TWENTIETH CENTURY EUROPEThe Making of a Conservative: Switzerland 111 Swiss Direct Democracy and Its...

TWENTIETH CENTURYEUROPE

Politics, Society, Culture

B/67479

SPENCER M. DI SCALAUniversity of Massachusetts Boston

Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. LouisBangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico CityMilan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto

CONTENTS

PREFACE xxv

INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS EUROPE? xxxiii

Europe as a Cultural Conception xxxiiiThe Idea oj Europe and Christianity xxxivThe European Ideal Becomes Secularized xxxivHegemony versus Consensus xxxviiThe Ideal oj Unity between the Two World Wars xxxixT7u* European Concept during the Late Twentieth Century xlA Post-Cold War Perspective xliBIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY xlH

PART ONE

THE EUROPEAN AGE

1 DECEMBER 14, 1900 2The Twentieth Century: Science and IdeologyEuropean Society 3

Private Lives in a Modernizing Society 3The City 5The Countryside 5Women 6Social Classes 8Emigration 11

Changing Cultural and Political Outlooks 12The Nation as a Community 12Liberalism 15Socialism 16The Belief in Science 17Scientific Revolution 18Cultural Rebellion 22From Cultural to Political Revolt 24A Society in Movement 27

Contents

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 2 8

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES

Anna Kulisciofj Cofounder of Italian Socialism 9Max Planck An Upright German 20

THE DEMOCRACIES AND THEIR DILEMMAS 31

Britain: Accommodation and Militancy 31Parliament and Reform 32Struggle with the House of Lords 34Increasing Militancy 36

France Muddles Through 39The Third Republic 39The Rise of Nationalism 40The Modern Challenge and Frances Failure 41

Italian Democracy in the Making 44Italian Constitutional Weaknesses 44The Rise of Extremism 46Divisive Economic and Social Issues 47



Emmclinc Pankhurst "Votes for Women!" 37Jcan-]oseph-Maric-AugustcJaures Martyr 42

THE AUTHORITARIAN STATES 52

Tlic German Empire: Greater Prussia 52The Constitutional Structure of United Germany 53The Tariff and Its Implications 54German Society 55Racism and Intolerance 56German Women 57German Socialism 58The Emperor 59The Failure of Reform 59

"That Ramshackle Realm": Austria-Hungary 62A Complicated Constitutional Structure 63The Nationalities Problem 63Hungary versus Austria 64The Nationalities Question in Hungary 66Economic Development and Its Effects 67Could Austria-Hungary Have Survived? 68

Imperial Russia: "Institutions Are oj No Importance" 68A Multinational Empire 69Insufficiency of Reform and Radicalization 69The Crumbling Autocracy 71The 1905 Revolution 72Struggle in the Duma 72Stolypins Reforms 74



Frii'iiridi Wilhclm Viktor Albrecht of Hohenzollcrn Failure 60KarlLuegcr Mayor of Vienna 65

Contents

4 FOREIGN POLICIES 78

Britain: Managing Decline 78The German Challenge 78Diplomatic Revolution 80

World Policy (Weltpolitik) 82Collapse of Bismarck's System 82The Schlieffen Plan 83

Frances Lost Provinces 85The Poisoned Atmosphere 85France Emerges from Isolation 86Escalating Nationalism 88

Showdown in the Balkans 89Increasing Conflict 89

The Peace Emperor and the Balkan Cauldron 90Time Runs Out for Austria-Hungary 90

Italy Searches for Security 91The Troubled Triple Alliance 91The Libyan War 91



Theophile Delcasse Warrior Diplomat 86Francis Joseph of Hapsburg Unlucky 92

5 EUROPEAN PERIPHERIES 97

Scandinavia: An Ideal Unity 97Swedish Democracy 98Economic Progress 99Norwegian Democracy 100End of the Union with Sweden 100Novel Economic Experiments 100Denmark's Anguished Politics 101Economic and Social Change 102The World Center of Quantum Physics 103

Different Roads: The Low Countries 103Dutch Economic Development 104The Influence of Dutch Socialism 106Divided Belgium 107Belgian Constitutional Tradition 107An Industrial Powerhouse 107Struggle with the Church 108The Flemish Problem 108Belgian Foreign Affairs 110

The Making of a Conservative: Switzerland 111Swiss Direct Democracy and Its Involution 111Economic and Social Development 112

The Iberian States 113Political Chaos in Spain 113Social Disintegration 113Leftist Violence and Rightist Reaction 114Portuguese Upheavals 115The Portuguese Revolution 115

Contents

Southeastern Europe 116The Romanian King 116Economics and Society 117The Jewish Question 118Foreign Policy 118Bulgaria's Political Fragility 119Foreign Dissatisfactions 120Greece: Instability and Corruption 120The "Great Idea" 121Serbia: Instability and Assassination 122Destabilizing the Balkans 123

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 1 2 4


Nick Havik David Bohr "Uncle Nick" 104Emilc Vandervddc Evolutionary Socialist 109

PART TWO

E N D OF H E G E M O N Y

6 WORLD WAR I 128

Imperialism ami Diplomacy: From Crisis to Crisis 128German Imperialism 129An Entangled Web 129Diplomatic Crises 130German Aims 131

History of a Histoiy: Causes oj World War I 132The Fay Hypothesis and Its Impact 133The Fischer Thesis 134

Combat! 135Failure of the Schlieffen Plan 135Trench Warfare 136German Successes in the East 140A Widening War 140The Bleeding of Armies 143Weapons and Tactics 144Political Changes 147

The Home Fronts 148Industrial Reorganization and the Civilian Population in Germany 149Class Divisions in Britain 150Social Resentment 151Women at War 151State and Society 153War and Science 154

The War Ends 154American Intervention 155Strategic and Cultural Issues 155

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 158


Hcnrv Gwvn Jeffreys Mosclev A Casualty of War 139E?idi Maria Remarque "But now, for the tirst time, people learned what itwas really like" 156

WAR'S IMMEDIATE IMPACT: RUSSIAN AND OTHERREVOLUTIONS 160War and the Russian Revolutions 160

Russian Military Deficiencies 161The February Revolution 161The Tsar Abdicates 163The October Revolution 165Consolidation of Bolshevik Power 168Bolshevik Policies 169The NEP 170

The German Revolution 171End of the War in Germany 171The Struggle for Power 172Foundation of the Weimar Republic 173

Revolution in Austria 175The Austrian Uprising 175The Revolution Winds Down 176

The Hungarian Revolution 177Opposition to the War 177Bela Kun and the Hungarian Communists 178The Hungarian Soviet Republic 178End of the Soviet Republic 179

Continuous Rebellion: Artists and Scientists 180Dada and Revolution 180Surrealism 182Revolutionary Developments in Physics 182



Vladimir llych Ulvanov A Sealed Train 166Rosa Luxemburg Marxist Martyr 174

THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE PEACE 185The Paris Peace Conference 185

Contentious Issues 186The Territorial Consequences 189

German Losses 189The Polish Problem and Russian Losses 192The Breakup of Austria-Hungary and Its Consequences 192Southeastern Europe 195

Economic Consequences 195The Allies and Reparations 196The Criticisms of John Maynard Keynes 198

The Moral Consequences 199The "War Guilt" Clause 199The Disarmament Clauses 200The Specter of Anschluss 201

Contents

The League of Nations 201Structure of the League 201Consequences of the League's Weakness 202



Georges Clcmenccau Tiger 188Sidney Sonnino Failed Diplomatist 197

9 HARD LANDINGS: FROM CRISIS TO FALSE PROSPERITY 205

Britain: Back to 1914 206Economic Problems 206Political Questions and Ireland 206Rise of the Labour Party 207Return to the Gold Standard 208British Foreign Policy in the 1920s 210

France's Quest for Security 210The "Red Menace" 210Politics and Economics 211A Real Peace? 212

Italy: From "Red Biennium" to Fascism 213The Troubled Postwar 213The "Red Biennium" 214The Fascist Reaction 215The Fascist Dictatorship 216Fascist Policies in the 1920s 218

Weimar's Three Original Sins 220Structural Continuity 220The Versailles Legacy 221Hyperinflation 222Foreign Policy and Its Domestic Effects 223

The USSR: The Crisis of NEP 224The NEP Debate 2 2 4The Peasant Challenge 225The End of NEP 226



John Maynard Keynes Savior of Capitalism 2 0 8

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini Young Rebel 2 1 6

PART THREE

AN AGE OF DICTATORS

10 THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES 232

The Gnat Depression 232The Long Wave 232A Downward Spiral 234Government Policies 234

Contents

British Democracy 235Britain Confronts the Crisis 235The National Government 237Political Challenges 238

Troubled France 239France and the Depression 239Political Disorder 240Right and Left: A Mortal Struggle 241The Popular Front and Its Failure 241

Scandinavia: Toward Social Democracy 244Postwar Unrest and Reform 244Confronting the Depression 245Foreign Affairs 246

Marking Time: The Low Countries and Switzerland 247Impact of the War 247Postwar Politics 247The Depressions Impact 248Swiss Anxieties 248



James Ramsay MacDonald Labour's "Nonperson" Prime Minister 2 3 6

Leon Blum Popular Front 242

11 THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY IN EASTERN ANDSOUTHERN EUROPE 251

The Victors of the Versailles Settlement 251The Baltic States 252Poland's Reemergence 253The Rise of Pilsudski 253Polish Economic Stabilization 254Poland after Pilsudski 255Birth of Czechoslovakia 256Dilemmas of Czech Democracy 258The Aggrandizement ot Romania 259The Royal Dictatorship 260Yugoslav Factionalism 260The King Takes Over 261

The Versailles Settlement's Losers 262Hungary's Rightist Regime 262Hungarian Fascism 262The Political Struggle in Austria 263Struggle with the Nazis 263Bulgaria from Defeat to Dictatorship 264

The Aegean and the Adriatic 265The Greek Labyrinth 265The Refugee Problem 266Depression and Dictatorship 266Isolated Albania 267Instability and the Albanian Dictatorship 267

Iberia 268Failure of the Portuguese Republic 268

xii Contents

Salazar's "New State" 268Military Dictatorship in Spain 269The Republic and Polarization of Spanish Politics 270The Spanish Civil War 271



Josef Klemens Pilsudski Polish Dictator 254Thomas Garrigue Masarvk European Democrat 256

12 MUSSOLINI'S FASCISM 274

Fascist Practice 274The Government 275Structure of the Dictatorship 275Uneasy Peace with the Church 276Labor Policy 277The Depression, Industry, and Autarky 278Agriculture 281

Fascist Ideology 281The "Third Way" 282The Corporate State 283Mobilizing the Masses 284Propaganda 285Fascism and Women 287Ordinary Lives 288The Anti-Semitic Laws 289



Edmondo Rossoni Fascist Labor 279Margherita Sarfatti "Dictator of the Figurative Arts" 286

13 STALIN'S COMMUNISM 292

Communist Ideology 292Lenin's Concept of the Party 292Stalinism 294Socialism in One Country 294Agricultural Collectivization 295

Communist Practice 297Collectivization 297The Five-Year Plan and the Personality Cult 300A Revolution in Culture 303Leninist Antecedents 305Stalinism and Science 307The Purges 308Stalin's Triumph 310



Nikolai Ivauovich Bukharin Communist Theoretician 296Alexandra Mikhavlovna Kollontai "Red Rose of the Revolution" 304

Contents

14 THE NAZI ASSAULT ON WEIMAR 312

Weimar's Crumbling Support 312The Radicalization of Agriculture and Big Business 312

The Unemployed and the Welfare System 313

Ascent of the Nazi Party 314Hitler and the Nazis 314

Revival of the Nazi Party 316

The Collapse of Weimar 317The Electoral Breakthrough 317Parliamentary Paralysis and Increasing Disorder 3 1 8

The Drive to Power 319

Installing the Dictatorship 321The Elections of March 1933 321Results of the Enabling Act 322Nazisms Rise in Retrospect 3 2 3



Adolf Hitler Down and Out in Vienna 3 1 5

Fran; von Papen Politico 3 2 0

15 HITLER'S NAZISM 327

Foundations of Nazism 327Anti-Semitism 327The Nuremberg Laws 328Kristallnacht 3 2 9Racial Imperialism 329

"Life Unworthy of Life": The Nazi Euthanasia Program 331

Nazi Theory and Practice 3 3 3The Party 3 3 3

The SS and the Nazi State 334

Everyday Life 3 3 5Ordinary Germans 335Cultural Aspects 337Youth 339Reorganizing the Economy 340Nazism and Capitalism: Arms and Autobahns 342Social Ramifications 3 4 3The Sonderweg Debate 344



Gertnui Scholtc-Klink Unrepentant! 3 3 6

Hermann Goeiing Nazi Chieftain 3 4 1

16 INTERWAR SOCIETY A N D CULTURE 347

Society 348Private Lives 348Fashion 349Tourism and Sports 349

Contents

Entertainment and High Culture 351Motion Pictures 351Flowering and Decline of the German Cinema 352Experimentation and Repression: Soviet Film 353New Cinematic Forms 354Literature 355Painting and the Bauhaus Style 357Political Philosophy 358

Technology and Society 359Diffusion of Technology 359The Radio and Its Impact 359The Depression 360

Pure Science: Revolution and Travail 361A New Revolution 361Science and Politics 362



Ettore Majorana The Enduring Mystery 363List' Meitncr The Role of Insight 364

17 DIPLOMACY BETWEEN THE WARS: THE COLLAPSE OF PEACE 367

The Continent in the 1920s 367The French Military Dilemma 368Mussolini's Revisionism 368

Correcting Versailles 369The "Spirit of Locarno" 369Economic Issues 373

The Hitler Revolution 374The Austrian Debacle 374Africa and Europe: Breakup of the Wartime Alliance 375The Ethiopian War and the Discredit of the League of Nations 376Remilitarization of the Rhineland 376The Spanish Civil War and Its Impact 377

From Crisis to Crisis 378The Austrian Crisis 378Czechoslovakia's Strategic Dilemma 378The Czech Crisis 379The Munich Conference 380

A New War 381Poland's Strategic Dilemma 381The Polish Crisis 382The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact 383

The Outbreak of War 384



Gustav Strcsemann Fulfillment 370Aristidc Briand Man of Peace, "Father of Europe" 372

Contents

18 THE GERMAN TIDE OVER EUROPE 387

Confrontation 388The Allies 3 8 8The Axis 389The USSR 392

German Successes 392The Nazi-Soviet Assault on Poland and the Baltic 3 9 3Hitler Turns West 3 9 4France Falls 3 9 5Italian Intervention 3 9 9Britain Resists 4 0 0Italian Failures 4 0 0The Assault on the USSR 4 0 1Soviet Resistance 4 0 1

The Home Fronts 402Home Front: Britain 402Home Front: Germany 4 0 4Home Front: Italy 4 0 6Home Front: The USSR 4 0 7



Heinz Wilhelm Guderian Panzer General 3 9 6

Maurice Gustave Gamelin Historical Footnote 3 9 8

19 INSIDE HITLER'S EUROPE: MILITARY OCCUPATION

A N D GENOCIDE 4 1 1

Short and Long- Term Aims 4 1 1Territorial Designs 4 1 1Economic Goals 4 1 3

Military Occupation in the East 413Northeastern Europe 414Southeastern Europe 415

Military Occupation in the West 416Defeated France and Its Divisions 417The National Revolution 417Women and the Family 418Growth of Resistance 419

The Holocaust 420The Holocaust Debate 421The Final Solution 421The Einsatzgruppen 424The Concentration Camps 425Resistance in the Camps 426Ghettoization 428The West 429The Phenomenon of Rescue 429

Genocide 430The Techniques of Genocide 431

Contents

Depopulation 431Debilitation 431Denationalization 432



Hcinrich Himmlcr "Architect of Genocide" 423PhmoLcvi 174517 426

2 0 H O W THE WAR WAS W O N 4 3 5

Weapons 4 3 5Armies and Armor 436War in the Air 437Naval Warfare 4 3 8Atomic Weapons 439

Wartime Propaganda 440

Wartime Production 4 4 0Axis Inferiority 4 4 0

American Production Techniques 4 4 1

Battles 4 4 3The South 4 4 3The Fight for North Africa 4 4 4The Italian Surrender 4 4 6The East 447Stalingrad 447Progress of the Russian Fighting 4 4 8The West 4 4 9D-Day 4 4 9The Battle of the Bulge 4 4 9

The Strategic Bombing Campaign 4 5 0

Resistance 4 5 0Divisions 4 5 0Different Phases 4 5 1Different Groups 4 5 3

Opposition in Germany 4 5 4

The Future 4 5 5Conferences 4 5 5Yalta and Potsdam—and the Cold War 4 5 6

End of the War in Europe 4 5 7

Ideology: Nationalism's Handmaiden? 4 5 8Nazism and Nationalism 4 5 8Communism and Russian Nationalism 4 5 8Nationalism and Democracy 4 5 9



Envin Rommel The Desert Fox 442

Bernard Lair Montgomery Hero of El Alamein 4 4 4

Contents xvii

PART FOUR

DUAL EUROPE

21 MAKING POSTWAR EUROPE 464

Soviet Dominance in the East 464Communists and Coalitions: Stalin's Popular Front Tactics 465Soviet Hegemony in Poland 465The Political Struggle in Czechoslovakia 467The Coup d'Etat 469The Former Nazi Satellites: Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria 470A Special Case: Yugoslavia 471Social Change in Eastern Europe 474

The West: American Influence 474From Resistance to the Welfare State 475War Damage 476American Aid and Economic Stabilization 477The Marshall Plan 478Communism in France 478Italian Communism 479

The Cold War 479The Division of Germany 480The Berlin Airlift 480 'Stalin's German Strategy 481America Adopts a Hard Line: Kennan and Truman 482Evolution of Nuclear Weapons 483The Paradoxical Impact of the Bomb 484The Two Blocs 486



Klanent Gottwald Stalinist 468Josip Broz Tito Communist Nationalist 473

22 ECONOMIC INTEGRATION AND POLITICAL STABILIZATIONIN THE WEST 490

Defense Mechanisms 490'NATO 491German Rearmament and European Military Organizations 492Failure of European Military Initiatives 492

Economic Integration 493The Council of Europe 494Marshall Plan Institutions 495The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 495The European Economic Community (EEC) 496EEC Objectives 497EEC Success 500Foreign Affairs and Enlargement 500Crisis and Survival 501

The Community: New Europe's Core 502The Federal Republic of Germany and the Achievement of Stability 503Konrad Adenauer and the Christian Democratic Union 503

Contents

The Social Democratic Party and Ostpolitik 5 0 4West German Economic Success 506Instability in France 506Charles de Gaulle and the Fifth Republic 5 0 7The 1968 Disorders in France 5 0 8French Foreign Policy 509Italian Political Paralysis 509The Kennedy Administration and the Opening to the Left 5 1 1Disorder and Terrorism 511Eurocommunism 512The Italian Economic Miracle 512

The Benelux Countries—Political and Economic Progress 5 1 3

Associated Countries 5 1 4The Greek Dictatorship 514

The Turkish Question 515



Jean Monnet Cognac and Europe 4 9 8

Konrad Adenauer Senior Statesman 504

23 FAILURE OF EFTA AND EXPANSION OFTHE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY 519

EFTA 519Failure of the EFTA Model 519

Characteristics of the Seven 520British Social Policy 521The Struggle for EEC Membership 521British Decline 522The Scandinavian Countries 524Austria: Looking toward the EEC 525Recalcitrant Switzerland 527Portuguese Revival 528

The Disappearing Periphery 528Changing Spain 528The Return of Spanish Democracy 529Irish Troubles 530Finland: Political Stability and Economic Development 531Emerging Iceland 531



James Harold Wilson Reluctant European 522Kurt Waldheim Austria in the Dock 526

24 DECOLONIZATION 535

Origins of Decolonization 535World War II and Its Implications 536The Cold War 538Economics and Society 538Politics and Nationalism 539

Death by War 540

Contents

Italian Colonialism 540Italian Losses after World War II 541End of the Dutch Empire 542

Failed Transformations 543The Belgian Congo 543Failure of the French Union 544The War in Algeria 545The French Community 546Evolution of the British Commonwealth 548The Reorientation of British Opinion 548The Last Empire 550



Front; Fanon Language, Peasants, and Revolution 546

25 STALINISM AND "ACTUALLY EXISTING SOCIALISM" 552

Guiding Principles 553People's Democracies 553The Communist Parties and the States 554

The East European Revolution 556Revolution on the Land 556Revolution in Industry 557Revolution in the Economy 557Revolution in Society 558

Stalinism in Eastern Europe 559The Purges 559Titoism as the Official Reason for Repression 561The Victims 561Show Trials 562The Purges and Society 564Repression and Economic Development 564Hollowing Out the Communist Parties 565Communist Parties and the States after the Purges 565End of a Mission 566

"Actually Existing Socialism" in the USSR 566Postwar Purges 567Ideology and Nationalism in Soviet Society and Culture 568Women in the Postwar USSR 568Industrial Reconstruction 569Costs of Postwar Reconstruction 569



Georgi Dimirrov Master in Ideology 554Ana Rabinovici Paukcr Communist Nonperson 562

26 DE-STALINIZATION AND DESTABILIZATION 572

Stalin's Successors 572Stalin's Strange Death 572Struggle for Succession 573Khrushchev's Rise 573

Contents

Dcstabilijation in Eastern Europe 575Strains in East European Society 576The East German Disorders 577Khmshchev's Secret Speech and His De-Stalinization Policies 578De-Stalinization in Poland 579Discontent in Hungary 580Crisis of the Old Regime 580The Hungarian Revolution 581

Kluushchcv's Dilemma 582Comecon 582The Warsaw Pact 5 8 3Foreign Policy Difficulties 584

Restricted Decentralisation 586Autonomy and Stagnation in Eastern Europe 586The New Economic Mechanism 5 8 8Stalinism in Czechoslovakia 589The Prague Spring 589The Brezhnev Doctrine 590



Nifcita Scrgeii'vich Khrushchev Peasant Wit 5 7 4

Alexander Dubcek Brief Spring 5 9 1

27 THE SHIFTING ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK AND POLITICAL CHANGEIN THE WEST 595

Economic Quandaries 596Currency Adjustments 596"Stagflation" 597Economic Crisis and Political Reorientation 597

The Thatcher Era in Britain 598The "Minister of Thought" 598The "Iron Lady" 599"The Lady's Not for Turning" 600The Falklands War 602Battle with the Miners 602Privatization 603The Thatcher Revolution 603Thatchers Fall 604Labour's Revival 605

Mitten'and's "Unintended Revolution" 605Mitterrand's Policy Shifts 606Mitterrand and Cohabitation 607Mitterrand versus Chirac 608"Ni-Ni" 608Failure of the Right 608Return of the Socialists 609French Foreign Policy 609

Italy's Triple Revolution 610The "Historic Compromise" 610Breaking the Political Equilibrium 611The Corruption Scandals 612

Contents xxi

The "Second Republic" 613Economic Reforms 614

Keeping the Balance in Germany 615Problems of Prosperity 615A Delicate Equilibrium 615The Christian Democrats 616Transformation of the Social Democrats 617The SPD at the Helm 617The Greens 619

Meeting the Challenge 620BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 6 2 0


Margaret Hilda Roberts Thatcher No Interpreter Needed 600Francois Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand "A Very Good Dancer" 606

28 CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 622

Scandinavian Social Democracy 622Dilemmas of the Welfare State 622Challenges and Development of the Scandinavian Economies 623

Central Europe 624Belgium: New Solutions, New Challenges 624Dutch Social Experimentation 625Austria in the Spotlight 625Switzerland: International Outrage and Internal Debate 628

The Lesser-Developed Countries 629The South: Assisted Progress 629Economic Development and Political Alternation in Spain 629Portugal's Progress toward Modernization 630Andreas Papandreou and Greek Socialism 631Problems of Greek Modernization 631Greek Foreign Policy 634Fresh Winds in Ireland 634Slow Progress on Northern Ireland 635

European Union: The Acceleration oj'Histoiy 6 3 5Agricultural Issues 6 3 6Declaration of the European L'nion 636The Maastricht Treaty 637Impact of Maastricht 6 3 7



Joerg Haider Embarrassment or Admonition? 6 2 6

Andreas Papandreou Democratic Fighter 6 3 2

29 EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY 640

Postwar Society 640Housing 640Changing Demography 641Work and Leisure 642The Arts and Society 643Travel 644

Contents

Expanding Opportunities and Growing Protest 645Daily Life in the City 645Change in the Catholic World: Vatican II 647

East European Society 650

Discontent in the West 651Terrorism and Society 651Growth of Feminism 652

Return to Normalcy 654

The Changing Family 656Birth Control 656Family Life 656The Welfare State and the Family 657

Immigration 658The New Immigrants 6 5 8The Problem of Integration 659


BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHESJohn XXIII "The Good Pope" 6 4 8

Simone Lucie Ernestine Mafic Bcrtrand de Bcauvoir Philosopher-Feminist 6 5 4

30 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 663Science and Technology 6 6 3

Big Science 6 6 3Foundation of CERN 6 6 4The Preeminence of Biological Research 6 6 5Computers and the Internet 6 6 5

New Technologies 666

European Culture 6 6 6Italian Literature 666French Philosophy 6 6 7German Literature and British Drama 6 6 8Cinema 6 6 9Ferment in Eastern Europe 672Music and Painting 6 7 3Television 6 7 3Americanization 6 7 4Relations with the United States 6 7 4

Euromarxism 6 7 5French Marxism 675Gennan Marxism and Criticism of Western Society 6 7 6Italian Marxism: The Influence of Antonio Gramsci 677Flexibility of the West 677



Jean-Paul Sartre Model of an Intellectual 6 6 8

Arcangela Felice Assunta Wcrtmidlcr von Elgg Spanol von Braudch Outrageous! 671

31 STAGNATION AND FAILED REFORM IN THE EAST 679

Stagnation in the Soviet Union 679Increasing Dissent 680The East European Regimes 681

Contents

The Lesser-Developed East European Countries 683

The More Industrialized Countries 687

Beginning the End: Poland 689Fall of Gomulka 689Failure of the Polish Economy 690The Church 691The Rise of Solidarity 692

The Coup d'Etat 693

Mikhail Gorbachev's Failed Revolution 694An Accelerating Descent 694The Role of Ideology 695Transitions 696Mikhail Gorbachev 697Perestroika and Glasnost 699Practice 700



Andrei Dmitrievkh Sakharov "Our Regime Resembles A Cancer Cell" 682

Nicolae Ceausescu Gigantomania 684

32 THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM 704

Why the Dominoes Fell 704Arms Reductions 704Gorbachev and Eastern Europe 705The Abandonment of Eastern Europe 706

Increasing Dissatisfaction 707

The Process of Collapse I: Implosion 707The Polish Breakthrough 707The Hungarian Establishment Gives In 708Absorption of the GDR 709The "Velvet Revolution" 713

End of Communist Rule in Bulgaria 715

Tlie Process of Collapse II: Explosion 715The Fall of Ceausescu 716The Breakup of Yugoslavia 717

The Last Bastion 720

Tlie Process of Collapse III: Russia versus the Soviet Union 721The Progress of Democratization 721Struggle for Power 722The Coup d'Etat 725

End of the Soviet Union 726



Vaclav Havel Velvet Revolution 714

Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin Maverick 722

33 EUROPE IN A GLOBAL AGE: PROBLEMS A N D PROSPECTS 728

The New Germany 729Political Stability 729Return of the Social Democrats 729The Question of Racism 730

Contents

The Problem of East Germany 731The German Shadow over Europe 731

The New Russia 732Failure of Yeltsin's Reforms 732The Impact on Russian Society 733Political Instability 733Russia and NATO 734The Rise of Putin 736Economic Stabilization 736

The Balkan and Southeastern Hot Spots 738The Breakup of Yugoslavia 738Nationality Problems in Slovakia 739Bulgarian Economic Difficulties 740The Romanian Dilemma 741A Desperate Case 741

Unfinished Business 742Organized Crime 742Immigration 743The "Woman Question" 744Religious Developments 746New Issues 747

The European Union's March 747Economic Progress 747Foreign and Military Policy 748Preparing for Enlargement 748The European Parliament 750Globalization 750

The Larger East European Economics and the El/ 751Normalization in Poland 751Hungarian Progress 752Difficulties in the Czech Republic 753

\Vliat Is Europe? 754BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 7 5 6


Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin Dark Horse and White Poodle 735Anthony Charles Lvnton Blair "The Modernized' 744

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