit them to small

amounts of time. Answer telephone calls and e-mails at a scheduled time if possible to

avoid being distracted from your scheduled activity. Stay away from social media unless

you are using it to produce business.

Before you make a call, think through what you hope to accomplish during the call. For

example, when you call an owner who is trying to sell by themselves, your goal is to get

an appointment to see the property.

Join and participate in at least one civic group. Your company may already belong to the

local Chamber of Commerce. All you would have to pay for is the event you want to

attend. Most of them have card exchanges that are very inexpensive. Be sure to calendar

your meetings. Be sure you are meeting people while you are there and handing out

business cards.

Make time for education. Knowledge is power. Attend classes and seminars at real estate

schools or your Association of REALTORS®. Work toward getting NAR designations

(ABR, GRI, SRES, SFR). It is not so much the letters that impress the public, it is the

knowledge.


Lesson Summary

Pathos refers to engaging emotions to persuade or appealing to an audience by

pushing their "emotional buttons." This lesson examined how to properly use pathos

in negotiations sessions and in your daily correspondence. First, we discussed the

importance of establishing a sympathetic audience, or the importance of pathos in

general.

We then addressed two ways that you can keep pathos as a means of persuasion

open to you: producing persuasive emotions and managing problematic emotions.

It's important that you are able to create a sympathetic audience because a

sympathetic audience is more likely to listen to you; more likely to believe you; will

prove easier to address; and will seem less intimidating. One way that you can create

a sympathetic audience is by helping them feel a certain way. If you can help an

audience associate certain feelings with your ideas and positions, then you will have

an easier time persuading them because they will feel more at ease and they will

more readily identify with you. To do this, however, you must identify what particular

emotion in the given situation could prove helpful and then you must perfect

generating that emotion in the greater portion of your given audience.

To a certain degree, all people respond differently to different stimulus, which can

make establishing a sympathetic audience difficult. However, studies have been

conducted on people's general responses to certain colors, and examining common

usage can tell you something about the emotional effects of particular words.

Consequently, it is possible to create a specific emotion or feeling in most people,

provided you spend time carefully choosing your language and images.

For example, many people have specific associations with certain colors. Red is often

associated with revenge, aggression, impulsiveness, violence licentiousness, power,

creativity, and innovation. In addition, it is one of the most common colors used in

restaurant décor because it has been shown to induce physical hunger. Most


people's favorite color is blue, and it is the easiest color on the eyes. Consequently,

blue is commonly associated with patience, compassion, softness, tranquility, and

relaxation.

Yellow poses an interesting challenge because it is commonly associated with many

positive emotions and thoughts, such as: intelligence, memory, joy, happiness, and

rejuvenation, but it is also the most difficult color on the eyes and people can have a

hard time resolving yellow text and shapes. Green tends to induce feelings of

relaxation, rejuvenation, success, health, vitality, and freshness. Orange has been

shown to induce feelings of courage, joyfulness, and cheerfulness, and it is often

thought of as a stimulating color that can help encourage socialization and

friendliness.

Just as people have associations with certain colors, people have associations with

words and phrases as well. In your negotiations sessions and in all correspondence,

you should try to select language that will encourage people to believe you, accept

your offer or develop sympathy for your position. You can do this by catering your

language and by coloring your language. To cater your language, try to identify what

is motivating a person in a particular situation and select language that will cater to

that motivation. To color you language, select words that carry a connation that will

generate specific images and create positive association with your position or idea.

In complicated negotiations sessions, it is as (if not more) important to manage

emotions as it is to generate them; this is especially true for more problematic

emotions, such as fear, anxiety, frustration, and anger. Properly framing information

so that it doesn't cause another party to feel frustrated or framing information in a

way that helps to calm a party (in the event they're already mad) is important.

Naturally, prevention is better than a cure when it comes to anger and other

problematic emotions in negotiations. If you can prevent a problematic emotion

from coming up, then you won't have to work at managing it later.


One way to limit the production of problematic emotions is to promote a healthy

emotional distance between your audience and your message. This will limit

personal grudges and insults that will foster anger and frustration.


Lesson 5: The Logos of an Effective Communicator/Real Estate

Practice

Lesson Topics


Introduction

Logic as a Persuasive Tool

Logic and Clarity

Logic and Sentence Structure

Activity: Choosing Clarity

Case Studies




Utilize logic, emotion, and the appearance of ethical character as persuasive

tools.

Apply logic to get more clarity in communication.

Outline arguments to be used in negotiating with logic.

Establish sentence structure in communication using logic.

Explain the differences between an active and passive voice.

Identify the common persuasive tools that other people may attempt to utilize.

Introduction

Logos refers to presenting logic to persuade, or appealing to an audience by focusing

on the logical progression of your thoughts. In general, logos is the preferable means

of persuasion whenever it is available, and the primary means of persuasion utilized

in academia and the business world.

In this lesson, we will examine why logos is the preferable means of persuasion and

how you can logically structure your ideas so that you can take full advantage of an

argument's persuasive logic. Initially, we will define logic and offer practical ways that

you can check your ideas for logical connections.

We will then examine ways to ensure that people can easily follow your arguments—

mainly, we will see how concise language and taut grammatical structures can make

your ideas even more appealing.

Upon completion of the lesson, the student should have a good idea of how to

logically structure an idea; how to "sell" the logic of a position; and how clarity and

thoughtful sentence structure improve the logical appeal of an argument.


This module has covered many specifics over a relatively short period. To ensure a

comprehensive understanding, we will integrate the information presented in the

various lessons though an activity and a series of case studies. These activities and

studies are meant to help you build your professional communications skills.

Logic as a Persuasive Tool

Logic refers to the study of sound deductions and involves the examination of

premises (inartistic information) and conclusions (artistic information).

As we saw previously in Lesson 1, a logical and well-constructed argument moves

from a premise to a conclusion, or from inartistic information to artistic information.

As we previously noted, this is true because this type of structure:

Makes it easier for other people to follow your train of thought

Is a good way to critically examine your own position for coherency

Helps you think critically about other people's arguments and positions

In addition to this, however, it also opens up a means of persuasion—mainly,

logos.

The Persuasiveness of Logic

Logic involves examining your ideas for coherency and legitimacy. While it can be

difficult to know if any given information is "true," we can examine given information

to see if it is at least coherent with itself. That is to say, we can look at someone's

evidence and someone's conclusions and see if an argument makes sense internally.

When examining information logically, you want to see if the premises that someone

offers you, which might include observations, data or research, adequately support

the conclusions or claims that the person is making. Consider the following two

examples.


Which of the two examples below is a sound, logical deduction and which of the two

examples below is not?

Example #1:

Premises/Inartistic Information: Fish have gills. Fish live in water. "Sushi," the little

creature swimming in this bowl, is living in water and has gills.

Conclusion/Artistic Information: "Sushi" is a fish.

Example #2:

Premises/Inartistic Information: Clouds are white. Clouds are in the sky.

Conclusion/Artistic Information: The sky is blue.

Example #1 is a sound and logical deduction; Example #2 is not. In order for a

conclusion to be a logical deduction, it must be supported by the information given.

While it is probably "true" that the sky is blue, the premises offered here do not

support that claim. Saying that the clouds are white and that clouds are in the sky do

not help one realize that the sky is blue—despite their potential "trueness." The

evidence is irrelevant information and the conclusion an unfounded claim. On the

other hand, it might be difficult to know if it is in fact "true" that Sushi is a fish. But

the premises from which we have to work with here could lead one to logically

conclude that Sushi is a fish. We have three observations:

1. Fish have gills.

2. Fish live in water.

3. The creature "Sushi" lives in water and has gills.

From this information one could logically conclude that Sushi is a fish. Now, it might

be that creatures besides fish have gills and that creatures besides fish live in the

water. In real life, we would probably want to consider the validity of the premises

and whether or not the premises address defining characteristics of fish; however,

given what we have here, it is a reasonable conclusion.


Note

In practice, it's important that you are able to support your

premises as well. For example, the person that presents the

"Sushi is a fish" argument should be prepared to defend the

characteristics of living in the water and having gills as

defining. A defining characteristic for a fish would be something

that sets "fish" apart from all other creatures and objects in the world.

Now that we understand that logic is a way to discuss the validity of the connections

between ideas, we can discuss its persuasive qualities. In essence, if your ideas are

logically connected and if your premises indeed support your conclusions, then you

have a strong argument that people will "buy."

You might not know it, but you probably use logos on a daily basis! Anytime you tell

someone something, and the person asks you "why," and you tell the person "why,"

you are giving premises for your statement in an attempt to make the person believe

you—this means (that to some degree) you're using logos. Consequently, you

probably have a very intuitive understating of why logos works: if people understand

your reasoning and your reasoning "makes sense," then they are more likely to

understand your position and subsequently trust it—not to mention remember it.

Let's say that you want to change an office policy. Before telling everyone you want

to change some particular policy, you would invariably want to collect your ideas for

proper presentation. This probably includes the preparation of an explanation as to

why the policy should be changed. The "whys" are probably observations you have

made around the office. Consider the following example.

You think that people are currently wasting time when sending e-mails. Specifically,

you have made the observations listed below, and from these observations you

generate the conclusion listed below …


Premises/Inartistic Information: Right now we have to make "TPS Reports" for

every e-mail we send out. "TPS Reports" are only useful for task-specific e-mails and

not daily operation e-mails. Generating a "TPS Report" and attaching it takes more

time than not generating or attaching a "TPS Report."

Conclusion/Artistic Information: We should, from now on, only attach "TPS

Reports" to task-specific e-mails and not daily operations e-mails.

In our current example, you made a few observations that led you to a conclusion.

Mainly, you noticed or found that:

Right now we have to make "TPS Reports" for every e-mail we send out.

"TPS Reports" are only useful for task-specific e-mails and not daily operation

e-mails.

Generating a "TPS Report" and attaching it takes more time than not

generating or attaching a "TPS Report."

Given this information, you have created new information:

We should, from now on, only attach "TPS Reports" to task-specific e-mails and

not daily operations e-mails.

This is a logical deduction. Can you see why? From the premises given another person

could conclude exactly what you concluded.

Now, let's examine how we can make your idea regarding the e-mails persuasive.

You could simply tell the appropriate people in the office, "I think we should, from

now on, only attach 'TPS Reports' to task-specific e-mails and not daily operations e-

mails." You could then thank them for their time and walk out of the office.


But, this will do little to "package" your case and it might be easily forgotten since

people often do not retain information unless they understand "why." So, how could

you structure your comments using logos to maximize its effectiveness? Remember

what we learned in Lesson 1: You should move from a premise to a conclusion, or

from inartistic information to artistic information.

Instead of simply stating your conclusion, how about something along these lines:

I know we are currently trying to improve office operations and cut down on

extraneous practices. Regarding this, I think there is a way we could streamline

company-wide e-mails. As of now we have to make "TPS Reports" for every e-mail we

send out, but "TPS Reports" are only useful for task-specific e-mails and not daily

operations e-mails. Generating a "TPS Report" and attaching it takes more time than

not generating and attaching a "TPS Report." Consequently, we could save a lot of

time by only generating and attaching "TPS Reports" to task-specific e-mails and not

all e-mails.

This is a stronger argument then just stating your conclusion because:

It tells your audience from the beginning what you want to address so they

know what's coming.

It moves from your found information (premises) to your created information

(conclusions) so that people can "arrive" at the same conclusion you did.

Quick Tip: In addition to effectively utilizing logos, the passage

above is an example of "catering" and "coloring" language (as

we discussed in Lesson 4). We don't know your real intent

for composing and subsequently delivering the previous

paragraph. It could be that you simply don't like making

"TPS Reports" and the previous passage is just your attempt

at "getting out of them."


But instead of saying that, which would probably weaken your case, you chose to

find your audience's current motivations and cater your language to fit that

motivation. Mainly, you realized that as a whole the company is " … currently

trying to improve office operations and cut down on extraneous practices …" and

you linked your ideas to that project. Helping your audience identify with your

position and then logically structuring that position is a very persuasive

technique.

Logic and Clarity

Logic is a persuasion tool and, consequently, you should always examine your ideas

for logical progressions. Here are some steps you can follow to do just that:

1. State your intent at the beginning: Introductions are not a formality, they are

the basis of any clear correspondence.

2. Outline your position or argument: If you cannot easily outline your position,

then it's either not logical or you haven't quite pinned it down yet.

3. Examine your premises and conclusions to ensure that someone else could

arrive at the same conclusion.

Following these steps is important if you are to keep logos as a means of persuasion

open to you. When it comes to logos, your piece is only as persuasive as it is logical

and clear, so you must be sure that your audience can understand you and,

subsequently, arrive at the same conclusion as you.

Stating Intent

Interesting critical essays, professional presentations, and well-composed letters all

share a similar attribute: they state their intent in some kind of introductory sentence

or paragraph (depending on length). In longer pieces, there should be an

introductory paragraph that summarizes the entire piece's point. This is sometimes

called a thesis statement or a statement of intent.


If a piece is only one paragraph, like our previous example, then the topic sentence

of the paragraph will suffice as the introduction.

Example: As a real estate professional, you are probably familiar with appraisals.

Appraisals, as you know, always tell the reader the kind of value that an appraiser is

attempting to define (usually market value) and the date of the appraisal, so that

people will know for what time period the information is accurate. This section of an

appraisal is very similar to a thesis statement or a statement of intent because an

appraiser is outlining to his or her clients "the point" of the report. Mainly, the

appraiser is telling his or her client that this report is meant to indicate "market value"

(or some other type of value) and will do so accurately for X amount of time.

Structuring an Introduction

As the student probably knows, a topic sentence is the first or second sentence in a

paragraph that states what the paragraph is about. An entire piece should have an

introduction and each paragraph in the piece should have a topic sentence. Uniform

structure like this will keep your prose or presentation clear and topical—not to

mention, it will help keep the logical progression of your ideas persuasively easy to

follow!

Consider our previous example. Highlighted in yellow is the main idea, the topic

sentence or the "point" of the paragraph:

I know we are currently trying to improve office operations and cut down on

extraneous practices. Regarding this, I think there is a way we could streamline

company-wide e-mails. As of now we have to make "TPS Reports" for every e-mail we

send out, but "TPS Reports" are only useful for task-specific e-mails and not daily

operations e-mails. Generating a "TPS Report" and attaching it takes more time than

not generating and attaching a "TPS Report."


Consequently, we could save a lot of time by only generating and attaching "TPS

Reports" to task-specific e-mails and not all e-mails.

Whoever reads or hears this paragraph knows by the second sentence what the

paragraph is going to be about: streamlining e-mails.

If this were a longer piece with other streamlining suggestions, then we would want

an introductory paragraph that tells the audience that we are going to discuss

streamlining in general and specifically address X,Y and Z (X, Y and Z would be

whatever your specific ideas are).

In addition to offering simple clarification, stating your intent helps ensure that your

ideas will progress logically because it forces you to identify exactly what you want

to say from the beginning. Often, when our ideas do not flow logically it is because

we are not exactly sure what we are trying to say. Pin down your point early and then

support it so other people can too.

More Info: Once you finish collecting your ideas, examine them.

Is there anything there that does not relate directly to your specific

point? If so, then cut it. Kicking out the extraneous information will

help keep your points well-connected and the logical progression of

your arguments clear and easy to follow.

Outlining Arguments

Previously, we discussed the usefulness of outlines, and we noted that outlines are a

great way to lay out your ideas so that an audience can follow a presentation more

easily. In addition to this, however, outlines can also:

Help you remember your ideas.

Help you plan your speech, letter, negotiating session, essay or presentation.

Assist you with analyzing your arguments for logical structure.


Outlining Your Position

Outlines are a great planning tool for all kinds of correspondence. For example:

If you have an important negotiation session to attend, then outline the points

that you want to address so that you don't forget any of them and so that you

can address the most important points first (in case you run out of time).

If you have a letter, then outline exactly what you want to say before you really

start writing so that the letter stays brief, poignant, and clear. (Remember,

business letters should, in general, only be one page in length.)

If you want to persuade someone of something, then outlining your ideas can

help ensure that your premises support your conclusions.

To examine these ideas more specifically, reconsider our previous example

regarding e-mails.

Example: In our previous example regarding e-mails, we isolated out our "evidence"

(or our premises/inartistic information) and pinpointed our exact "idea" (or our

conclusion/artistic information). It was then easy to properly queue the two types of

information and then compose a topic sentence for the paragraph that tells the

audience what the paragraph is going to be about. Outlining helped us separate out

the important information and helped us stay clear and on topic.

It can be difficult to look at paragraphs or listen to speeches and pick out the

"evidence" even in our own work. This is especially true if the evidence isn't hard data

or facts. Outlining your arguments will make it easier for you to test for logical

connections because the evidence will be right before you.

Before presenting your ideas, it might help to look for logical connections by

separating your ideas into two groupings: artistic and inartistic information.


That way it will be easier for you to see if your inartistic information builds to your

artistic information, and it will be easier for you queue your information in the correct

order (mainly, from your premises to your conclusions).

Just as it can be hard to check for logical progressions in our own work, it can be

difficult for others to see it in our work as well. For example, if you hand someone a

10-page report or deliver to someone a 30-minute speech, then some of your

otherwise persuasive logic might be lost as your audience might muddle your ideas

or miss some of your important points. A brief outline similar to what you might use

to compose logical arguments might help others follow your logical arguments.

Giving your audience a well-polished, clean outline can help illuminate the persuasive

logic in your correspondence.

More About

Just remember what we learned in Lesson 3: there might not always

be a form for a particular type of correspondence, but their usually

is; and you want to stick to that form. This is true of outlines.

Be sure that any outline you give to your audience is well-written,

grammatically correct, and consistent with some authoritative

standard.

Examining Your Work for Logical Connections

Logos only works if your arguments work. The student might recall the previous

example of an illogical conclusion reproduced below:

Premises/Inartistic Information: Clouds are white. Clouds are in the sky.

Conclusion/Artistic Information: The sky is blue.


No matter how this information is introduced, no matter how it is packaged, outlined

or diagramed, and no matter how much glittery multimedia is added to it, the

premises do not lead one to logically deduce the given conclusion, and, therefore,

logos is not available as a means of persuasion in its delivery. In order to keep logos

open to you in your different communications and negotiations you have to ensure

that your position is an example of a logical progression. Check and re-check your

information. Does your given data, research, observations and references directly

support your point? If not, then logos is not an option and you might want to

reconsider you correspondence.

Hint: If there is a problem, then try to figure out if the conclusion

is just invalid, or, if you've just focused on the wrong premises. After

all, you might have a valid point, but you might have just

unconsciously left out some of the necessary information you need

to adequately support your claim.

Logic and Sentence Structure

Delivering information to an audience in a way that they can understand within a

given time-frame and under circumstances that might be stressful or uncomfortable

can seem like a daunting task. But regardless of how complicated the situation or

detailed your material, you can only keep logos as a means of persuasion open to

you if you are able to show your audience the logic in your position. Even if your

arguments are logical, you cannot rely on logos unless you can illustrate that your

ideas connect logically.

Logos is probably the most effective type of persuasion because it allows an audience

to, in essence, "discover" the same conclusion that you did.


This is far more effective than buying expensive paper on which to print your letter

(ethos) or "guilting" people into believing you (pathos) because:

We believe our own conclusions whole-heartedly and will strongly attach to

these conclusions, whereas we usually only "identify" with the conclusions of

others.

It is easier for us to commit information to our long-term memories if we

understand the principles behind it.

So how can you make your logic easier for people to see? The main way is to keep

everything else out of the way—that is, do not put up any obstacles between the logic

of your position and your audience. For example:

Use appropriate, taut language.

Carefully structure your correspondence (down to each sentence).

Obey standard grammar and spelling rules.

Utilize transitions.

Anything that your audience has to "trip" over is a stutter in their effort to

comprehend you and, consequently, an opportunity for their minds to wander, for

your ideas to be lost or for connections to be missed.

The Importance of Taut Language

Earlier we discussed the use of modifiers and buzz words, each of which has an

appropriate use. In general, however, (at least for business correspondence) we

decided that the use of modifiers should be minimized and that we should use buzz

words with care.

Your audience should neither have to search for your point nor your connections;

they should be clear. The more you muddle your language with adverbs, adjectives,

and excessive buzz words the more you are asking of your audience.


Make every word count! This will not only make it easier for others to understand

you, but, as we learned in the previous lesson, you can often say more with less.

Carefully Structure Your Correspondence

Awkward structures and the use of passive voice can make it more difficult for others

to understand you. Basic, yet not necessarily "simplistic," sentence structure and

active verb usage renders livelier, clearer prose.

Verbs, Verb Characteristics and the Passive Voice

Verbs have many interesting characteristics that set them apart from other parts of

speech. For example, a verb has a mood, a voice, and a tense. In this course, we will

briefly touch on tense (and along with it number/person agreement), but we will

mainly focus on the meaning and impact of voice. We will not discuss mood.

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In this course we will not discuss mood because, although it is a

fascinating topic, the English language does not differentiate

between the three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative)

with unique conjugations. This is not the case, however, with all

other languages. For example, Spanish, Italian and German all

differentiate between moods with separate conjugations.

As the student probably knows, a verb's tense indicates the time of its action—in

English we have three simple tenses: past, present, and future, which have unique

conjugations, as is illustrated below utilizing the verb "to jump.”


Past Present Future

I jumped I jump I will jump

He jumped She jumps It will jump

You jumped You jump You will jump

We jumped We jump We will jump

They jumped They jump They will jump

Naturally, you want to check your correspondence for appropriate tense and person

and number agreement. Whenever possible, you should try to write in the present

tense because the present tense promotes active voice and clear sentence structure.

Note

Literature of all kinds should always be discussed in the

present tense. The general rule is: if it's written down, then it's alive

and, therefore, it requires the present tense. This is especially true

when you are discussing books, periodicals, plays, etc.

Tenses are relatively easy and most native English speakers will properly conjugate

tenses with the correct person and number agreement without even thinking about

it. "Voice," however, tends to be a little trickier and we often lack the same intuitive

understanding of voice that we have of tense, person, and number agreement. The

following section will outline the definition of "voice" and explain how the voice of

your verbs affects the ease with which others understand you.

Voice refers to the type of conjugation of a verb in relation to its agent of action.

There are two types of voices: passive and active. Passive voice describes the

condition of verbs when the subject of a sentence is acted upon, as oppose to the

conventional, active sentence structure in which the subject performs the action.

Naturally, active voice, then, refers to the condition of verbs found in conventional

sentence structures in which the subject is performing the action.


Given these definitions, which of the following two examples utilize an "active voice"

and which one illustrates a "passive construction"?

The cat gave me a new car.

The new car was given to me.

The first sentence is active because the cat, which is the subject of the sentence,

completes the action in the sentence; that is, "the cat gave." The second sentence is

in passive voice because the subject of the sentence, which is "car," is being acted

upon. That is to say, the sentence does not read "the car gave" it reads "the car was

given." What or whoever is doing the "giving" is omitted from the sentence. The car,

the subject of the sentence, is being acted on, rather than doing the acting.

Passive voice is not inherently bad—it has its uses, like most things. For example, if

you want to play down the "agent of action" of a sentence, then passive voice is

useful. It is also useful in depersonalizing language. For these two reasons, we

commonly see effective uses of passive voice in:

Technical pieces

Instructions

Scientific papers

Research initiatives and publications

However, in our daily correspondence and in most types of professional

communications it ought to be avoided. The reason for this is because passive voice:

Lends itself to awkward and complicated sentence structures

Limits engaging prose

Promotes the presence of excess infinitives (un-conjugated verbs)

To see that this is the case, simply consider the previous example:

The cat gave me a new car.

The new car was given to me.


Which sentence is clearer? Which sentence seems more direct and engaging? Which

one is structured the way we usually construct sentences (subjectwhat the subject

is doing/verbpredicate)?

There are many ways that you can avoid passive voice, but planning and revision is

probably the best way. Reread your letters, reports, and presentations before you

deliver them. Passive voice is often a result of someone not knowing exactly what he

or she wants to say.

Often while writing our first drafts, we have not yet pinned down our points.

Consequently, we often have parts of speech out of conventional order or lacking all

together. When this is the case, there's often a perfectly good verb, if not an agent of

action, just to the right of the weak, passive verb. Consider the following example:

Passive Voice Active Voice

The door was shut by me. I shut the door.

Here, we could easily change the passive sentence, "The door was shut by me," to

the active, "I shut the door." This is probably a good revision because, "I shut the

door" is clearer, tighter, and more engaging than the passive, "The door was shut by

me." A lack of planning will lead to all kinds of awkward language; passive voice is

just one of them.

You can also avoid the passive voice by using strong verbs, as opposed to the weak

verb "to be." "To be" promotes the use of passive voice. Consider the following

example:

The house is a great deal!

The house was recently painted.


The first sentence is actually active because it's the house that is a great deal. In

essence, the house's action consists of the "act of being a good deal." In the second

sentence, some other force acts upon the house. Mainly, someone or something

painted it. This means that the construction is passive. Revision is not always a matter

of re-docketing information, as this example indicates. Since the agent of action is

missing from the second sentence altogether, the author would need to ask him or

herself a few things before revision would be possible. Mainly, he or she would need

to know:

Why am I mentioning the new paint?

Who painted the house?

Am I purposely omitting the painter or was it just an accident (i.e., can I just

say "so-and-so painted" the house)?

Depending on the answer to this question, the author could consider any of the

following revisions:

The paint is fresh.

The fresh coat of paint makes the house look great!

The owners just painted the house.

Hint

The student might notice that the first revision does not get rid of

the verb "to be." (The paint is fresh.) Note, however, that it does switch

the sentence to active voice, since it's the paint that is "being"

something—mainly fresh—and it does tighten up the language a little.

Nevertheless, the other two options might constitute better revisions since they also

utilize strong, active verbs—mainly "to make" and "to paint." To learn more about the

nature of "strong" and "weak" verbs and why some verbs just sound more engaging,

consult a language authority on the meaning and uses of "mood."


Can you tell if sentences are in the passive voice? Testing for passive voice is easy.

Simply draw an arrow from the verb (or, in the case of many passive voice

constructions the "verb phrase") in the sentence to the direct object. In doing so, if

you draw a backwards-facing arrow (towards the subject), then the sentence is in

passive voice. If, in doing so, you draw a forwards-facing arrow (towards the

predicate), then the sentence is in active voice. Consider the following example.

Passive Voice Active Voice

The dog was hit by the car. The car hit the dog.

The verb (or, in the case of "was hit," the "verb phrase") is highlighted in red. The

direct object (the thing in a sentence that is being acted upon) is highlighted in yellow.

If you draw an arrow from the verb/verb phrase to the direct object, which direction

would you go? For the first sentence, you would have to go backwards—it's passive!

For the second sentence, you would have to go forwards—it's active!

Hint: You probably know that a verb is the action word of a sentence.

But, did you know that sometimes a verb is more than one word?

When this is the case, we refer to it as a verb phrase. A verb

phrase is used to describe the action in a sentence when it involves

more than one word, which is usually a conjugation of the verb

"to be" or "to have" (am, is, are, were, have, etc.) and either a past

participle (hid, sat, jumped, sold, etc.) or a gerund (singing, laughing,

selling, jumping, etc.)

Just remember, a direct object is the part of a sentence that is being acted upon, or

a complement that completes the reader's understanding of a verb or verb phrase.

An indirect object is to whom/what or for whom/what the direct object is directed or

intended. So, in the example, "The dog was hit by the car," "the car" is the indirect

object. To identify a direct object, you should first read the verb or verb phrase. In


this case, that would be "was hit." Then ask yourself who or what was "hit?" The

answer in this case is "the dog"—or the direct object. You could then ask yourself if

what or who "hit" "the dog" is given in the sentence, which, in this case, it is. The

answer to that question in this case is: "the car." The car is the indirect object.

Hint

Understanding a little about the parts of speech can help you

construct well-written, active sentences. Consider, for example,

how the different locations of the direct objects in the previous

example helped us identify passive voice. Now, re-examine the two

sentences and look at the indirect object (the car). Notice that

in the passive construction, it's found at the end of the sentence

proceeded by the word "by." This is typical of sentences written in

the passive voice.

Obey Grammar Rules

We already discussed how important a professional image can be to our success as

businesspeople and professional real estate licensees in the lesson on ethos. We

noted that it's difficult to look professional if your communications are laden with

grammatical mistakes. But, proper grammar affects the availability of logos as a

means of persuasion, as well. This is because a logical position in and of itself is not

necessarily persuasive. People have to be able to see the logic in your position in

order for it to persuade them. Grammatical mistakes are stumbling blocks between

you and your audience.

Anytime your audience is caught off guard by a mistake or a mistake makes it difficult

for them to understand you, then the odds of your audience seeing the logic in your

position, and it subsequently persuading them, diminishes.


Before any negotiation session, review what you want to say. Make sure that you

have an idea of how to eloquently present your ideas. If you are going to offer

handouts, then make sure that they are grammatically correct as well. Look up

anything that you are unsure about in a language authority. It might also help to have

someone else look at your materials. Since our ideas and writings "make sense to

us," we often read over our own mistakes or fail to see places where our ideas are

less clear. Having a colleague examine your work is an excellent idea.

Utilize Transitions

During our discussion on artistic and inartistic information, we noted that certain

words and phrases indicate that a piece of information is probably artistic.

Consequently, to make our correspondence clearer, we ensured that such artistic

information came after the data or research that we found to be inartistic. These

words and phrases included:

Thus

Consequently

Accordingly

Therefore

As a result

So

Just as we can look for these words to help us locate conclusions in our work so that

we can properly order our points, we can use these words and phrases to help other

people follow our thoughts as well.

An audience might not understand the nature of premises and conclusions or why a

premise/conclusion order results in clearer prose. But regardless, if you use

transitions properly, then your audience will know when you are offering an

argument, opinion or suggestion.


Whenever we use transitions such as "consequently," "as a result of" or "thus," our

audience automatically knows that we are going to deliver a "point" supported by the

previous information because of the terms' everyday usages. This means that you do

not have to rely on obtaining an audience of logicians to keep pathos open as a

means of persuasion. You can extract the logician in most people by carefully

selecting conditional transitions that inherently distinguish your supportive

information from your deductions.

Activity: Choosing Clarity

For the following activities, reference the following paragraph:

We need to focus on all the aspects of the firm's various proactive solutions for our

clients, like relocation programs. We offer relocation programs, manage and

advertise listings and represent buyers. Marketing should cover all aspects.

Expansion of the marketing program is important so that the clients can know about

all the services that we offer and not just those that they might traditionally associate

with a real estate brokerage or potential business might be lost to the competition

and we might also lose service referrals that could include various types of services

might never be received by the various members of our brokerage firm. We have set

up a plan. Meeting will be at 4:30 in the conference hall so bring your ideas.

Editing Passage #1: Brokerage Marketing

Look over the first paragraph. Notice that while some general points get across, it’s

muddled and overall unclear. As with most problematic passages, a lack of structure

is one of the big problems. So let's try to remedy that first. Looking at the passage,

try to extract:

The artistic information

The inartistic information

The "point" or topic sentence


If you're not sure that the paragraph has a topic sentence, then try to figure out why

this person wrote the passage, and sum that up in your own topic sentence—use the

"artistic information" as clues. Then, continue below.

The Artistic Information and a Topic Sentence

Looking at your list, please select all the information below that you believe is

"artistic."

1. We need to focus our efforts on all aspects of the firm's various proactive

solutions.

2. We offer relocation programs, manage and advertise listings and represent

buyers.

3. Expansion of the marketing program is important.

4. We have set up a plan.

5. Meeting will be at 4:30 in the conference hall.

Feedback:

If you chose 1 and 3, you are correct; this information is created. It's an opinion or

deduction. The other options are information found in the outside world. They were

not created by the writer.

The artistic information in this passage comprises the author's point. In essence, he

or she must think that the current marketing program for the brokerage does not

focus enough on all of the services that the firm offers. So, the author wants you to

believe that:

The firm needs to ensure that its marketing program addresses all the firm's

services and not just the more traditional ones (probably listing services).

Expanding the marketing program is important.


From this we can say that the author probably thinks that the current marketing

program only focuses on listings and not on "proactive solutions" — probably

relocation programs and buyer representation. So how did the author come up with

these ideas?

The Inartistic Information

If the two previous points are the artistic information, then what constitutes the

inartistic information? The inartistic information is pretty much everything else. That

includes all of the "because" listed after the statement "expansion of the marketing

program is important …" such as, the point that clients need to know about all the

programs that we offer and not just those traditionally associated with real estate

brokerage services, or their business and referrals might be lost.

Revision

Now that you have separated out the artistic information from the inartistic

information, try to correctly queue the points so that they flow in a logical order.

Then, try to write a topic sentence for the passage that sums up what the paragraph

is about. Remember what we learned about:

Passive voice

Taught language

Professionalism

Tone

Diction

Buzz words

With these things in mind, rewrite the problematic sentences so that they read more

smoothly. Once you finish, continue below. After we have the passage more or less

"revised" we will discuss the means of persuasion that it uses and if other means

would be a better choice.


Possible Revision

There are probably an infinite number of correct revisions. Nevertheless, all the good

revisions will share at least one thing in common: They will move from the premises

to the conclusions. Here is one possible example:

The firm has a new idea for a marketing program that will incorporate a wider variety

of our brokerages services, which we would like to present to the team. Right now,

we focus most, if not all, of our marketing efforts on securing and advertising seller-

listings. However, our firm offers a wide variety of programs that the public might

not even know about, such as relocation assistance and buyer-representation. So

that we do not miss possible referrals or lose potential clients to the competition, we

revamped the marketing program. We will present our current plan at a meeting and

brainstorming session today, in the conference hall, at 4:30. Please bring your ideas.

What is the topic sentence of the revised passage?

1. The firm has a new idea for a marketing program that will incorporate a wider

variety of our brokerages services, which we would like to present to the team.

2. Right now, we focus most, if not all, of our marketing efforts on securing and

advertising seller-listings.

3. We will present our current plan at a meeting and brainstorming session today,

in the conference hall, at 4:30. Please bring your ideas.

4. However, our firm offers a wide variety of programs that the public might not

even know about, such as relocation assistance and buyer-representation.

Feedback:

If you answered 1, you are correct. Unlike the previous passage this passage has a

clear topic sentence that states the point of the passage. Is your topic sentence

similar to this one? Does it state the main points of this correspondence? That is,


does it: 1.) State that there will be a presentation. 2.) Note that the marketing

program has been changed. Is it found in either the first or second line?

If the passage is making an argument, then what approach to persuasion does it use?

Ethos

Logos

Pathos

The passage is not making an argument.

Feedback:

The passage does make an argument, even if it is very low-key. On the surface, this

passage is just an invitation to a meeting and brainstorming session. However, notice

that the passage is already arguing that a plan is necessary and trying to offer

legitimacy to the “firm's” idea. For all we know, the assessment of the marketing plan

could be inaccurate and the "firm" could really be a couple of employees with no

marketing expertise. The way it is presented, however, it sounds authoritative. It is

utilizing logos as a means of persuasion. It presents a series of premises and then

draws conclusions from those premises.

Now, let's examine your work:

Does it rely on the passive voice?

Does it utilize an excess of modifiers or buzz words?

It is rude or too familiar?

Are there excessive or unintentional contractions?


Oral and Written Clarity

This is the type of revision process that one should consider for both written and oral

correspondence. Even if you're not presenting your ideas in a written format, you

should still be sure that you have your ideas clearly outlined with the appropriate

vocabulary and the necessary sentence constructions at your disposal. Always be

sure that you know what you want to say before you begin writing or talking about

anything.

It is very difficult to communicate effectively if you are unsure about what you want

to communicate. Once you pin down your ideas, be it in a letter, speech, presentation

or business proposal, edit them thoroughly, remembering to always:

Test for an overall logical structure.

Check your grammar.

Examine sentence structure and voice.

Examine the diction and tone—checking for taut, clear language.

Examine the means of presentation—could you use multimedia? Is it in the

correct format?

Ask another person to look over your ideas.

Identify your main means of persuasion—is it the best means? Remember, in

the business world, logos coupled with ethos is usually the way to go. Limit

pathos.

Check that, overall, your work addresses your audience.

This principle applies to negotiating tables as well. Even though negotiating requires

you to think on your feet, you should still have an idea of what you want to discuss

and the important negotiating points that you want to cover.


Case Studies

The following case studies will present a dilemma or question that relates to the

information presented in this module. After considering each case study and using

your new knowledge about effective communication, please respond to each

question listed.

Case Study 1: Color Selection

Person X must give a listing presentation to potential clients who are in their late 20’s.

She decides that using multimedia might be a good way to engage the sellers and

keep everyone focused. Consequently, she sets up a series of slides on which she will

display tag lines, charts, illustrations, and other images and text. The slide program

she's using requires her to select a background color for each slide. The color or, if

she wants, the colors, that she chooses will appear as the background for every slide

she shows.

Given this, which of the following color selections would probably be the most

prudent?

A different color for every slide

Bright yellow on all the slides

Bright yellow and yellow-green on all the slides

Blues or greens for all the slides

Feedback: Given the options here, blues and greens are probably the best selection.

Remember, everyone has favorite colors—but some colors are just physically harder

on the eyes. Yellow is one of those colors.

An hour or so of brightly colored slides (yellow and yellow-green) are probably not

the way to go. On the other hand, blue is the easiest color on the eyes and it is also

most people's favorite color. She probably would not want to use a different color

for every slide because this might make her presentation disjointed.


Instead, she should use font, background color, and general layout and formatting

to give her presentation continuity.

Case Study 2: Persuasion Methods

Person X creates a poster that has a picture of attractive people laughing and

drinking at a party. The scene is covered in confetti and it appears that everyone is

having a good time. At the bottom of the poster it reads, "Let the Good Times Role!"

and it has the logo of a prominent builder’s new development.

The builder specializes in converting downtown industrial buildings into trendy lofts

for ‘party’ singles.

Which of the following statements about Person X's poster is TRUE?

It is utilizing ethos as a means of persuading you to buy a downtown loft.

It is utilizing pathos as a means of persuading you to buy a downtown loft.

It is utilizing logos as a means of persuading you to buy a downtown loft.

It is not trying to persuade you of anything.

Feedback:

The poster is using pathos as a means to persuade you to buy a downtown loft and,

specifically, in that builder’s loft project. (This example is very similar to one that we

previously examined.) While it's easy to think of pathos as just "tugging at your heart

strings," remember: anytime someone wants to persuade you by associating

emotions with an argument that person is using pathos! In this case, Person X wants

us to associate fun with living downtown in a loft project that ‘appears’ to have

‘swinging-singles’. Associations like this are very common in advertisements.


Case Study 3: Persuasive Language

Person X needs to negotiate with a buyer about discount points. Everything else is

settled. Person X just needs to bring the issue up in a way that will help him persuade

the buyer to pay the desired amount, which is one point.

Which of the following examples is a good way to bring up the issue?

Now, let's move on to discount points. I want you to pay them so that I don't

have to.

I think there's just one thing left and we'll be done: discount points!

Can you pay the discount points so that we can close this deal?

I think this deal will prove mutually lucrative. To close it, let's settle on the

payment of discount points.

Feedback:

The last answer option is probably the best. This is because it not only tastefully

brings up the issue, but it utilizes money-specific terminology. In Lesson 4, we

discussed the coloring and catering of language, and the importance of both. We

want to cater our language to our given audience and their current drives. In the case

of closing a real estate transaction, the drive is probably money. That's why using

money-specific terms, such as "lucrative," "close," and "payment," might be a good

idea. The other options do not have the same, carefully selected language, and they

are a little too abrupt for the delicacies of the negotiating table.

Case Study 4: Selecting the Right Outfit

Person X is going to a college campus to recruit new hires and interns for her

brokerage. She has a booth at a job fair where she will be handing out information

and talking one-on-one in a less-formal setting with individual students.


Which of the following outfits is probably the best choice?

A colored or print dress shirt and a skirt or pants with or without accessories

A black two- or three-piece jacket/skirt suit without any accessories

Jeans and a polo shirt

Shorts and a tank top

Selecting the correct wardrobe can be difficult. While it's generally pretty easy to see

what's "out" (tuxedos, prom dresses, shorts, tank tops, etc.) it can be harder to gauge

the best dress from what's "in" (suits, dresses, skirts, slacks, polos, etc.). In this case,

a colored or print dress shirt and a skirt or pants with or without accessories is

probably the best choice.

A black two- or three-piece suit is probably a little drab for the average college

campus. On the other hand, jeans and polo shirt might be a little too informal for

recruiting young professionals. The dress shirt and pants/skirt is a nice middle point

between the two previous options.

Remember, your appearance is important when it comes to ethos as a means of

persuasion. Consider the current example, would a young professional want to come

and work for a company that she or he didn't consider professional? Would he or she

trust the information you offer if he or she does not view you as a professional?

Probably not.

Case Study 5: Standardized Phone Greetings

Brokerage X has a bigger team of salespeople than ever before and they're doing

great! Now, they're trying to establish some standard practices to make sure that

everyone is on the same page. Currently, they're focusing on creating a series of

standard phone practices.


Which of the following phone programs standardizing how people answer the phone

is the best?

Say: "Hello, good morning/afternoon/evening, how can I help you today?

Say: "Hello, Brokerage X, how can I help you today?"

Say: "Hello, this is (Salesperson's Name), how can I help you today?"

Say: "Hello, Brokerage X, this is (Salesperson's Name), how can I help you

today?"

The last standard option: "Hello, Brokerage X, this is (Salesperson's Name), how can

I help you today?" is the only one that gives all of the requisite information:

The name of the person answering the phone

The name of the brokerage

A polite and brief greeting

Most brokerages can benefit from creating standard phone practices for all their

salespeople. To ensure that your brokerage and an incoming caller start off on the

right foot, you want to politely give as much information as possible. If a caller has to

ask with whom he or she is speaking or if the caller has to ask if he or she has reached

"Brokerage X," then the brokerage will seem less professional. The smoother your

correspondence go from the beginning, the more likely you are to keep ethos as a

means of persuasion open to you.

Case Study 6: Client Satisfaction Research

Person X has a variety of market data that he wants to share with his colleagues at

the next business meeting. In essence, he wanted to find out what percentage of the

brokerage's clients was truly happy with the service that they received. So he

conducted some market research. He found the following:

25 percent were satisfied

30 percent were mostly satisfied

25 percent were somewhat satisfied


20 percent were unsatisfied

He decides that a chart or graph of some kind might help make his numerical values

more digestible. He wants to select a type of graph that would best illustrate the

part/whole relationship between the satisfied group and those who were less

satisfied.

Given this, which of the following graphs would be the best choice?

Line graph

Bar graph

Pie chart

Venn diagram

As the student probably remembers, a pie chart is a circular illustration sectioned off

in relation to the parts of some whole in an attempt to show the relationship of data,

which is usually represented as a percentage. Pie charts work great for percentages

and, consequently, are probably Person X's best bet. In fact, Person X's chart might

look something like this:

A Venn diagram would offer little insight into the relationship between the data

points because the groupings are mutually exclusive—there is no crossover. A line

graph or a bar graph is possible, but they do little to illustrate the part/whole

relationship.

25%

30%25%

20%Satisfied

Mostly Satisfied

Somewhat Satisfied

Unsatisfied


Case Study 7: E-mail Revisions

Person X finished writing an e-mail that she is now revising. The e-mail contains the

following sentence:

The sale price was rejected by the sellers; although a counteroffer has been

submitted.

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%

Satisfied Mostly

Satisfied

Somewhat

Satisfied

Unsatisfied

Past Clients

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Satistfied Mostly

Satisfied

Somewhat

Satisfied

Unsatisfied

Past Clients


Which of the following statements about this sentence is TRUE?

The sentence has no mood.

The sentence is actually a fragment and should be rewritten.

The sentence should be revised so that it contains a "verb phrase."

The sentence is in the passive voice and should probably be revised.

The sentence is in passive voice and should probably be revised.

Let's see why this is the case. Examine the sentence once again:


submitted.

Which of the following statements is TRUE?

There is one passive voice clause in the sentence.

There are two passive voice clauses in the sentence.

There are three passive voice clauses in the sentence.

There are four passive voice clauses in the sentence.

There are two passive voice clauses in the sentence:

The sale price was rejected by the sellers

A counteroffer has been submitted

The sale price was rejected by the sellers A counteroffer has been submitted

If we examine the sentence, then we can see that it's comprised of two independent

passive clauses.


The clauses are reproduced above, and the verb phrase is highlighted in yellow and

the direct object is highlighted in red. Notice that if we draw an arrow from the verb

phrase to the direct object, then our arrow goes backwards towards the subject,

rather than forwards towards the predicate. To make the sentence active, we need

to fix both of these clauses. So how should we do that? Let's consider each one.

The first clause reads: "The sale price was rejected by the sellers." Remember, that

when present, the indirect object often offers us a perfectly good agent of action that

we can use to make a sentence active.

The indirect object of the sentence is "sellers."

Like many passive constructions, this one contains a perfectly good agent of action

just to the right on the verb phrase: "the sellers." This makes revising this sentence

even easier! Just move the indirect object (sellers) to the front of the sentence, and

make it the subject. And then, re-conjugate the verb to the noun "sellers", paying

attention to number, tense, and person. This changes our clause as indicated below:

The sale price was rejected by the sellersThe sellers rejected the sale price.

The sellers rejected the sale price.

Above, the direct object is highlighted in red and the verb is highlighted in yellow. If

you draw an arrow from the verb to the direct object, then which direction does it

go? Notice that the arrow moves forwards—towards the predicate. The clause is now

active.

The other clause currently reads:

"A counteroffer has been submitted."


Can you change this clause to active voice? Please rewrite the clause and then

continue.

Hint

Notice that fixing this clause is a little trickier because there is

no clear indirect object. The agent of action is missing altogether.

But, you can infer the agent of action if you read the sentence

carefully. Just ask yourself: "Who or what submitted a counteroffer?"

Although there are many possibilities, your sentence should probably resemble this

revised clause:

"They submitted a counteroffer."

Now, we can once again combine the two clauses, as well as the transition word

"although" listed in the original sentence to create the following:

The sellers rejected the sale price; although they submitted a counteroffer.

Compare this with the previous sentence:


submitted.

Which do you like better? In general, the active sentence is probably preferable.

However, remember that passive voice is not inherently wrong and that, to a certain

extent, voice and mood are left up to the author.


More Information: Notice that in the revised sentence we did not use "the sellers"

again. Instead, we used "the sellers" once, in the first clause, and the pronoun "they"

(referring to the sellers) in the second clause. This was to prevent unnecessary

repetition. Pronouns are a good way to insure that your sentences do not sound

redundant. Just be sure to avoid pronoun confusions. Pronoun confusion is when

there is a pronoun that could refer to two or more specific or proper nouns; for

example: "Sarah called Misha. She was happy to receive the necessary information

from her." Who gave whom information? Notice that there's no way to be sure. It

could either be that Misha told Sarah something once Sarah called Misha; or, it could

be that Sarah called Misha to tell Misha the information.

Case Study 8: House Comparisons

Broker X is trying to illustrate to a potential client the number of houses that she has

with different features. Some of the houses share some of the same features.

Although she will specifically cover each home, she wants to illustrate the number of

options available to the potential client. She is trying to think of a chart or diagram

that she could construct to help the client visualize the various options open to him.

Of the following types of diagrams, which one would best suit Broker X's purposes?

Venn diagram

Bar graph

Line graph

Pie chart

A Venn diagram would allow her to illustrate and number the shared attributes of

the various homes. This would offer a visual representation of the diverse listings

that her brokerage can offer. Once she and her clients pin down the grouping that

the client is interested in, they can then consider each home in particular. The other

charts would do little to help Broker X.


A pie chart requires mutually exclusive groupings. A bar graph might work, but it

might also prove misleading. That is, if you don't really want to compare the

numbers, then why attribute "heights" to the numbers on a chart? It's just not very

helpful. A line graph shares the same problem as a bar graph, but would probably

be harder to read as well.

Given that a Venn diagram would probably suit her best, let's construct one. Broker

X's housing amenities information is as follows:

House #1: Fireplace, swimming pool, two-car garage

House #2: Fireplace

House #3: Swimming pool, two-car garage

House #4: Two-car garage

House #5: Swimming pool, two-car garage

House #6: Fireplace, two-car garage

House #7: Fireplace, swimming pool, two-car garage

House #8: Swimming pool

House #9: Two-car garage

House #10: Two-car garage, fireplace

Given this, can you construct a Venn diagram? Since we're considering three

amenities, you will need three interlocking circles (one for each amenity). Once you

have drawn your diagram, assign each grouping a number. Then, look at the

feedback to see if your diagram matches ours.


For the sake of continuity, please make the top circle the "fireplace circle," the

bottom-left circle the "swimming pool circle," and the bottom-right circle the "two-

car garage circle." That way it will be easier to check you graph. Note that this means

that your circles should be laid out as indicated above.

Your diagram should look like the one below. Notice that unlike the other types of

diagrams, this one successfully negotiates different types of information that are not

mutually exclusive. For this reason, Venn diagrams are great ways to illustrate market

research, consumer report findings, buying habits, etc.!

Case Study: Logic Examples

Throughout the duration of this module we have outlined ways that you can make

your communications more effective and your positions more persuasive. In

particular, we stressed that in the business world you should focus your rhetoric

efforts on logos—as it is generally the most important of the three approaches in

professional settings. We also learned, however, that access to logos as a means of

persuasion depends upon the actual logic of your position.

When you or anyone else presents an opinion or position without the proper

premises and it is, therefore "incomplete," it does NOT mean that the opinion or

position is inherently wrong—as in "untrue" or silly (although it could mean that).


More than likely, however, it probably means that you are not offering your audience

the correct premises. You have not narrowed down your evidence and properly

concluded exactly what someone needs to arrive at the same deduction that you

have. In such a case, logos is not an available means of persuasion.

Our ability to judge the logical validity of PRESENT information forms the foundation

of accessing logos. Given this, let's practice! The following section will outline a series

of arguments. Read the arguments (which are presented in paragraph form) and

then choose either "logical" or "illogical." Remember—we're not trying to decide if

they are "true;" we're trying to decide if the connections are logical and clear.

Example 1

X has two legs. Things with two legs are "bi-pedal." X is "bi-pedal."

Logical Incomplete

Feedback:

Although short, this "paragraph" makes a "valid" claim. Now it might be that there

are other factors that the information PRESENT is not considering. However, the

PRESENT information illustrates a logical deduction. The person writing this

argument could use logos to persuade people that "X is bi-pedal."

Example 2

We currently spend 90 percent of our budget on printed text advertisements and

only 10 percent on television commercials. The cost of printed text has sky-rocketed,

while the cost of television commercials is at an all-time low. We calculated that we

can reach more people via television than via newspaper with the same amount of

money because statistically, fewer people in Neighborhood X read the paper than

watch television.


Because the lowered cost of television makes TV an accessible resource, and because

more people view television than read papers, we should cut back on printed

advertisements and focus instead on television commercials so that we can reach

more people with our given funds.

Logical Incomplete

Feedback:

Although budgets are always a little more complex than this, this is logical given the

PRESENT information. In addition to being a logical claim, it is also in a reasonably

logical order. This author has left logos open!

Example 3

Salespeople need to be out in the field. Therefore, we should have fewer desks in the

office.

Logical Incomplete

Feedback:

This "paragraph" leaves the reader to infer a lot—the connections are missing. Now,

one could see to what the author is hinting. He or she probably means that if we have

a bunch of desks in the office, or possibly a desk for every salesperson, that they are

likely to sit there instead of being out in the field.

Can you improve this author's argument? Let's assume that in fact he or she wants

to say that all the salespeople have desks and that they sit at them instead of getting

out in the field and that, as a result, the brokerage should cut back on the number of

desks in the office. Remember—give the passage a topic sentence, keep it taut, and

keep the premiseconclusion order.


Although there are lots of possibilities, your passage should resemble this one in

many ways:

The brokerage has recently found that the number of desks in the office directly

affects the number of salespersons in the field.

Specifically, it found that the more desks it keeps in the office, the greater the

presence of salespersons in the office; and the fewer number of desks in the office,

the less the presence of salespersons in the office. Salespersons maximize

productivity while in the field, not while sitting at their desks. Consequently, we

should cut back on the number of desks in the office so that we can keep

salespersons in the field.

It's unlikely that your paragraph matches this one exactly—which is probably a good

thing! You definitely want to develop your own professional voice. However, your

paragraph should share some of the qualities of this paragraph. For example:

It should have a topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph is

about.

It should follow a premiseconclusion construction.

It should utilize transitions when possible.

Case Study 10: Approaching a Problem Client

You are representing a seller-client who wants to ask way too much for his house. It's

up to you to convince him to stick a little closer to the appraised market value. What

is the best way to approach this problem?

Step 1: Gather your evidence for presentation. As a real estate professional, you

understand why it is important for houses to be appropriately priced — it's likely that

your client does not fully understand it.


If he or she receives the kind of information from which you are working, then he or

she might be more likely to share your point of view. This is why you generate a CMA.

Step one is to generate a CMA.

Step 2: Go over the CMA with the client. Instead of just handing the client the CMA,

go over each part with him or her, outlining the important details and the extent of

your research. Here's where the bulk of your persuasion will come into play. While

going over the CMA, find legitimate ways to utilize both ethos and pathos. This will

give weight to the "conclusions" in the CMA and to your expertise.

Step 3: Advise your client. Ultimately it is your client's call, of course. But you do want

to make sure that your clients fully understand the various issues relating to

marketing real estate before they make any decisions.

So, utilize transitions and colorful, catered language to recommend a course of

action—in this case, pricing the home near the appraised market value. If the client

seems set against it, is it because he or she does not trust the appraisal price? If so,

then perhaps the client has a good reason. In that case, you could order another one.

Lesson Summary

This lesson focused on logos, which refers to presenting logic to persuade, and how

to keep logos as a means of persuasion open to you in your negotiations sessions

and correspondence. Initially, this lesson outlined ways that you can check your ideas

for logical connections. We then examined ways to ensure that people can easily

follow your arguments.

Logic involves examining your ideas for coherency and legitimacy. While it can be

difficult to know if any given information is "true," we can examine given information

to see if it is at least coherent with itself.


That is to say, we can look at someone's evidence and someone's conclusions and

see if an argument makes sense internally. When examining information logically you

want to see if the premises that someone offers you, which might include

observations, data or research, adequately support the conclusions or claims that

the person is making.

We tend to believe our own deductions with a greater conviction than we do the

ideas of others. If you can help an audience arrive at the same conclusion as you by

presenting them premises that lead to a logical conclusion, then you are likely to

persuade them on a deeper level.

Logic is a very persuasive tool and, consequently, you should always examine your

ideas for logical progressions.

Here are some steps you can follow to do just that:

State your intent at the beginning—introductions are not a formality, they are

the basis of any clear correspondence.

Outline your position or argument—if you cannot easily outline your position,

then it's either not logical or you haven't quite pinned it down yet.

Examine your premises and conclusions to ensure that someone else could

arrive at the same conclusion.

Please return to the course player to take the interactivity and then the lesson quiz.

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