Turkish culture, protocol and the EU - Oldal cme
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Budapest Business School FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ECONOMICS COURSE International Business Enterprises specialisation AVANS HOGESCHOOL INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS SCHOOL BREDA BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION COURSE Turkish culture, protocol and the EU - Long engagement with(out) marriage? Prepared by: Ágnes Fanni Károlyi Budapest, 2010
Transcript of Turkish culture, protocol and the EU - Oldal cme
Budapest Business School
FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ECONOMICS COURSE
International Business Enterprises specialisation
AVANS HOGESCHOOL INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS SCHOOL BREDA
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION COURSE
Turkish culture, protocol and the EU - Long engagement with(out) marriage?
Prepared by: Ágnes Fanni Károlyi
Budapest, 2010
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Table of contents
I. Introduction………………………………………………………………………3
II. General introduction of Turkey
2.1 History…………………………………………………………………………4
2.2 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk………………………………………………………12
2.3 International Organizations…………………………………………………..16
2.4 Economy and Society………………………………………………….……..18
2.5 Language……………………………………………………………..............23
III. Culture of Turkey
3.1 Islam………………………………………………………………………….25
3.1.1 History of the religion……………………………………………….26
3.1.2 Pillars of Islam………………………………………………………27
3.1.3 Holidays……………………………………………………………..29
3.1.4 Prays and its ceremony……………………………………………...31
3.1.5 Mosque………………………………………………………………32
3.1.6 Sunnis and Sheets……………………………………………………33
3.1.7 Islam mysticism……………………………………………………..35
3.2 Architecture…………………………………………………………………..35
3.3 Customs and traditions……………………………………………………….39
3.4 Islamic arts…………………………………………………………………...52
3.4.1 Calligraphies and tuğras……………………………………………..52
3.4.2 Miniatures…………………………………………………………...53
3.4.3 Tiles………………………………………………………………….54
3.4.4 Ebru………………………………………………………………….54
3.5 Anatolian arts………………………………………………………………...55
3.5.1 Tapestry……………………………………………………………...55
3.5.2 Iconography…………………………………………………………56
3.5.3 Painting……………………………………………………………...57
3.5.4 Sculpture…………………………………………………………….57
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3.5.5 Mosaics………………………………………………………...……58
3.5.6 Handicraft……………………………………………………………59
3.5.7 Music and dance……………………………………………………..59
3.5.8 Literature…………………………………………………………….61
3.6 The bath culture………………………………………………………………62
3.7 Cuisines………………………………………………………………………64
3.8 Activation and passivation of protocol………………………………………70
IV. Cultural differences in protocol (Graduation Assignment)…………………….77
4.1 Problem definition……………………………………………………………77
4.2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Hungary………………...…..78
4.3 Course of organizing an official visit………………………………….……..83
4.4 Cultural differences in protocol……………………………………………...93
4.5 Conclusion an Recommendation……………………………………………..98
V. The possible cultural problems of the Turkish EU accession……………..……99
VI. Appendix………………………………………………………………….…..107
Economic tables……………………………………………………………….107
Collection of pictures………………………………………………………….109
List of sources…………………………………………………………………115
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INTRODUCTION/ JUSTIFICATION OF TOPIC CHOOSING
“The key to tolerance and acceptance of cultures is getting to know them in order to
understand them. “ Anonymous
I chose the topic of Turkish culture and the possible cultural problems of their EU
accession for my topic, because it has been of major interest for me for years. I have
been trying to expand my knowledge in this field and this thesis paper gave me the
opportunity to continue this learning process through my individual research.
This topic is particularly important nowadays, because the EU began the accession
negotiations with Turkey, but there is no insurance for heir accession, let alone for its
date.
At first I would like to introduce Turkey in general, their history, their great Atatürk and
the economy.
Then I would like to give an insight into the culture of an ancient nation, I would like to
give a comprehensive picture of their culture through Islam, arts, cuisines and customs.
After this, I would sum up the most important protocol rules, customs which have to be
followed in case of business life.
In my dissertation I would like to introduce and explore this culture and its norms,
which is far from the Arabic and also far from the European one in that depth to be able
to answer some of those questions, which would not be asked if more people knew the
background of this culture. I would also like to understand the things that are behind
their culture and rules, which make Turkey’s differences unacceptable for the EU.
I would like to write about how protocol works and is used every day in case of official
visits. I explore how these can be organized and what things have to be taken care of.
For this part I plan to make a flowchart to represent the flow of the work.
And finally I would like to explore the possible cultural problems of the Turkish EU
accession and I would like to consider weather there are real problems according to the
previous part of my assignment or would there be real obstacles of the Turkish
accession?
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“Those heroes that shed their blood and lost their lives (at Gallipoli battles). You are
now lying in the soil of a friendly country. Therefore rest in peace. There is no
difference between the Johnnies and the Mehmets to us where they lie side by side here
in this country of ours. You the mothers who sent their sons from far away countries
wipe away your tears. Your sons are now living in our bosom and are in peace. Having
lost their lives on this land they have become our sons as well.” M. Kemal Atatürk
HISTORY
The history of Turkey is as old as the history of mankind.
Anatolia was always important throughout history and is the
birthplace of many great civilizations. The inheritance of
unique artistic and architectural pieces wears the signs of the
stormy past. The early communities were dispersed by
continuous waves of migrations, which brought rise and fall
of the new cultures. All of them leave its glorious marks
behind and it contributed to the variety and multicolour
culture what characterized the modern republic today.
ANCIENT AGES
The area of Turkey was inhabited since 20000 BC. The first inhabitants were nomad
hunters. Primitive tools, animal bones and stone implements were found from the
Palaeolithic age.
THE FERTILE CRESCENT
Remains of Neolithic villages from the 8000 BC prove that in 7000 BC lots of
prosperous settlements have existed. Metal-work was discovered around this time and it
became possible to prepare useful tools like arms. The first pieces were made from
copper around 5000 BC.
Çatalhöyük was probably the first town of the world. It was inhabited by around 5000
inhabitants. They were agricultural workers and the volcanic glass trade was vivid. The
houses were built from brick and beam. The separate spaces for sleeping and cooking
were characteristic. The cattle played an important role in the ancient Anatolian culture.
It is thought so because cattles are depicted on the wall-paintings of excavated houses.
The inhabitants believed in animism. The wall-paintings and heads of bulls were tools
Arms of the Ottoman Empire
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of ritual or cultic activity and religious ceremonies, as the small terracotta sculptures of
female Goddesses also.
COPPER AGE
It was around 5500-3000 BC. The agriculture became the lifestyle, plants were
cultivated and livestock was breeding. The growing agricultural activity created need
for more tools. Copper tools were widespread. The most important places of this age
were in Hacılar and Canhasan, where pottery products were made by the most
developed technologies. These were made to be very colourful.
BRONZE AGE
Around 3000 and 1200 BC in Anatolia the agricultural workers started to make
experiments with new techniques. In the workshops surpluses were produced, trade
became vivid. These products were gold jewelleries, fancy goods and drinking vessels.
ASSYRIANS
The Assyrian Empire came to existence at the Northern part of Mesopotamia in the 3rd
millennium BC. Until 1900 BC Assyrian trade networks came to existence between
North-Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Demand for goods increased and traders had to
supply a rapidly growing market. Assyrians realized how important it is to follow the
transactions and developed the cuneiform writing, where words are symbolized with
signs. They printed their trade agreements and invoices onto earthen boards,a lot of
which survived. These are the earliest examples of writing in Anatolia to be found. Due
to the vivid trade the need for transportation increased and in some areas a simple
taxation system was introduced. For the first time in history money became the primary
source of the economy.
HITTITES
Hittites arrived in the second millenium BC and settled when the Assyrian trade centres
were developed. They had the first huge empire in Anatolia; its capital city was
Hattuşaş (Boğazkale today).The Hittites used both cuneiform writing and hieroglyphics.
It is said to be the oldest Indo-European language. Lots of them were found in Hattuşaş
in different topics (e.g. religious and diplomatic letters). Like most advanced
civilizations, Hittites knew the art of iron forging and with this advantage could get a
huge military power. King Anitta conquered the bigger part of Middle-Anatolia, by
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which he could increase the power of the empire but it caused decentralization. King
Huzziya started to re-unite the dependant cities. One of his successors I. Labarna
Hattushilit is said to be the founder of the Hittites Empire. One of his grandchildren was
able to conquer Babylon around 1530 BC.
The Hittites Empire reached its golden age around 1260 BC, when III. Hattusilis and
Ramses II., the ruler of Egypt signed a peace and friendship agreement. As a
consequence the Hittites culture flourished. Hattuşaş became a huge city, being
surrounded by wall, with a huge church and complex of palace. Elegant ceramic pots,
metal figures, animal shaped pots and seals decorated with the symbol of the kings were
fabricated.
The Hittites Empire fell around 1205 BC because of the improper tactics in war, when
pirates looted the boarders of the Empire, while famines stroke the Empire. A lot of
people died or fled from the Empire.
Towards to the Hellenistic Age
Around the 7th century BC, Anatolia came under the rule of Lydians. The Lydian
civilization flourished at that time. Their graved rock can be found today between
Fethiye and Antalya. They were well-known for their silversmith and also the invention
of coinage is attributed to them. City-states flourished through the Mediterranean and
Black Sea at that time.
THE HELLENISTIC AGE
The expansion of Greeks started between 330 and 132 BC under the leadership of
Alexander the Great. He occupied Anatolia around the 5th century BC and he reached
Egypt and India. In Anatolia the new settlers became the members of the ruling class
and with their laws they helped the expansion of Hellenism.
Around the 2nd century BC Italian armies started to expand eastwards. At first they
defeated the Greeks and then they marched into North-Anatolia. In battles the Romans
were more successful, but their way of living was characterised by the Greek art and
culture. It brought the advantages of the Roman lordship, system of law, better hygienic
standards and architectural sciences. Quality military roads were also used for trade.
From the Empire of Alexander the Great became a number of thriving successor states,
one of them being the Seljuk Empire. It had its power over the bigger part of Anatolia
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until the 2nd century BC. In the two Macedonian wars the Roman Empire acquired the
leadership over the most important city-states at the coasts of the Mediterranean and in
the inner side of Anatolia. Most people yielded without resistance.
Romans held many Gods in reverence, the greatest being Jupiter, but they let conquered
people to continue with their regional customs, so Anatolians practiced fertility rituals.
Peace and order characterised the Provinces of Rome in the 2nd century AD. It was a
time of upsurge. Plumbing were built, and sewage was by-passed in another system.
Theatres were built, and sport events were organized in stadiums and gymnasiums.
Saint Paul grounded the first congregation in Asia Minor in the 1st century AD. The
early Christian communities had conflicts with Roman authorities, when they refused to
offer a sacrifice to the emperor. The prosecution of Christians came to an end when
Constantine converted to Christianity in the 4th century. Constantine founded
Constantinople (the modern Istanbul of today) in 324, and in the next 6 years it became
the capital of the Empire and the centre of Christianity. Its’ seven hills were surrounded
by a wall and the emperor established arenas, forums and hamams (public baths). Cities
by the coasts were plundered because of its artistic treasures were needed to decorate
the new capital. Access for work and the lifestyle supplied by the land attracted new
inhabitants. Theodosius followed Constantine on the throne. At that time the empire
was divided into 2 parts, and it was the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The Byzantine Empire was in its prime under the reign of Justinianus (527-565 AD). He
reconquered great parts of North-Africa, Italy and Southern Spain and initiated
significant buildings like the Hagia Sophia.
The Turkish Turkmens are the descendants of nomadic tribes. Some of the tribes
migrated in the direction of Russia, China and India and others to Anatolia, which was
ruled by Byzantine. At the end of the century these intrusions increased and one group
called Seljuks, seceded from them. Around the 11th century Seljuk Turks conquered
Persia. Bagdad fell in 1055 and Tuğrul bey acquired the caliphate and thereby became
the ruler of the Islamic world. He established the Sultanate of Seljuks, which expanded
to a significant part of the Islamic world between 1055 and 1156.
Tuğrul bey was followed by Alp Arslan on the throne. He conquered Syria, and lead
more attacks against Anatolia in 1063. The army of Byzantine tried to defeat the
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Seljuks, but they lost a decisive battle on 26th August 1071 at Manzikert (Malazgirt).
The victorious Seljuks did not want to rule Anatolia, so a plenty of Islam-Turkish state
were grounded. The most famous of them was the Seljuk Sultanate (1077-1308), and
the capital was Nikaia (İznik today).
Chaos emerged in Anatolia beginning with the end of the 11th century till the end of the
12th century. Crusaders arrived, occupying Nikaia and Antiochia (Antakya today) in
1097. Their influence was high in South-Anatolia. The capital of the Seljuks was
relocated to Konya. Byzantine tried to repel the Seljuks, but they lost in the war at
Myriocephalon in 1176. The Rumi Sultanate became the strongest state of Anatolia.
The occupation of Antalya in 1207 offered an exit to Mediterranean Sea. The Seljuk
Anatolia thus developed. Later on the occupation of Sinop (1214) and Alanya (1221)
increased maritime trade.
In order to increase their power, Seljuks signed trade contracts with Byzantine, Cyprus,
Province, Pisa, Venice, Firenze and Geneva between 1207 and 1253. They built
bridges, hans and caravanserais to develop the land trade. The Seljuk Empire reached
its peak under the ruling of Şah sultan, who supported arts and sciences. The
characteristic of Seljuk civilization was its architecture. Its golden age was in the 13th
century e.g. characterized by the hospital in Divriği, or the fortress at the port of Alanya.
In the Rumi Sultanate science, literature, painting and sculpture flourished.
Mongols defeated Seljuks in 1243 at Kösedağ, and until 1308 Seljuks were the vassals
of Mongols. A lot of people converted to Islam in the 13th and 14th century, because
Mongols collected less tax from Muslims. Mongols ruled Anatolia till 1335, when the
rebel Turks grounded the first beylik states. One of these emirates in Eskişehir won with
the leadership of Ertuğrul. His son Osman founded the Ottoman dynasty, which was one
of the biggest empires on the world.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Areas occupied by Ottomans were growing in the 13 century. Mehmed II occupied
Constantinople in 1453, Syria and Egypt fell in 1516-1517, so the sacred cities of
Mecca and Medina were ruled by Ottomans. Till the mid-1500s the Ottoman emperors
were in the centre of the Sunnis Islam members. The Ottoman Empire was
characterized by effective administration, tolerance (against different religious) and
military power.
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The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under the ruling of Great Suleiman (1520-1566).
Boarders were expanded from the southern part of Hungary to Yemen and from Crimea
to Morocco. The most important element was the devşirme, which meant that every
Christian ploughman dependant had to give one boy to go into service to the sultan.
Boys were converted to Islam and were trained as civil servants or Janissaries. The life
of Janissaries was strict, celibacy was obligatory, but they could reach such privileges
that earlier could only be reached by civil servants. Lots of strategists came from this
devşirme system.
To the 18th century the former elite became corrupt and threatened the Sultanate. If
Janissaries felt their privileges to be threatened, they made violent riots. After the death
of Suleiman the upcoming rulers took care not about their empire, but to enjoy their
wealth. As a consequence the empire became prey of janissaries and the expansion of
other states. In the peace-treaty of Karloca, they lost half of the European territory of the
empire. The devolution of the empire started and opened the way to the Russian
expansion at the Black-Sea. The next years were spent in wars. Those families which
could afford it bought state lands came by huge amount of wealth and built palaces on
the coast of the Bosporus. The empire had short wars with Russia, Venice, Austria and
Persia, but their territory decreased.
A short economical upsurge and artistically renaissance came in the period between
1739 and 1768. In 1755 was the first Sultanate mosque complex completed in Istanbul.
But, when Tsarina Chatelaine mobilized its army to conquer the Ottoman Empire.
Russians reached the exit of the Black-Sea and acquired the Crimea half island between
1768-1774 and 1788-1791. This was the first Muslim territory which was lost by
Ottomans and indemnity had to be paid. II. Mahmud wanted to modernize the empire
that is why he reorganized the bureaucracy. Meanwhile Russia encouraged the vassals’
states of Greeks, Serbs, Moldavians and Wallachia to claim their rights to govern. II.
Mahmud hoped that by the modernization of Turkey by preparing the Edict of Tanzimat
in 1839 can reach a good govern, equality and can provide a stronger state. Edict of
Tanzimat had immediate effect, such as European style of clothing and uniforms,
weapons, agricultural and industrial innovations, architecture, education, legislation,
institutional organization and land reform. The regulation in 1856 was signed because
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of the pressure of the European powers after the war at Crimea (1853-1856), so the state
became westernized and secular, which generated disapprovals. 1
The aim of the reform movement of Youth Turks was to reach the constitutional
monarchy in the 1870’s. II. Abdülhamid introduced some liberal programme and
disbanded the parliament in 1878. The empire weakened in the next years, provinces at
Balkan gained their independence. The rebellious officers established the Committee of
Unity and Progress in 1908; they were named to Youth Turks. When the II.
Abdülhamid did not accept the Constitution he was changed to the weak V. Mehmed.
The CUP took over the leadership.
The empire lost its European territories in the war at Balkan in 1912 and 1913. One year
later it joined to the I World War on the side of Germany, Austria- Hungary. Till 1918
only the middle of Anatolia remained the Ottoman Empire. Foreign armies occupied
Istanbul, İzmir, Antakya and Antalya. Turkish nationalists called an assembly in
Ankara. But the begun war for independence leaved its mark on its own fulfilling
destiny of Turkey.
In 1923, in the Treaty of Lausanne, the territory boarders of the new state were stated
and in the same year the Turkish Republic was declared in 29 October with the capital
of Ankara. The first President became Atatürk. He set up a modern, secular and West-
oriented state, with the help of drastic reforms. Turkey remained neutral during of
World War II, It entered only on 23 February 1945 on the side of the Allies, but it was
only a symbolic step. In 1945 Turkey was a founding member of the United Nations. In
the Korean conflict he participated with the forces of the UN. In 1952 Turkey joined to
the NATO and set the aim to access to the European Union. Between 1960 and 1980
there was a political instability in Turkey which resulted in several military coups
d'états. The economic liberalization began in the 80’s. Since the 80’s the situation
stabilised. Factors, which influence the international connections and the outcome of the
accession negotiations to the EU of Turkey, are the Turkish attendance in Cyprus, the
Kurdish rebellion at East and the increasing political presence of Islam.2
1 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft., 2007. 2 FLESCH, ISTVÁN: Török Köztársaság története, Budapest, Corvina Kiadó, 2007.
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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS3
Turkey is a parliamentary democracy. The legal framework of the country is governed
by its constitution. It ensures Turkey to be a unitary centralized state and the main
principled of government. The executive branch in Turkey has a dual structure. It is
composed of the President of the Republic and the Council of Ministers. President
cannot be elected for a second term in office. The President of the Republic is the Head
of the State. He/she represents the Republic of Turkey and the unity of the Turkish
nation. The President is elected for a seven year term by a two thirds majority of the full
membership of the TGNA. A President cannot be elected for a second term in office. In
Turkey the President has a rather ceremonial role. The current President is Abdullah
Gül, he was elected on 28 August 2007. The parliament is elected directly by the nation
for 4 years. The Prime Minister becomes most often the head of the party, that has the
most seats in the Parliament. The Prime Minister is elected through a vote of confidence
in his/her government. The current Prime Minister is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. He won
with an absolute majority in 2002. In 2007, his party received 46.6% of the votes at the
general elections. To avoid a huge parliament every party and independent candidates
have to win at least 10% of the votes.
3 Political structure of Turkey: http://www.byegm.gov.tr/db/dosyalar/webicerik33.pdf 06 November 2009
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MUSTAFA KEMAL ATATÜRK
“It was when I entered the military preparatory school and
put on its uniform, that a feeling of strength came to me, as if
I had become master of my own destiny.” M. Kemal Atatürk
Atatürk was borne in 1881 at Salonika. His father was Ali Rıza Efendi and his mother
Zübeyde Hanım. His father worked as a military officer and married with Zübeyde
Hanım in 1871. Four of Atatürk's five siblings died at an early age, only his sister
Makbule Atadan survived and lived until 1956, others died at early ages. Atatürk lost
his father in 1888 where upon he stayed at the farm of his maternal uncle for a while
and returned to Salonika to complete his studies. He started his secondary school in
Salonika but soon he transferred to the military Rüştiye. Later he attended the Military
School in Istanbul from which he graduated in 1902 with the rank of lieutenant. Later
he entered the Military Academy and graduated on January 11, 1905 with the rank of
major.
Between 1905 and 1907 he was stationed in Damascus with the 5th army. It was
followed by several promotions (senior manager, Staff Officer, lieutenant colonel) and
was sent to station to different places (Manastır, Paris, Tobruk). In October 1912, when
the Balkan War started, Mustafa Kemal joined the battle with units from Gallipoli and
Bolayır then in 1913 he was assigned to Sofia as a military attaché till 1915. By that
time the First World War had started and the Ottoman Empire was inevitably involved.
Mustafa Kemal put his signature under a legend of heroism at Çanakkale during the
First World War. On March 18, 1915 when the English and French navies in an
attempt to force their way up the Çanakkale Strait gave heavy loses, they decided to
put units on land at Gallipoli Peninsula. The enemy forces, which landed at Arıburnu
on 25 April 1915 were stopped by 19th Davison under Mustafa Kemal's command at
Conkbayırı. Mustafa Kemal was promoted to the rank of colonel after this victory.
Mustafa Kemal, as the Commander of the Anafartalar Forces won the Anafartalar
Victory on 6-7 August 1915. This victory was followed by the victories of Kireçtepe
on August 17, and the Second Anafartalar Victory on August 21. Mustafa Kemal was
stationed at Edirne and Diyarbakır after the Çanakkale wars and was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant general on 1 April 1916. After these and further success he went to
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Istanbul on November 13, 1918 and started to work at the Ministry of Defence. He
published on 22 June 1919 at Amasya, he declared that „The freedom of the nation
shall be restored with the resolve and determination of the nation itself" and called the
meeting of the Sivas Congress. He convened Erzurum Congress during 23 July - 7
August 1919 and Sivas Congress during 4 - 11 September 1919, thus defining the path
to be followed towards the freedom of the motherland. He was met with great
enthusiasm in Ankara on 27 December 1919.24 Mustafa Kemal convened the National
Assembly and called upon the delegates to accept a basic law, within which they laid
down the basis of the Turkish State, which is the popular sovereignty. For the first
time in history, the principle of the democracy was set against with the sultan-caliph.2
With the initiation of the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 23 April 1920, a
significant step was taken on the way to establishing the Turkish Republic. Mustafa
Kemal was elected as head of national assembly as well as head of government.5 The
delegates of the Sultan signed the Sévres Peace Dictate at 10 August, 1920. According
to which only a highly mutilated state would have remained with the centre of
Istanbul.2 The National Assembly, which first convened on 23 April 1920 in Ankara,
was the first step towards to the Turkish Republic. The successful management of the
War of Independence by this assembly accelerated the foundation of the new Turkish
State. On 1 November 1922, the offices of the Sultan and caliph were separated from
one another and the former was abolished. There was no longer any administrative tie
with the Ottoman Empire.2 The success of the Kemalists was unique, because they
were the only ones, who could eliminate one of the most unfair dictates of the Treaty
of Versailles. The new agreement was signed on 24 July 1923. The new and sovereign
Turkey came into existence.5
On 29 October 1923, the Turkish Republic was formally proclaimed and Atatürk was
unanimously elected as its first President. On 30 October 1923, the first government of
the Republic was formed by İsmet İnönü. The government pronounced Ankara to be
the capital city. Atatürk undertook a series of reforms to "raise Turkey to the level of
modern civilizations", which can be grouped under five titles:
4 Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey: http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3130239EEA0FCDF038B3183B17125FC74AB 04 November 2009 5 FLESCH, ISTVÁN: Török Köztársaság története, Budapest, Corvina Kiadó, 2007.
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1. Political Reforms
• Abolishment of the office of the Sultan (November 1922)
• Proclamation of the Republic (29 October 1923)
• Abolishment of the caliph (3 March 1924)
2. Social Reforms
• Recognition of equal rights to men and women (1926 - 1934)
• Reform of Headgear and Dress (25 November 1925)
• Closure of mausoleums and dervish lodges (30 November 1925)
• Law on family names (21 June 1934)
• Abolishment of titles and by-names (26 November 1934)
• Adoption of international calendar, hours and measurements (1925 - 1931)
3. Legal Reforms
• Abolishment of the Canon Law (1924 - 1937)
• Transfer to a secular law structure by adoption of Turkish Civil Code and other
laws (1924 - 1937)
4. Reforms in the fields of education and culture
• Unification of education (3 March 1924)
• Adoption of new Turkish alphabet (1 November 1928)
• Establishment of Turkish Language and History Institutions (1931 - 1932)
• Regulation of the university education (31 May 1933)
• Innovations in fine arts
5. Economic Reforms
• Abolition of tithe
• Encouragement of the farmers
• Establishment of model farms
• Establishment of industrial facilities, and putting into effect a law for Incentives
for the Industry
• Putting into effect Ist and IInd Development Plans (1933-1937), to develop
transportation networks
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According to the Law on Family Names, the Turkish Grand Assembly gave "Atatürk"
(Father of Turks) as last name to Mustafa Kemal on 24 November 1934.
Atatürk took frequent trips around the country and inspected locally the works
undertaken by the state; giving directives were problems were faced. As president he
was host to visiting foreign presidents, prime ministers and ministers.
He read his Great Speech, which covered the war of Independence and the founding of
the Republic on 15 - 20 October 1927, and his 10th Year Speech on 29 October 1933.
Atatürk led a very simple private life. He married Latife Hanım on 29 January 1923.
They took many trips to different parts of the country together. This marriage lasted
until 5 August 1925. A great lover of children, he adopted girls named Afet (İnan),
Sabiha (Gökçen), Fikriye, Ülkü, Nebile, Rukiye and Zehra and a shepherd boy named
Mustafa. He also took two boys called Abdurrahim and İhsan under his protection. He
provided for the future of these children who survived.
He donated his farms to the Treasury in 1937 and some of his real estates to
municipalities of Ankara and Bursa. He divided his inheritance among his sister, his
adopted children and to the Turkish History and Language Institutions. He enjoyed
books and music as well as dancing, horse riding and swimming. He was extremely
interested in Zeybek dances, wrestling and the Rumelia folk songs. Games of billiards
and black gammon gave him great pleasure. He valued his horse Sakarya and his dog
Fox. He had a rich library. He used to invite statesman, scholars and artists to dinners
where the problems of the country were discussed. He was particular about his
appearance and enjoyed dressing well. He was also a lover of nature. He used to
frequent the Atatürk Forest Farm and join in the work.
Atatürk spoke fluent French and German. On 10 November 1938 at 9.05 in the
morning, in Istanbul, Dolmabahce Palace, he died of liver ailment. He was buried with
a ceremonial funeral in a temporary place of rest at the Ethnographical Museum in
Ankara on 21 November 1938. After the building of Anitkabir (Atatürk Mausoleum)
he was taken to his permanent place of rest with a grand ceremony on 10 November
1953. 4
- 16 -
TURKEY'S MEMBERSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
“Peace at Home,
Peace it the World”
M. Kemal Atatürk
UNITED NATIONS6
Turkey was one of the founding members of the United Nations on 24.10.1945.
Now the representative of Turkey to the United Nations is Büyükelçi Baki İLKİN
(2004-2009).
ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT7
Turkey was also a founding member of the OECD with further 19 countries on 2nd
August in 1961, in Paris.
ORGANIZATION FOR SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE8
Turkey’s admission to the OSCE was on 25th June in 1973 as a founding member and
signed the Helsinki Final Act on 1st August in 1975 and the Charter of Paris on 21st
November in 1990.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE9
Turkey accessed on 9th August in 1949 as a founding member. Turkey is represented in
the Parliamentary Assembly by delegation of 12 representatives and 12 substitutes.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION10
Turkey's Accession to the NATO took place in 1952. NATO headquarters are located in
Izmir. Turkey has the 2nd largest army in the NATO after the United States with
1 054 750 soldiers.
The United States maintains air forces at a Turkish base called Incirlik that is located
near the Mediterranean city of Adana.
6 United Nations: http://www.un.org/en/ 03 September 2009 7 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: http://www.oecd.org/home/0,2987,en_2649_201185_1_1_1_1_1,00.html 03 September 2009 8 The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe: http://www.osce.org/ 03 September 2009 9 Council of Europe: http://www.coe.int/ 03 September 2009 10 North Atlantic Treaty Organization: http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/index.htm 03 September 2009
- 17 -
EUROPEAN UNION11
Turkey has been an associate member since 1963. In 2005 three more countries applied
for EU membership: Croatia, Turkey and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
The accession negotiations begun with Turkey.
G20 12
This union brings together the 20 largest economies of the world (members’ of the
European Union counts to 1 of 20). These 20 countries give the 90% of the world’s
GDP and 80% of the whole world trade.
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION13
Turkey was not the member of the GATT. It accessed on 26th March in 1995 - not much
after the foundation of the WTO.
Turkey has free trade agreements with EFTA, Israel, and many other countries.
Turkey became an observer state in the Association of Caribbean States in December in
2000.
11 European Union: http://europa.eu/index_en.htm 03 September 2009 12 G20: http://www.g20.org/ 03 September 2009 13 World Trade Organization: http://www.wto.org/ 03 September 2009
- 18 -
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
GENERAL INFORMATION
Capital: Ankara (with around 4,5 million people)
Surface area: 783,562 km2 (from this 24.888 km2 in Europe) 14
Official language: Turkish
Population: 71.517.100 (on 31 December 2008)15
Exchange rate: €1 = 2.2051 TRY16 new Turkish liras (23 October 2009)
Political system: Parliamentary democracy
Head of State: President HE Mr Abdullah Gül17 (28 August 2007- present)
Head of Government: Prime Minister HE Mr Recep Tayyip Erdoğan18 (14 March
2003- present)
BRIEF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Turkey started its reforms in 1983 initiated by the then Prime Minister Turgut Özal. His
reforms initiated rapid economic growth, but this growth was followed by a sharp
recession and financial crisis firstly in 1994 and then around 2000. Around the
millennium inflation rate was a 2-digit number. Reforms were initiated by Kemal
Derviş, the finance minister of then, the inflation has fallen, and the confidence for
investing has increased, while unemployment has fallen.
In general, Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and
commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that still accounts for about 30% of
employment. It has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state remains a
major actor in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. The largest
industrial sector is textiles and clothing, which accounts for one-third of industrial
employment. Textile is one of the most important export products.19 Further export
commodities are apparel, foodstuffs, metal manufactures and transport equipment. In
14 United Nations Statistical Division: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf 26 October 2009 15 Turkish Statistical Institute: www.turkstat.gov.tr August 21, 2009 10.00 16 European Central Bank: http://www.ecb.int/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/index.en.html 26 October 2009 17 President of the Republic of Turkey: http://www.tccb.gov.tr/pages/president/ 26 October 2009 18 Office of the Prime Minister: http://www.byegm.gov.tr/icerikdetay.aspx?Id=50 26 October 2009 19 CIA: The World Factbook: Turkey https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html 21 August 2009
- 19 -
2007 the main export partners were: Germany 11.2%, UK 8.1%, Italy 7%, France 5.6%,
Russia 4.4%, and Spain 4.3%. The total export was $141.8 billion* in 2008.16
In June 2009 exports decreased by 29,2% and fell to 8 332 Million Dollars and imports
decreased by 35,9% and fell to 12 483 Million Dollars compared with June 2008.
In June 2009, the main partner country
for exports was Germany with 793
Million Dollars and decreased by
30,2%. For exports, Germany was
followed by France (537 Million
Dollars), Italy (529 Million Dollars)
and the United Kingdom (517 Million
Dollars).
For June 2009, the top country for
Turkey’s imports was Russia (1 636
Million Dollars), records for imports
range from Germany (1 204 Million Dollars), China (1 096 Million Dollars) and the
U.S.A. (806 Million Dollars).20 The main import partners were Russia 13.8%, Germany
10.3%, China 7.8%, Italy 5.9%, US 4.8% and France 4.6% in 2007.8
The main import commodities were machinery, chemicals, semi-finished goods, fuels
and transport equipment. The total imports were in 2008 $204.8 billion*.21
The main agricultural products are tobacco, cotton, grain, olives, sugar beets, hazelnuts,
pulse, citrus; livestocks.
The main industries are textiles, food processing, autos, electronics, mining (coal,
chromite, copper, and boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber and paper.
On 1 January 2005 the old Turkish lira (TRL) was converted to new Turkish lira (TRY)
at a rate of 1,000,000 old to 1 new Turkish lira; on 1 January 2009 the Turkish
government dropped the word "new" and the currency is now called simply the Turkish
lira. 22
20 Turkish Statistical Institute: www.turkstat.gov.tr 21 August 2009 15.09 *estimation 21 Global Finance Magazine: http://www.gfmag.com/gdp-data-country-reports/157-turkey-gdp-country-report.html 21 Augustus 2009 22 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft., 2007.
2008-2009 June External Trade
19 477
11 771 12 483
8 332
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Mill
ion
Dol
lar
2008 200920082009
Exports Imports
Source: Turkish Statistical Institute
- 20 -
DEMOGRAPHY
Religion and ethnics
Turkey is a
secular country,
which means there
is no state
religion. 98 % of
Turkish people are
Muslim, the other
2% are mostly
Christian and
Jewish. 85-90%
are Sunni 10-15%
of the Muslims
are Shiites; they
live in the Eastern
part of Turkey. 23
2 % of people are irreligious or atheist. Turkey is the 8th country on list of the largest
number of Muslims by countries on the world with 4,7%. The 2 largest minorities are
Alevi (10-15%) numbering 7-10 million, and Kurdish (18%) numbering 14 million.24
Further minorities are Armenians (around 55,000), Jews (around 26,000) and Rums
(Greeks, around 25,000).25
The only official language is Turkish, but there are local TVs, dialects like Arabic and
Kurdish. The first Kurdish TV channel started its operation in early 2009.
23 Az MTA Filozófiai Kutatóintézetének Akadémiai- Filozófiai Nyitott Egyeteme: http://nyitottegyetem.phil-inst.hu/horvath2.htm 28 October 2009 24 The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life: http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf 28 October 2009 25 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/pop/pop.htm 11 November 2009
- 21 -
Population26
The population of Turkey was 71.517.100 on December 31, 2008. The male population is
35.901.154 and the female population is 35.615.946. Annual population growth rate was
realized as 13,1‰ in 2008. This indicator shows nearly the same rate in the last 10 years.
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Population Growth Rate
13,2% 12,9% 12,6% 12,3% 12,1%
According to the forecasts of UNDP World Population Prospects the population of
Turkey is going to be 77,7 million in 2010 and 82,1 million in 2015.
Proportion of population living in province and district centres is 75% of the total
population. The largest city is Istanbul, 17,8% of the total population lives there.
The half of the
population is
below age 28,5.
The median age
of the population
is 28,5. While
the median age is
28 for males, it is
29 for females.
The median age
for population
living in
province and
district centres is
28,4 that of the
village population is 28,6. 98 064 foreigners were registrated in 2007. The most
populous cities (population of the order of million) are: Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Bursa
and Adana.21 Expectation of live at birth can show how developed the country is. For
example in Germany as a developed country men can expect 77 years while women 83
years. In Hungary these data are 70 and 78.
26Turkish Statistical Institute: www.turkstat.gov.tr 21August 2009
- 22 -
As the table shows there is an increase in the years. According to the expectations
females can expect a longer life with 5 years in average in Turkey. This tendency can be
seen in European Union also.
Employment - Unemployment
Working age population increased by 875 thousand in the period of May 2009
compared to the same period of the previous year. Unemployment rate was 13,6 %
while non-agricultural unemployment rate was 17 %.
Table 1. Labour force status (May) TURKEY URBAN RURAL 2008 (*) 2009 2008 (*) 2009 2008 (*) 2009 Non-institutional population (000) 69 617 70 435 48 296 48 695 21 321 21 741Population 15 years old and over (000) 50 700 51 575 35 656 36 163
15 044 15 412
Labour force (000) 24 045 24 837 16 033 16 578 8 012 8 259 Employed (000) 21 842 21 455 14 258 13 840 7 584 7 615 Unemployed (000) 2 203 3 382 1 775 2 738 428 644Labour force participation rate (%) 47,4 48,2 45,0 45,8 53,3 53,6Employment rate (%) 43,1 41,6 40,0 38,3 50,4 49,4Unemployment rate (%) 9,2 13,6 11,1 16,5 5,3 7,8 Non-agricultural unemployment rate (%) 11,5 17,0 11,4 17,0
12,1 17,1
Youth unemployment rate (1) (%) 16,6 24,9 19,3 28,7 10,5 16,6Not in the labour force (000) 26 655 26 738 19 623 19 586 7 032 7 153(1) Population within 15-24 age group
Note: Total numbers may not be correct due to rounding of the numbers (*) The results of May 2008 period were revised according to new population projection. Source: Turkish Statistical Institute
Of those who were employed in May 2009; 25,3 % was employed in agriculture, 18,6
% was employed in industry, 6 % was employed in construction and 50,1 % was
employed in services. Employment in agriculture increased by 0,8 percentage point and
services increased by 1,2 percentage point while that of industry decreased by 1,8 and
construction decreased by 0,2.
Number of unemployed persons increased by 1 million 179 thousand persons compared
to the same period of the previous year and has reached to 3 million 382 thousand
persons in Turkey. Unemployment rate is realized as 13,6 % with 4,4 points increase.
Unemployment rate increased to 16,5 % with a 5,4 percentage points increase in urban
areas and reached to 7,8 % with 2,5 percentage points increase in rural areas.27
27 Turkish Statistical Institute: http://reports.aiidatapro.com/TBE/Household_Labour_Force_Survey_June_2009.pdf 29 October 2009
- 23 -
TURKISH LANGUAGE
“The cornerstone of education is an easy system of reading and writing. The key to this
is the new Turkish alphabet based on the Latin script.” M.K.Atatürk
The Turkish language originated from Central Asia, it is a member of the Altaic
language family. Nowadays it is spoken by over 71 million people worldwide as a first
language. It is official language also in Northern Cyprus, Cyprus (official, but not main
language); in Kosovo and in Macedonia it is a regional language.
According to the number of native speakers it is the 21. in the rank (this rank counts
with 60 million of native speakers and 15 million whose it is their 2nd language).28
The vowel harmony makes the language melodious and soft.
As a consequence of the migration of the Hungarians and the 150 years of Turkish
occupation we have more hundreds of common words and there are also similarities in
the structure of the Hungarian and Turkish languages. Ármin Vámbéry deals with these
similarities of the 2 languages in his book: At the cradle of Hungarians. He bases the
similarities to the phonetic change for example: a-e: hun. alma ‘apple’- tur. elma
‘apple’; a-o: hun. agy ‘brain’- tur. oy ‘thought, brain’; e-i: hun. ész ‘mind’-tur. is ‘mind’;
h-k: hun. hajó ‘ship’- tur. kayuk ‘ship’; cs-č-s-š-t: hun. sok ‘many’-tur. čok ‘many’; t-d-
j: hun. tud ‘know’-tur. tuy-, tut-‘feel’.29
Atatürk had a great influence on the language also with
his language reform. Under Atatürk’s Leadership,
Turkey undertook the modern world's swiftest and most
extensive language reform. In 1928, when he decided
that the Arabic script, which had been used by the
Turks for a thousand years, should be replaced with the
Latin alphabet. He asked the experts: „How long would
it take?" Most of them replied: „At least five years."
28 Vistawide: World Languages and Cultures: http://www.vistawide.com/languages/top_30_languages.htm 21 August 2009 29 VÁMBÉRY, ÁRMIN: A magyarság bölcsőjénél, Dunaszerdahely, Lilium Aurum, 2008.
- 24 -
„We shall do it," Atatürk said, "within five months". The language reform enabled
children and adults to read and write within a few months, and to study Western
languages with greater effectiveness.
Thousands of words, and some grammatical devices, from the Arabic and Persian, held
a tight grip over Ottoman Turkish. In the early 1930s, Atatürk spearheaded the
movement to eliminate these borrowings. The transformation met with unparalleled
success: In the 1920s, the written language consisted of more than 80 percent Arabic,
Persian, and French words; by the early 1980s the ratio had declined to a mere 10
percent.30
30 Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK: http://www.ataturk.com/content/view/19/38/ 21 August 2009
- 25 -
ISLAM
“It is claimed that religious unity is also a factor in the formation of nations. Whereas,
we see the contrary in the Turkish nation. Turks were a great nation even before they
adopted Islam. This religion did not help the Arabs, Iranians, Egyptians and others to
unite with Turks to form a nation. Conversely, it weakened the Turks’ national
relations; it numbed Turkish national feelings and enthusiasm. This was natural,
because Mohammedanism was based on Arab nationalism above all nationalities.”
M. Kemal Atatürk
The Islam religion is a system, which controls the whole society. It affects every
believer, and since it is the religion in Turkey I think it necessary to become acquainted
with it. but that also have to be mentioned that on some fields of live they do not keep it
as in the Arab countries, that can be attributed to the “Kemalism”.
98% of the Turkish society is Muslim and represents either the Sunnis or Shiites.
Approximately 15% of them are ‘alevi’ (considered as one of the many sects of Islam).
There is a great influence of Sufism classes (‘mevlevi’,’ naksbandi’). After the Atatürk’s
secularism, religion became more of a cultural inheritance, than a dogma. Some people
are Muslims merely by birth, but of course many of them practice their religion. There
are only few Christians and Jews.
From the main religions of the world, Islam is the youngest. It came into being only in
610 A.D. At the centre of the Islam there are monotheism and the belief in the last
judgement. Allah claims an absolute obedience from believers.
The word Islam means ‘submission’. The book of the Islam is the Quran which means
‘preach’, ‘recitation’. For Muslims the Koran is the word of Allah. They regard it as the
scale of truth and the most perfect model of conduct. Believers think Prophet
Mohammed as the tool and executor of mediation, analysis and spreading of dogmas.
The only God is Allah, his Prophet is Mohammed and he gets the manifestations with
Gabriel archangel’s intervention. That is why a few believers do not like the
denomination Mohammedan, because it refers to Mohammed, when the only God is
Allah. The religion has 2 branches: Sunnis (followers of Abu, today there are around
- 26 -
800 million) and Shiites (followers of Ali, today their number is around 100 million). It
is forbidden to portray Allah’s image.
Since Turkey is an Islamic country, all Moslem boys are circumcised between the ages
of 2-14 by licensed circumcising surgeons.
The dsihad has to be mentioned, too - when talking about Islam. Basically its aim was
not to convert non-Muslims to the Islam through fights, but to spread the political
domination. They required to be converted to the Islam only from the “idolatrous”.
From Jews, Christians and Persians only the acknowledgement of the power of Islam
was required.
When a name is selected, it is given by an imam or an elder person in the family by
holding the child in the direction of Mecca (Kible) and reading from the Koran into his
left ear and repeating his name three times into his right ear.31
HISTORY OF THE RELIGION
The dogmas of the Islam are written in the Koran and partly in phases and short
stories ‘hadith’, which were written by the Prophet.
Islam, in that form which was written by the Prophet, provided only few new
doctrines for the people whom he turned to with his dogmas. The originality was
not in his dogmas, but in the effects it induced (in theory it made an end to those
standings which could be called after it ‘dsáhilijja’ vandalism).
The moral dogmas and institutes were borrowed from outside with few exceptions from
those religions which were called ‘ahl-al-kitáb’ owners of religious books. These were
the Jewish and Christian religions with their 3 books: the Torah, the Books of Psalms
and the Gospel. He acknowledges these books of divine origin, but he thinks that the
Jews and Christians misinterpreted them. Beside these influences, Persian effects can
also be recognized. Persian words are frequent in the Koran, for example the name of
clothes, textiles and the goblet from which they drink the wine, the name of which was
borrowed from the Turkish language by Hungarians, it is called ‘ibrik’ (=mug, pot).
31 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/culture/people.htm#Naming_child 26 September 2009
- 27 -
One example for the influences (when a Christian dogma was taken over, it was
modified according to the Persian convictions): the institution of Saturdays – Muslim
taught for its followers that “Allah has created the skies and the ground for 6 days” and
added that “without exhaustion” (Surah [50], aja 37). The holiday on the week for the
Muslims is the Friday; but it is the meeting-day ‘dsumua’, and not a rest day. It means
that the work is not prohibited but in the hour of the service the follower of the true faith
is obliged to restrain from work. The Persian religion divides the creation of the world
to 6 parts and does not have a rest-day, especially not for having rest.
Mohammed grounded the basis of the Islam at his residence in Medina, but it only
became a system after his death. The institutions were developed continuously. The
branching-out practices came to a certain arrangement only later, but there is no
uniform in details still nowadays.32
PILLARS OF THE ISLAM
The ancient Islam has considered the following 5 obligations as the pillars of the
religion. These are still in existence in the dogmas of Islam.
1. Testimony ‘sahádat’: There is no other God apart from Allah and Mohammed is
his delegate.
2. Service of God, it is a 5-time pray-ceremony ‘szalát’, in exact points of time
every day in the direction of Mecca. The points of time are: midday, afternoon,
sunset, night and dawn. The 5 prays per day is the result of the Persian
influence. At the beginning there were only 2 prays (at morning and night), later
as an influence of the Jewish religion it became 3, and just thereafter it was
completed to 5. Prayers were regulated by formalities quite early. I am going to
write about it in detail later.
Mohammed instead of the Jewish Saturdays and the Christian Sundays
designated Friday not as a rest day but as a meeting-day ‘al-dsumua’. The
liturgy has to be held where the congregation can be found, in every Friday
around the midday pray. The szalát is joined with a ceremonial speech ‘khutba’,
formerly it was held by the caliph in the capital.32
32 GOLDZIHER, IGNÁCZ: Az Iszlám, Budapest, Franklin Társulat és Révai Testvérek, é.n
- 28 -
The exact times of prayers are determined according to the movement of the
sun. It means prayers are always at different times on every day. So for example
the exact praying times on the 22nd August, 2009 were33:
Dawn
prayer time
‘fadzsr’
Sunrise Midday
prayer time
‘dzuhr’
Afternoon
prayer time
‘aszr’
Sunset
prayer time
‘maghrib’
Night
prayer time
‘isha’
4:16 5:48 12:47 4:38 7:44 9:18
The praying times on the 23 August, 2009 were:
Dawn
prayer time
‘fadzsr’
Sunrise Midday
prayer time
‘dzuhr’
Afternoon
prayer time
‘aszr’
Sunset
prayer time
‘maghrib’
Night
prayer time
‘isha’
4:18 5:50 12:47 4:37 7:42 9:16
The muezzin is a chosen person at the mosque who leads the call to Friday
service and the five daily prayers from one of the mosque's minarets (in most
modern mosques, electronic amplification aids the muezzins) and the time of
prayers can be read at the entrance of the mosques.
3. Public tax ‘zakát’: every Muslim has to contribute to the public. The sum is used
to help the public aims of the congregation, for example to help the poor.
4. Fasting ‘szijám’. Mohammed copied the Jewish Lent, originally was ordered to
the 10th day of the 1st month ‘ásúrá’, but later on he cancelled it, and ordered a
month- long fasting to the 9th month ‘ramadhán’. In this month the Muslim
believers must refrain from every wordly pleasure from sunrise till sunset every
day, e.g. they must not eat, drink, or have a bath before sunset.31 The shops are
open at night and after the sunset they can eat as much as they want and can.
In 2009 it would have begun on 21st August, but in Saudi Arabia and Jordan
(and also in Hungary) the moon was not observable, so they begin it only on 22
August. (The beginning of the Ramadan depends on the change of Moon.)
33 Iszlám közösségi oldal: http://iszlam.com/imaidok 22 August 2009
- 29 -
The reason why some holidays begin on different days according to the
Gregorian calendar every year, is because the Islam time began with the ‘hiddsa’
on 16th July in 622, when Prophet Mohammed went from Mecca to Medina and
they counted in lunar years, which are exactly 354-day long every year, because
they are based on the movement of the moon and one year contains 12 lunar
month. According to this 2009 is 1430.
(In case of non-religious holidays, Turkish people also use the Gregorian
calendar.)
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca ‘hadds’: Muslim people have to do it at least once in their
life, if there is no serious obstacle thrown in one’s way. For this ritual the first
10 days of the 12th month, month of pilgrimage ‘dzu-l-hiddsa’, are ordered. The
centre of this is Kaba (black stone) and there they have to perform all the
ceremonies.32
HOLIDAYS AND RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS
NATIONAL HOLIDAYS1
1 January New Years Eve ‘Yılbaşı’
23 April the Day of the National Sovereignty
and children’s day
‘Ulusal Egemenlik ve Çocuk’
‘Bayramı’
1 May Labour and Solidarity Day (recently
added in 2009)
19 May Atatürk Commemoration and Youth
& Sports Day
‘Atatürk'ü Anma, Gençlik ve Spor
Bayramı’
29 May Capture of Istanbul
1 July Day of the Navy ‘Denizcilik Günü’
30 August Day of Victory ‘Zafer Bayramı’
29 October Day of Republic ‘Cumhuriyet Bayramı’
10 November Atatürk-Memorial Day
- 30 -
RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS
1. ‘Sacred-holiday’ – ‘Kurban Bayramı’ or ‘Büyük Bairam’ – It is “the Great
Holiday”
It is held on the 10th day of the 12th ‘dzu-l-hiddsa’ month, 70 days after
Ramadan. It is the day when the pilgrims to Mecca made a sacrifice in the
nearby valley Miná. It is a 4-day long holiday. The sacrifice is recommended for
every Muslim, but only obligatory for those who took a vow to fulfil it.
According to the Gregorian calendar it is changing in time.28
Kurban Bayrami (Feast of the Sacrifice) was on 27-30 November in 2009, while
in 2010 it is going to be on 16-19 November.
2. ‘Sugar-holiday’ – ‘Ramazan Bayramı or Şeker Bayramı’ – It is “the Small
Holiday”. It is the holiday to celebrate the end of the Ramadan. It starts on 1th
day of ‘Sawwal’ (10th) month and it is 3-day long. It also changes in time. It is a
joyful time of the year. The Musulman families visit each other these days, give
presents to each other and visit the grave of their be loved.28
Ramazan Bayrami in 2009 it was on 19-22 September (19th is half-day). In
2010 it is going to be on 9-12 September (9th is half-day).
In Turkey, people celebrate the ‘Ásúrá’, it is the 10th day of the ‘Muharram’ (1st) month.
In the Gregorian calendar in 2008 it was on 19 January. ‘Ásúrá’ means ‘the 10th day’.
According to Muslim customs when the Flood started to withdraw, Prophet Noah
collected all foods, remained on the Ark and cooked pudding of it. It was named
„ásúrá” or „Noah’s pudding”. To remember Prophet Noah and thanks giving to God,
peoples of Anatolia and other Muslims made a habit to make and share this pudding
among neighbours and friends. Sharing the pudding is a god way of strengthening the
connection among people and unity independently from religion, belief and
background.
- 31 -
PRAYERS AND ITS CEREMONIES / PRAYER AS A CEREMONY
At every service the ritual washing ‘wudú’ has to be done. It can be done by clear water
or sand. After the washing of the hands, mouth, nose and face, the arms have to be
washed till the elbow. The head has to be smoothed with watery hands, than the ears,
back of the neck and toes have to be washed. Before stepping into the mosque shoes
have to be taken off. (Men are obliged to wear long trousers; women have to wear a
shawl. Hair, shoulders, and knees have to be covered up, in case of non-Muslims as
well.) The service has to be done faced to Mecca ‘qibla’ (Saudi Arabia). The
predetermined texts are followed by definite and characteristic moves. The believer has
to be in a straight posture, his arms have to be at rest near by the body. Heels have to be
4-finger’s wide from each other, in front, at the big toe it can be wider. He glances at the
floor at the place where he is going to throw himself to the ground again ‘szudzsúd’.
Meanwhile he concentrates on the intention ‘níja’, that he holds a service, after than he
says Allhu akbar! (God is the Greatest!). Then he puts his right hand on his left hand
under his chest and tells a pray before he recites the al-Fátiha (the first and shortest
verse of the Koran):
“In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds,
The Beneficent, the Merciful.
Master of the Day of Judgment,
Thee (alone) we worship; Thee (alone) we ask for help.
Show us the straight path,
The path of those whom Thou hast favoured; Not the (path) of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray.34”
He puts his arms on his thigh, bows his head and looks in front of him. Then he throws
himself to the ground again. After this he quotes from the Koran, says ‘Alláhu akbar’
and bows again. The believer with straight legs bows ca. in right angle, with his straight
arms and opened fingers he leans against his knees, he turns his head to the floor, his
head follows his back in a straight way and looks his toes. In this position he says at
least 3 times: ‘My great God is exalted’. Then he straightens up.
34 University of Southern California: PICKTHAL, http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/001.qmt.html#001.00119 September 2009
- 32 -
Than comes the most characteristic movement of the service: he throws himself to the
ground. With closed legs, he leans against his knees and toe fingers, he smoothes the
ground with his forehead, meanwhile he leans his arms nearby his head against the
ground with closed palms. He keeps his elbow far from his body. After he sits down on
his left toe, he’s right toe is bended nearby him and says ‘Alláhu akbar!’ and repeats 3
times: ‘Praise for my greatest God!. It is followed by bows while he quotes from the
Koran. As the last movement of the service the believer in sedentary position he turns
his head over his right and left shoulder and he says: ‘Peace and mercy of God for you’.
The service ends with this.
After the service some of them repeat laudatory formulas with the help of the rosary
‘miszbaha’: ‘Alláhu akbar!’ (God is the greatest), ‘Al-hamdu lilláh’ (Honour to God!),
‘Szubhán Alláh’ (God be praised highly!). All of them are repeated 33 times according
to the 3x11 arrangement of the rosary. The weekly congregational service is held on
Fridays at midday in the great mosque.33
MOSQUES
1. This building was the han or caravanserais, served as accommodation for
travellers.
2. It was the imaret, the kitchen. It supplied the officials of the mosque, students,
sick persons and poor
men.
3. was served as
hospital (darüşşifa)
4. Schools (medrese)
which gave general
and theological
teaching. Most of
them today serve
other aims.
Ground plan of Mosque Süleymaniye
- 33 -
5. Court (avlu) in the middle there is the well for the ritual wash.
6. Prayer area (cami)
7. Mausoleum (türbe) which was built in honour of the grounder of the mosque.
8. Bath (hamam)
Inside the mosque22
Islam prohibits the portrayal of animals and people that is why there are no sculptures
and figurative delineations. Inside spaces are decorated by geometric and abstract
architectural ornaments. Men pray separately from women. Women are often behind a
curtained area or on a choir.
Muezzin mahfili can be found the bigger mosques. It is a platform where the muezzin
knees when the imam (leader of the mosque) chants in response to the imam's prayers.
Mihrab is a niche in the wall; it shows the direction of Mecca. The prayer hall is formed
the way that most of people could see it. The origin of it is unknown but the first niche
was built in the rebuilt mosque of Prophet in Medina at the time of al-Valid caliph
around 705-715.
Minbar is a high dais on the right side of mihrab. The imam says his sermons (khutba)
on Fridays from here
Hünkar mahfili is a curtained choir, the place of prayer of the sultan.
Kürsü is that platform where the imam sits and reads from the Koran.
Ritual wash before the pray has to be done at these court wells or at taps built in the
walls of mosque.
THE SUNNIS AND SHIITES ISLAM
Since Islam is a religious ideology which influences the life of the whole society, the
religious and political spheres are in continuous interaction. It was not a coincidence
that the first “schism” in the Islam was a political question: Who is going to be the
inheritor on the top of the political power after the Prophet? Majority thought, that the
- 34 -
person whom the community finds most worthy. They are the Sunnis “the
congregations of traditions and community”. They admit the historical system in
succession of caliph dignity.
Unlike the Shiites, who took Ali’s part. They thought only the closer relatives of Ali are
able to practice the governing power instead of the Prophet.
/The first 4 caliphs were Ibu Bakar, Amar (in Turkish Ömer), Aszmán (Oszman) and Ali.
The Shiites acknowledge only Ali, because he was from the family of the Prophet. Ibu
Bakar was “appointed” by the Prophet, Amar was appointed by Ibu Bakar. Ibu Bakar
was later on the most beloved after Mohammed. After Ali the next dynasty on the
political power was from his family. /
/There are also the Alevis, who are Shiites (or Shia) but the Shias of Anatolia are not the
same as Shias of Iran. In Anatolia they are called Alevis, which comes from the word
Ali. It is a mixture of Anatolian cultures together with a deep belief in the incarnation of
God in Ali. Compared to the Sunnis of Anatolia, the Alevis are more flexible. For
example, they stopped going to mosques on grounds that Ali, the son-in-law of the
Prophet Mohammed and the founder of Alevism, was murdered in a mosque. /35
The opposition between Sunnis and Shiites basically political, but ultimately it is deeply
religious. While Sunnis were careful that opposing viewpoints should not carry effects
in the Islam, Shiites could not resist the foreign influences and that is why fundamental
principles mixed and increased with contradictionary principles and practices with the
Islam. This is the reason why Sunnis do not consider Shiites Islam as real Islam; in
better cases they consider it the serious distortion of the real Islam.2
35 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/culture/religion.htm#Alevis 01 November 2009
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MUSLIM MYSTERY
The Muslim mystery is the Sufism. The members of the Mevlevi
order are the whirling dervishes. Sufi influences are the most
significant in Turkey among the Muslim countries. Sufis believed in
that they are the beloved, chosen, friends, slaves of God and they take
care of his signs.
The order was grounded by Celaleddin Rumi a.k.a. Mevlâna. He thought that the music
and dance is a tool to get people in an ecstatic state, where people can get rid of the
everyday problems and pains.
The whirling ceremony contains more parts; each of them has its own meaning.
Affection is the main topic. The whirling is the symbol of the distribution of affection
among people. Their main aim is to reach the union with God.
Sufis are outsiders of the society. Sufis say that they do not get closer to God through 5
prays a day, but through whirling. While whirling they say prays and they say that they
can speak with God through this way.
- 36 -
ARCHITECTURE
''If the World was a single state,
Istanbul would be its capital.''
Napoleon Bonaparte
The principal Islamic architectural types include among others: the Mosque, the Tomb,
the Palace and the Fort. An especially recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged
soon after Prophet Muhammad's time, developing from localized adaptations of
Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian models. Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture
have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns.
In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and
palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and
arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnette.
The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable.37
HANS AND CARAVANSERAIS36
In Anatolia several hans (warehouses) and caravanserais (inns) were built in the Seljuk
and Ottoman area to protect the caravans (travelers) on their way. Seljuks were built
more than 100 hans to promote the trade. (The camel caravans went from China to the
main trade centres, like Bursa. The most important goods were silk, spice and slaves.)
Under the Ottoman area these hans and caravanserais became the part of the social
system subsidized by the state. Today lots of them can be visited; some of them are
converted into hotels or restaurants. The Sultanhanı caravanserai remained in the best
condition. It was built between 1226 and 1229 in Central-Anatolia in Aksaray. The
building was surrounded by stable, mosque and hamam. Traders could store their goods
in covered halls.
36 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft. 2007.
- 37 -
The caravanserais were surrounded by thick walls. Entrance was only possible through
the central door. A small mosque was in the middle of the courtyard. The mosque was
built on arches. In the middle of the hall there was an octagonal lighthouse, through
which the light could shine in.
OTTOMAN ARCHITECTURE37
The Architecture of most of the popular mosques in Turkey obtained influence from
Byzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs. Turkish architects implemented their own
style of cupola domes. The most conspicuous buildings are in Istanbul those, which
have been built in the Ottoman area. The architecture of the Turkish Ottoman Empire
forms a distinctive whole, especially the great mosques by and in the style of Sinan, like
the mid-16th century Suleiman Mosque. For almost 500 years Byzantine Architecture
such as the church of Hagia-Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques
such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
Mostly these are mosques of sultans, palaces and külliyes (Muslim charitable
institutions). The Ottoman architecture is characterized by strict hierarchy of scales and
materials. For example only those mosques could have 2 or more minarets which were
ordered by a member of the Ottoman family. Lots of architectures were imported from
Greece or Armenia.
Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly
weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer
spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture, which until
then consisted of simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the 37 Islamic-Arch: http://islamic-arch.com/ 08 November 2009
- 38 -
Ottomans through a dynamic architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semi domes and
columns. The mosque was transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with
arabesque-covered walls into a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined
elegance and a hint of heavenly transcendence.
Early Ottoman mosques
The early Ottoman mosques had only 1 huge prayer room, which was covered by
semicircular dome. Covered hall and minarets outside also belonged to the mosques.
Sometimes these were completed with arcaded courtyards. Usually the entrance hall is
covered by 7 domes. Walls are filled with rubble stone.
Late Ottoman mosques
After the occupation of Constantinople, the form of mosques went through lots of
changes. Orthodox churches were often changed to mosques; the most famous of these
is the Hagia Sophia. As an effect of these examples, higher mosques with one dome
became widespread and the inner spaces were expanded also.1
An architecturally interesting thing is about Hagia Sophia is that - according to the
experts - it could resist a 7,5 magnitude earthquake. The Northern-Anatolian fault line is
close to Istanbul and earthquakes are frequent. It is because its flexibility is incredible,
considering the time when it was built (AD 532). It is due to the special solutions and
materials used. One of the special solutions is that the dome is standing on columns and
not on a cylinder; the other solution is that the 40 windows of the building hinder the
building against disintegration. The special materials are the bricks, which are
extremely easy and the mortar, which contains calcium and silicone. In case of quakes,
these indigents react with each other and strengthen the mortar along the gap after 1500
years also.38
Wells 36
According to the Koran water is the source of Life, so it was a civil obligation to ensure
public wells which are called çeşme, They are found in every city and ensure free water.
Şadırvan is the well in the court of mosque for the ritual bath.
38 National Geography Magyarország:http://www.geographic.hu/index.php?act=napi&id=13855 15 September 2009
- 39 -
Konak36
Konak is that type of house where at the ground floor is a granary, stable or storage. The
kitchen and the common rooms are on the first floor, while the private rooms are on the
third floor. These houses are typically 3-floor houses. In some of them, there were
separate entrances to the harem (females of the house) and to the selamlık (males of the
house). These houses are wood-structured, built on stone and brick ground. Nowadays,
a few of these houses are reconstructed to hotels.
Yali36
Yali is a villa on the coast along the Bosporus. Most of these were built in the 18th and
19th century as a summer residency of the rich citizens of the Ottoman Istanbul. These
were built so as to get the most out of its sea coast aspect, that is why boathouses or
landing stages can be found in these houses. These were built in different forms and
architectural styles from the simplest wooden-structures to the lavish Russian style. This
yali is located on the Anatolian side of the Bosporus and has the longest façade among
the yalis of Bosporus with its 64 meters. It was the yali of Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin
Pasha. Another yali is the Afif Ahmet Pasa Yali. It is located on the European side of
Bosporus. It was built by a French architect and one of the most famous guests of this
house was Agatha Christie.39
39 Istanbul Mansions: http://www.istanbulmansion.com/Waterfront_Legacy.htm 24 September 2009
- 40 -
CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS
„Culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic” M. Kemal Atatürk
The culture of Turkey is very colourful and many sided because of the Ottoman past,
the blending of cultures and the Islam tradition. It is said to be an interesting mixture of
the “East” and “West”. Turkish customs are hereditary from generations to generations.
Lots of customs originate from the Islam and they hardly changed over time. Family life
is very important in the Turkish culture; communities are strengthened by the social and
economic ties of big families.
BELIEFS
In the Arab world high value is set on 3 symbols: the fish, evil eye and Fatima’s hand.
These symbols are over the entrances of lots of houses in the Arab world.
Fish is the symbol of eternal renewal, rebirth and often represented as a life-saver. In the
Islam it is also the symbol of fertility. In Tunisia fish is regarded as very effective as a
protection for women and new-born infants.40 Cradles are often decorated with this
symbol.
Fatima’s hand or khamsa is the symbol of good luck. Fatima was
Mohammed’s favourite daughter. The Legend of the Hamsa Hand:
The daughter of Prophet Muhammad, Lady Fatima, was busy
preparing supper, when her husband, Prophet Ali, returned home
unexpectedly. To her amazement, Fatima saw that Ali was
accompanied by a beautiful young concubine. Fatima was deeply
hurt by this scene but managed to keep her calm and continued to prepare the meal. She
was preparing Halva (a sweet Mediterranean dish made from sesame seeds) on a hot
frying pan and absentmindedly, under the influence of the disturbing seen she
previously saw, she put her hand inside the boiling dish, and stirred. She was so
disturbed that she didn't even feel the pain. Her husband saw what was happening and
40http://books.google.ca/books?id=vX6Uv0fYmtUC&pg=PA338&dq=khamsa+evil+eye&lr=#v=onepage&q=khamsa%20evil%20eye&f=false 25 October 2009
- 41 -
cried over to her, to warn her. Only then Fatima realized that her hand was getting
burned and she quickly took her hand out of the pan.
As a result of this accident, Fatima's hand became an important symbol in the Middle
East. During many hundreds of years this symbol was worn in different ways. As a
necklace made up of many little hands, as a single amulet on a chain or as an artistic
decoration on a wall. It is believed that the Hamsa can bring good luck to its owners and
recompense them for their loyalty and forbearance.41
In Turkey the third symbol plays the most important role it is called the evil eye or
Allah’s eye, in Turkish is mavi/nazar buncuk/boncuğu. It protects from bad luck, envy,
dislikes and injuries and brigs luck. Turks can put this symbol on almost everything, on
cell phone, doors, cars … ect.
Islam and time:
It is characteristics for Turkish
and Arab people, that they are
often late, which can be annoying
for Europeans. Muslims think
that the Koran disposes of
everything properly and because
“the human being is impatient”
(„Al-Iszrā”, Surah [17], aja 11) is in the Koran they think they have enough time. There
is an Arab proverb, which also says that “Patience is form Allāh, hurry comes from the
Satan.”
FAMILY
The traditional extended family generally means that three generations live together:
grandfather, adult sons and sons' sons, their wives and their unmarried daughters a
married daughter becomes a member of her husband's family and lives there. In Turkey
lots of houses are never finished, it has got 2 causes. On the one hand it can be because
as more and more people live together, more and more space needed and they built an
additional floor on the top of the house, which costs a lot and most of Turkish families
41 Terebess Ázsia Lexikon: http://www.terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/hamsza.html 25 October 2009
„ the human being is impatient” Koran, „Al-Iszrā”, Surah [17], aja 11
- 42 -
can build it just slowly. On the other hand they not always want to finish it because in
Turkey after every finished house tax has to be paid, which means an additional burden
for those poor families.37
Today because of industrialization and urbanization unclean families replace the
traditional family structure. Unclean family means that husband, wife and unmarried
children live together. In traditional Turkish families, the father is the head of the
family, but the mother has equal rights. The father is the person who earns the money
for the family. The mother either helps to work and earn money or takes care of the
home. Grandparents help to raise children, while children help with the housework.4242
Nowadays we can see the effects of West that for Turkish people also enough 2 or 3
children, in case of wealthy families that there is only 1 child.43
WOMEN
Islam plays an important role in the lives of women. Islam influenced women’s life in
Arabic countries, and women were exposed to all wishes of their husbands. 42
42 For the woman her fertility gives her value. For the modern Turkish families the
idyllic picture is a family which grounds on powerful and steady basis.43
For the infertile women some fruits or herbs are hanged over her uterus. Nowadays
more and more people turn to doctor for advice and medication. In Anatolia it was a
habit to petition at greaves for fertility. 43
In Turkey in the declaration of the Republic in 1923, one of the most significant
elements in the social revolution planned and advocated by Ataturk was the
emancipation of Turkish women, based on the principle that the new Turkey was to be a
secular state, since then women have right to work in the public sector.
In 1926, a new code of Turkish civil law was adopted, which suddenly changed the
family structure. Polygamy was abolished along with religious marriages and divorce
and child custody became the right of both women and men. A minimum age for
marriage was fixed at 15 for girls and 17 for boys.
42 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/culture/people.htm 2009.10.25. 15.10 43BARTHA, JÚLIA: Lâle: hagyományok a mai török társadalomban, az emberélet fordulóinak népszokása, Szolnok, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Igazgatósága, 2006.
- 43 -
With the secularization of the educational system, women gained equal rights with men
in the field of education as well and no longer had to wear the veils and long garments,
required by the old religious beliefs. The right to vote for women was granted at the
municipal level in 1930 and nationwide in 19343, in this year they gained right to be
electable.44 In 1935 18 women became elected as Members of Parliament, which meant
4.5%.45 In 1993 Tansu Çiller is the first woman elected Prime Minister of Turkey.46
Theoretically, Turkish women were far ahead of many of their western sisters at that
time, for instance in France, where women only gained the right to vote in 1944. The
charter of the International Labour Organization adopted in 1951, declaring equal wages
for both sexes for equal work was ratified by Turkey in 1966.42
Although all of these improvements, the actual status of women within the family
institution did not provide for proper equality between men and women.42
TODAY’S SITUATION OF WOMEN
Nowadays, more women have a chance to learn. It has been observed that as the
education level of women increases, the fertility rate decreases. Nearly every female
university graduate has only one child. 9 million of the 21 million working population
of Turkey are women. In the rural areas, the rate of working women, especially in
agriculture, is very high. In urban areas, women hold important posts both in public and
private sectors, the arts and sciences. Turkish women can be bank managers, doctors,
lawyers, judges, journalists, pilots, diplomats, police officers, army officers or prime
ministers also.42
The Parliament accepted the new civil legal code in 2001, which considers the married
couple as an equal party and the notion of illegitimate children was eliminated. A few
years ago 9 out of 10 people thought violence against women was acceptable, but now 9
out of 10 thought it was wrong. "This is a huge breakthrough in the public's mentality",
44 International Women’s Democracy Centre: http://www.iwdc.org/resources/suffrage.htm 25 October 2009 45 Political Participation Patterns of Turkish Women: http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/womtur~1.htm 25 October 2009 46 International Women’s Democracy Centre: http://www.iwdc.org/resources/timeline.htm 25 October 2009
- 44 -
Nebahat Akkoç founder of KAMER (an NGO working for women's rights in eastern
and south-eastern Anatolia) said.47
MARRIAGE
In the traditional family, marriage is still a family rather than a personal affair.
Traditionally, marriage had been, and frequently continues to be, a contract negotiated
and executed by the families and blessed by a representative of the religious
establishment. Representatives of the bride negotiated the contract with those of the
groom, stipulating such terms as the size and nature of the bride-price paid by the
groom's family to the bride's, and certain conditions of conjugal life. After a series of
meetings between the two families, the exchange of gifts, and the display of the
trousseau, the marriage was formalized at a ceremony presided over by a religious
official. The ritual left no doubt that the consenting units were families rather than
individuals. Similarly, the relations of the young couple were a family matter.48
Marriage was legalised only before the republic. Approximately 40% of marriages are
only civil, 50% are both civil and religious, 10% are only religious which means they
are not legal.49 Despite increasing frequency of civil marriage, however, the realities of
courtship and marriage in the traditional segments of society have not been completely
reformed in the countryside. In the late 1980s, many couples, especially in the rural
areas, engaged in two ceremonies, a religious one to satisfy their families and a civil one
to entitle them and their children to government social benefits, as well as to confer
legitimacy on their children before the law.48
Early marriages are more frequent in rural areas. For young men in big cities the
problems of receiving an education, military service and acquiring a job are among the
reasons that delay marriage.37
MARRIAGE TRADITIONS
The wedding ceremony takes from four to seven days in Turkey. It starts with separate
celebrations of the bride and groom's families. From this day on till the couple gets
married, they cannot see each other until their wedding ceremony.
47 European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/014-54483-117-04-18-902-20090427IPR54482-27-04-2009-2009-false/default_en.htm 25 October 2009 48 All about Turkey: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/ 05 November 2009 49 Enjoy Turkey: http://www.enjoyturkey.com/info/culture/Life_Style.htm 05 November 2009
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HENNA NIGHT (KINA GECESI)48
The ceremony held one day before the wedding in the home of bride and groom is
called the henna night. It generally takes place at the girl’s home and among women,
although either side can elect to host it. After preparing the bride, veil ornamented with
red flake is placed over her head, and she is brought into the middle with hymn and folk
songs about henna.
Henna that has earlier kneaded with water is brought in on a tray surrounded by candles
and placed in the middle of the room. In some places, the henna is first put on the hands
of the bride and then distributed to the guests; in other areas the henna is first distributed
to the guests, and only after everybody has left is it placed on the bride’s hands. If the
woman so wishes, henna can also be placed on her feet and hair.
Before the henna is applied, coins or gold are also placed in her hands. After women
who came together for dying henna leave, close friend of the bride remain with her and
enjoy themselves till morning. Dying ceremonies of henna differ according to regions.
The henna itself has such names and types as “iplik kinasi” (henna for yarn), “sivama”
(smearing), “kusgözü” (bird eye).
MILITARY SERVICE
Those men who are 20 years of age but still continue their higher education at
universities or vocational training programs are allowed to postpone their draft until
they have completed these programs. The duration of the basic military service varies:
15 months for privates (elementary or high school graduates), 12 months for reserve
officers (University graduates), and 6 months for short-term privates (those who have
earned a university degree and have not been enlisted as reserve officers).
For Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad for at least 3 years, a basic
military training of 3 weeks is offered instead of the full-term military service if they
pay a certain fee in foreign currency (was 10.000 old German Marks, equal to 5.112
Euros of today).
All Land, Naval and Air forces are connected to the Turkish General Staff, Gendarmerie
forces are connected to the Land forces, and Coast Guard is connected to the Naval
- 46 -
forces. Land Forces are organized into; 4 Corps Command (1st Army in Marmara area,
2nd Army in the Southeast, 3rd Army in the Northeast, Aegean Army in the Aegean
region).50
PREGNANCY43
There was a nuptial habit to scatter the bride with small seeds, from this richness in
children was awaited. They tried to get to know and influence the sex of the baby. It is
said that if the pregnant woman whish for sweet and apple that she is expecting a boy, if
she wishes sour like lemon and plum that it is going to be girl. The pregnant women are
defended by lots of prohibitions like if the mother looks to a rabbit than the baby is
going to have a harelip. She has to avoid looking at ugly things like dog, cat and mouse,
because the baby is going got being ugly. For keeping away the ghosts at birth the lamp
was lightning.
BIRTH
For Turkish people family is very important, which is provided by children.42 They
think that children are the best investigation. To have a great family in Turkey means a
great honour.43 Upon hearing the good news of pregnancy, a golden bracelet comes
immediately as a present from the mother-in-law. In rural areas a pregnant woman
declares it with some symbols mostly on her clothing; her scarf, motifs on it and
suchlike. For the births, in rural places midwives are present, whereas in big cities
hospitals are common. The mother is not supposed to go out from her house for 40
days. If she works, she has a holiday of 40 days automatically. In the first three days
only close relatives come to visit, but in the following days the others also come to visit
with lots of presents.42 Baby boys have to get a bigger present than the baby girls.43 In
Anatolia there is a custom of planting trees in the names of newly born children.
Chestnut, mulberry and apple trees are planted for girls, poplar or pine trees for boys.42
There are some further customs which related to the birth, some of these are the cradle
must not roll when it is empty, because that is said to be meant the death of the baby.
The mother should not open the swaddling-bands in front of foreigners, not to envy the
baby. To stair the baby on the street should be avoid because that is said that it brings a
curse on the baby, against this is the Allah’s eye used.43
50 All about Turkey: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/army.htm 25 October 2009
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NAMING THE BABY
Turkish people have family names only since 21 April 1934. They had to chose their
name and to written it into their birth certificate. The causes of these were the growing
population and the reforms according to European norms. They chose as family name
tribal, geographical, hoped features or professions. After the birth in 1 week has to be
named the baby.43
Turkish names always have meanings. Some of the children's names may derive from
the time in which he was born; Bayram (Feast), Safak (Dawn), Bahar (Spring),
Ramazan (the holy month, Ramadan), or the events during the birth; Yagmur (Rain),
Tufan (Storm), or express the parents' feeling about the child, if they want him to be the
last one; Yeter (Enough), Songul (Last rose) and sometimes names of elder people in
families are chosen as displays of respect.
When a name is selected, it is given by an imam or an elder person in the family by
holding the child in the direction of Mecca (Kible) and reading from the Koran into his
left ear and repeating his name three times into his right ear.
There is when old historical names are given to the baby; these names are Atila or Atilla
and Arpad which are common in Hungary also.
SUNNET (CIRCUMCISION) 47
In Islam, the authority for circumcision did not come from the Koran but from the
example of the Prophet Mohammed. As an Islamic country, in Turkey, all Moslem boys
are circumcised between the ages 2-14 by licensed circumcising surgeons. From the
social point of view, the most prominent feature of circumcision is the introduction of a
child to his religious society as a new member. Circumcisions are generally made with
big ceremonies in festive atmosphere. If a family has more than one boy, they wait for
an appropriate time to perform it altogether. Charity organizations make collective
ceremonies for poor boys and orphans.37 For this occasion boys wear a special dress,
which models the page boy costume of the sultan’s army. The circumcision is an
initiation, marking the time, when the boy can apprehend the religion. It is mostly
performed between the age of 7 and 12. Prior sunnet, boys are raised together with girls,
after sunnet, they join the men.43
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CEREMON42
When a family determines a date for their feast, they invite relatives, friends and
neighbours by sending invitation cards in advance. They prepare a highly decorated
room for the boy with a nice bed and many colourful decorative things. Boys should
also wear special costumes for this feast; a suit, a cape, a sceptre and a special hat with
"Masallah", meaning "God preserve him", written on it.
In the morning of the feast, the children of guests are all taken for a tour around in a big
convoy with the boy either on horseback, horse carts, or automobiles. This convoy is
also followed by musicians playing the drums and the clarinet.
After they come back, the boy wears a loose long white dress and, is circumcised by the
surgeon while somebody holds him. This person who holds is called kirve, and has to be
somebody close to the boy. In the Eastern parts of Anatolia, this is the first contact of a
relationship, which will continue for lifetime. He will play an active role in the boy's life
and have nearly equal rights with the father in decisions. This is similar to a godfather in
Christianity. Although there is no blood relation to his kirve, the boy will not even be
allowed to marry his kirve's daughter in order not to have incest because he is
considered to have become somebody from the family.
After the circumcision, the boy is in pain and has to be kept busy with music, lots of
jokes or some other animation. Presents also are given at this time to help him forget his
pains. In the meantime words from the Koran are recited and guests are taken to tables
for the feast meal which is a special one laid with different food changing from region
to region. After a few days the boy recovers and festivities end.
Today, there is a small group of people who prefer their children to be circumcised in
hospitals while they are in hospital after birth, whereby ignoring the traditional side.
DIVORCE42
Divorce is not very common. Women continue their lives for their children's sake or not
to suffer from the social pressure it may evoke. The other reason is economic. If a
woman does not work, she does not have many alternatives when divorced. After a
certain age, in a country where employment is a problem, it is really a risk to survive. A
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new law proposal is waiting to be enacted in parliament. The change will allow the
sharing of everything equally.
DEATH AND BURIAL42
Throughout the ages in Anatolia, many different rituals regarding death and burial have
been applied. Types of graves have differed.
When somebody dies, the corpse is laid on a bed in a separate room; the head facing the
direction of Mecca, eyelids closed, the big toes are tied to each other and the two arms
rest on both sides next to the body. Burial has to take place as soon as possible during
the daytime. If somebody dies in the late afternoon, he is buried the next day. The
corpse might rest for a period of time in a cool place or a mortuary but only if there are
close relatives coming from a far away place.
According to religious belief, if somebody is buried without an ablution, he is not
allowed to enter heaven. Therefore, dead people have to be washed by authorized
people, and always women by a woman, men by a man. Meanwhile the death is
declared from a mosque minaret by a muezzin with some words from the Koran
together with his name, funeral time and place. After the ablution the corpse is dressed
in a white shroud, put in a wooden coffin covered with a green piece of cloth. A
martyr's coffin is covered with the Turkish flag. The coffin is carried to the table outside
in the courtyard of a mosque on people's shoulders before prayers. Nobody stands in
front of the funeral procession and people in the street stand up and salute the funeral
motionless and in silence.
While the coffin rests guarded on the table outside, people perform their regular prayers.
From within the mosque, following the prayers, they all come out and line up in front of
the coffin to take part in the funeral service under the leadership of the Imam. Women
are not allowed to join this service. At the end of the service, the Imam asks people
what they thought of the deceased and answers are always positive: "He was good. May
God bless him. Mercy be upon his soul, etc." Funeral services are not held for parricides
or the stillborn.
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Interment
The coffin is carried to the cemetery by a hearse followed by a long convoy. Graves are
rectangular in shape and designed to accommodate only one person. The deceased is
buried in only the shroud not the coffin. The body is laid on its right shoulder facing the
direction of Mecca. The tombstone is on the head's side.
The Imam's prayers signify the end of the burial. The deceased is commemorated on the
seventh and fifty-second days of his death with Islamic readings; mevlit. Sometimes big
funerary meals or halvah are offered to the poor and surrounding people.
TRADITIONAL COSTUME51
Clothing has come by its present forms as a result of the influence of social and moral
values. With the passing time, a wide variety in forms of clothing emerged. These
differences were the result of social and economic structure, geography, the materials
available and climate. Each region had its own characteristics in the way of clothing,
headwear, scarves and socks, which have all, through the centuries, attracted interest
and admiration. Clothes indicate whether societies are settled or nomadic, and are a
source of information about historical events and ethnological origins. For example, in
Yöruk or Turkoman villages, one can tell whether a woman is engaged, married or a
widow from the way in which she does her hair.
Daily, work and special day clothes are different. Hair styles during a wedding and after
the bridal chamber differ. In markets, it is easy to identify which village people live in
just from their clothes. Today in Anatolia, there are differences even between the
clothing worn in different neighbourhoods of the same village.
Men who leave their villages to do their military service or to take up employment
inevitably adapt to city culture. In rural areas, women generally have little contact with
the outside world. They tend to dress in conformity with the lifestyle and traditions of
the community of which they are a part. Dress and decoration tends to follow that of
preceding generations. Children’s clothes also differ according to sex and age. The
concept of the evil eye is widespread, and one can observe many amulets to ward it off
51 Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey: http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A781CAA92714FCE09967B13382E62777 05 November 2009
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in peoples’ clothes and hair. In conservative communities, each generation follows the
clothing styles and customs of earlier generations. Yet it is nevertheless impossible to
say that traditional clothing and finery are totally unchanging. In rural areas, women
spend most of their time with working. As a result, their daily, work and special day
clothes are different. Special costumes and hair dressings are only to be seen at wedding
ceremonies. Women’s hair styles differ in accordance with their social status, and
whether they are married or engaged, or not. Hair style is an important feature of
women’s lives.
The tradition of using jewellery and ornaments to complement traditional clothing still
exists in traditional societies. The jewellery and ornaments used at wedding ceremonies
in Anatolia differ according to the importance of the couple about to be married. For
example, on the "henna night" (a party for a bride-to-be during which she and the other
guests henna their hands and fingers, generally held one day before the wedding
ceremony itself) the bride wears no ornaments, her clothes and jewellery being worn by
another girl. It is considered inappropriate for a young girl to adorn herself before
marriage, although she will do so before leaving her father's house, either to give a
favourable impression or for protection from the evil eye. Jewellery and ornaments are
also worn by children and adult males.
KARAGÖZ52
Karagöz (literally means Black-eye) and Hacivat are
the main figures of the traditional Turkish shadow-
play. The origin and the time of first performance are
unknown. It was a very successful form of
entertainment in the Ottoman area, nowadays, because
of the TV and cinemas it is played at Ramadan. It was
played in Coffee houses and main squares. According
to the legends Karagöz and Hacivat were living people. The main characters are
opposites, Karagöz is an uneducated, outspoken swain, while Hacivat is an educated
citizen, who speaks Ottoman Turkish and uses literary language. Karagöz is usually hit
and mocked. The performance is improvisation, so the line of the story can be changed
according to the reaction of the audience. The basic story is always based on their
52 The Armory: http://www.armory.com/~ssahin/articles/article8.htm 29 October 2009 Terebess Ázsia Lexikon: http://www.terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/karagoz.html 29 October 2009
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controversial character and quarrel. It consists 4 parts: at first the introduction
(mukaddime), conversation, dialogue between Karagöz and Hacivat (muhavere) and the
main plot (fasil) and conclusion (bitiş)
Sometimes there are additional characters rarely women, whose are played by men, and
people from different nations with its stereotypes. Kurds are usually security and using
Kurdish words, Arabs are travellers, Persians are trading with textile and Jewish are
avaricious usurer or antique dealer.
The shadows appear on muslin (ayna), this canvas is 1x1,6 meters. The puppets are
usually 30-32 centimetres high and made from camel leather, which is made to be very
thin. The leather is coloured by natural vegetable paint. Behind them, there is an oil
lamp, which lights both the muslin and puppets. The light seeping through the colourful
almost transparent puppets by projecting their colours on the canvas. Without music it
could be unimaginable, the actors often sing as well.
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ISLAMIC ARTS
In the Moslem world a concrete message is transmitted through its abstract forms. A
strong, centralized state, the Ottoman Empire concentrated its creative energies on the
development of uniquely logical mosque architecture. As early as the 14th and 15th
century, in Bursa and Iznik, the Ottomans chose to use the single dome as the focal
compositional element of their monuments. This fascination with the cupola was in
large part inspired by the Byzantine church of the Hagia Sophia and culminated in the
16th century masterpiece of the Suleymaniye mosque in Istanbul. Ottoman decorative
art, especially ceramic objects and tiles and miniature painting are largely derivative of
other traditions, although many examples are noteworthy for the exceptional precision
of their execution.53
CALLIGRAPHIES AND TUĞRAS
Among Islam art
branches the most
upscale was the
calligraphy, the art of
penmanship, because its
prime task was to write
the Holy Koran down,
which is the word of
Allah for the believers. In
the Islam it is forbidden
to use people or animal
bodies because it
distracts away the attention from religious thoughts. That is why artists and craftsmen
could show their talent in geometric and meticulous vegetable decorating motives so
called arabesques. Under the Ottoman ruling the most beautiful examples were from the
workshop of the sultan from Nakkaşhane, where the traineeship could be 10 year long.54
Copying of the Koran is considered a religious act and Islamic calligraphy is much
esteemed because of its religious associations. Major styles of script are Kufi, a formal 53 All about Turkey: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/index.htm 05 November 2009 54 Ottoman Sultan Tugras: http://www.tugra.org/index.asp 19 October 2009
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style with an angular character, Sulus, a cursive flowing script
written with rounded letters, Divani, generally used for writing the
decrees, and Talik. These scripts are also classified in themselves
according to the places that they are used or their sizes.55
The tuğra was a personal monogram, an outstanding calligraphic
imperial design, monogram or a kind of signature of the Ottoman
Sultans. This was carved into a wood cube and was used as a seal. The tuğra, on its
own, it’s peculiar to the Turks. After the tuğras evolved as a monogram, the
calligraphers entered the artistic dimension and tried to write better and better tuğras. It
is widely accepted that the most excellent tuğra among all tuğras is the tuğra of Sultan
Abdulhamid II written by master calligrapher Sami Efendy. Nowadays lots of
interesting tuğras can be seen, for example the Besmele (means in name of Allah, Most
Gracious, Most Merciful) calligraphy shape of bird figure. 56
Calligraphies were used also for decorating the mosques, mausoleums. Most of these
quotes are from the Koran, the name of Allah or words of praise about Allah. For
example the Hagia Sophia is decorated with 8 disc of calligraphies, each is 7,5 meters in
diameter with the names of Allah, Prophet Mohammad, the first 4 caliphs (Abu Bekr,
Omar, Othman and Ali), Hassan and Hussein whose were the 2 martyr grandchildren of
the Prophet.
MINIATURES
The calligraphies established the illustration of books. Painting of pictures on a small
scale. The word miniature is derived from minimum, the name of a red oxide of lead
used for the decoration of sacred texts. The techniques developed in this art of
illuminating manuscripts were later applied to the creation of many small portraits,
known as miniatures. Miniature painters generally work in a microscopically minute
technique, using thin, pointed brushes on such varied surfaces as the backs of playing
cards, stretched chicken skin, vellum, metal and ivory.
In the Islam world the Persian miniatures were the most prominent.54 In the way of
paintings it contradicted to the prohibition of the Prophet. The Ottoman miniature 55 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/default.htm 19 October 2009 56 http://www.bookingturkey.org/shoppingcalligraphy.htm 19 October 2009
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paintings reached its peak in development at the end of 16. century under the ruling of
Suleiman the Magnificent. Lots of miniature painters were brought from the Persia to
the workshops of Topkapı Palace. A unique style was evolved with they could
perpetuate the history of dynasty, like battle scenes, ceremonies in the Palace, main
festivals and topographical illustrations. Unfortunately these paintings are not signed
and dated.
CERAMIC ARTS
Ceramic art was flourished at the Ottoman era. There
were 2 centres İznik and Kütahya. Ceramics were used
very widespread, storing pots, jars, plates and tiles were
made from it. The early ceramics from İznik were blue-
white coloured. Ceramics arts reached its peak in the 16.
century when the well-known “tomatoes” colour was
developed. After that new and faithful tulip and flower motives were introduced around
1550. The origin of İznik ceramics is that when in the 14. century Chinese ceramics
were imported to Turkey, it was copied. Significant collection of Chinese ceramics can
be found in the Topkapı Palace. Tiles used for interior decoration. Ceramics as a tile
was not used before the ruling of Great Suleiman. Examples for ceramics as tile the
dome of the in Jerusalem, in Suleiman, Rüstem Paşa and in the Blue Mosque.57
EBRU (PAPER MARBLING)58
Ebru was used extensively in the binding of books and within the calligraphic panels in
Turkey. Ebru is likely to have originated from Central Asia. Natural dyes mixed with
ox gall are sprinkled with brushes made of horse tails on the surface of water in a deep
ebru tray. The oily dyes are designed on the surface of water. After the design is ready,
tray-size papers are left on the tray to absorb all the dyes as they are, with their formed
shape. Usually random or geometric forms come out, but in Turkey they produced
recognizable forms like flowers, e.g. tulips or camomile.
57 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft., 2007. 58 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/culture/islamart.htm#PAPER_MARBLING 03 November 2009
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ANATOLIA ARTS
“I would like to point out with special emphasis that one of the historical
characteristics of the Turkish nation, which is a society composed of worthy people, is
to appreciate the fine arts and to advance in them as well.” M. Kemal Atatürk
TAPESTRY
It is a rural tradition. The patterns of carpets and kilims go from generation to
generation. Carpets were made originally against cold weather, for decorating homes,
marriage portion or as a gift to the mosque. The carpets have 2 kinds, the halı, it is the
hand-knob ted carpet and the kilims, which are weaved from vertical and perpendicular
threads with simple knotting.
Carpets can be made by manually and mechanically.
If at the back of the carpet knots can be seen and the
threads cannot be pulled out, than it is made
manually. Before weaving wool is washed, carded,
twisted and painted. Weaving is a home industry in
Turkey. Women weave at winter, because at summer
they have to deal with farming/agriculture. Carpets
can be made from wool or silk. Chemical paints
were introduced in 1863, formerly the materials
were coloured blue by indigo, red by wheat root and
yellow by camomile.
Prayer rugs have the prayer pattern which was
inspired by the mihrab (opening on the wall of mosques, which shows the direction to
Mecca). Another important motive is the Tree of Life, which is the symbol of
immortality.
Kilims are made with engraving technique, the change of colours are shown by straight
lines.
The returning patterns have an often strange origin. Both abstract and figurative can be
found. Lots of pattern has remained from those symbols with nomads and villagers
An early example of Tree of Life with mihrab pattern
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signed the animals. People have believed that by imitating, or weaving part of a
dangerous animal, they will have power over it and protection from it like scorpion.
Symbol of evil eye is a general protection from bad things.59
ICONOGRAPHY53
The function of iconography is to recognize and explain images and to search for the
origins of personages and scenes.
A symbol, however, is an object or figure that by itself represents something else, often
an abstract idea.
The earliest recorded images were those associated with the rites of ancient religions,
especially those in which the deity had a human form. To propitiate or petition the gods,
worshippers offered sacrifices to statues in temples; the statue was thought to contain
the actual presence of the deity and the temple was considered to be his "house." This
was developed significantly by the great poet Homer who organized the ancient gods
into a kind of family or pantheon and gave each one an individual personality and
specific physical characteristics.
When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, its imagery began
to reflect borrowings from the emperor's court at Constantinople. Christ was no longer
depicted as a youthful shepherd, but as an enthroned emperor and judge with a dignified
beard. The Virgin Mary appeared crowned and robed like the empress and saints
dressed like courtiers approached the throne of God with veiled hands, as was the
custom in the courts of Eastern monarchs.
59 About Turkey: http://www.about-turkey.com/carpet/language.htm 18 October 2009
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PAINTING53
The Romans decorated their villas with mosaic floors and exquisite wall frescoes
portraying rituals, myths, landscapes, still-life and scenes of daily activities. Using the
technique known as aerial perspective, in which colours and outlines of more distant
objects are softened and blurred to achieve spatial effects, Roman artists created the
illusion of reality.
Certain stylization and artistic conventions are characteristic of these representations of
the New Testament events.
The otherworldly presentation became characteristic of Byzantine art and the style came
to be associated with the imperial Christian court of Constantinople, which survived
from 330 AD until 1453. The Byzantine style is also seen on icons, conventionalized
paintings on wooden panels of Christ, the Virgin, or the saints, made for veneration.
SCULPTURE53
Small fertility figures or mother goddesses modelled in terra-cotta found in Catalhoyuk
(5500 BC) and Hacilar are among the earliest examples of sculpture in Anatolia.
The first statues were influenced by Egyptian sculpture, which in the 7th century BC
already had a long tradition. Egyptian sculpture, however, showed little stylistic change
over the centuries. Especially in the earliest phase, sculpture was carved in a severe (or
formal) classical style. The male body became a broad-shouldered, trim-hipped athlete,
often shown in arrested motion. The female figures were still severely draped; the
earlier archaic smiles were sometimes softened in expression in the Classical period
(5th-4th century BC).
After the death of Alexander the Great, his extensive empire was dissolved into many
different kingdoms. This fragmentation was symbolic of the diversity and multiplicity
of artistic tendencies in the Hellenistic period. The great centres of art were in the
islands and in the cities of the eastern Mediterranean Alexandria, Antioch and
Pergamum. The Hellenistic period (4-2 century BC) was a period of eclecticism. Art
still served a religious function or to glorify athletes, but sculpture and painting were
also used to decorate the homes of the rich.
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The awareness of space that characterized architecture also began to emerge in sculpture
and painting. As a result landscapes and interiors appeared for the first time in both
reliefs and painted panels. The baroque style of the sculpture was characteristic of the
time in its exaggeration of movement, physical pain and emotion, all set against a
background of swirling draperies.
MOSAICS
Mosaic is the art of embedding small pieces of cut stone or pigmented glass in a plaster
bed to serve as floor or wall decoration. Mosaic reached its greatest heights in Early
Christian and Byzantine art and architecture. Solidity, resistance to moisture, durability
and colour-fastness made mosaic a practical form of architectural decoration. The
process of constructing a mosaic begins with cubes of cut stone, pigmented glass, or
gold or silver leaf sandwiched by glass. These cubes are known as tesserae. The
sophisticated mosaics evolved from the practice of gathering pebbles from the beach
and setting them in a cement bed to provide durable flooring in homes and temples. At
first randomly scattered and set, the pebbles later were arranged in simple ornamental
patterns. Mosaic pavements became the fashion in the 3.century BC in the homes and
villas of the wealthy throughout the Mediterranean area. Black-and-white mosaic style
began on a small scale in private homes, where black figures and decorative motifs were
silhouetted against a field of white marble or limestone, this style soon carpeted the
floors of public baths, marketplaces and other areas of public assembly. Because it
withstood the effects of humidity and moisture and because the tesserae were colour-
fast, mosaic was often used to decorate garden walls, fountains and baths in the ancient
world. 60
Most beautiful examples are in the Hagia Sophia and in the Chora Mosque. One of the
most famous mosaics is in the sanctuary of the Hagia Sophia; it is where Virgin Mary
holds the children Jesus in her hands near them there are Joanes Komnenos Caesar and
Eiréne Empress. But further mosaics can be found here like Jesus, Gabriele archangel.
60 Turkish Odyssey: http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/culture/arts.htm#ICONOGRAPHY 22November 2009
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HANDICRAFT
Handcrafting is the inheritance of the Ottoman guild system in Turkey. Oya or
needlework, which is famous from its minute flower motives from silk.
Weaving is a custom mainly in the rural areas. It is done by women. The patterns of the
carpets and kilims run in the family from generation to generation.
Brass and copper goods are part of the Turkish households. Usually the old copper
goods can be very expensive, the newer one are more affordable. Woodcarving is the
inheritance of the Ottomans. Most famous cities of this are Devrek and Adana.
Handprinted textiles are called to yazmas. These are the pride of the Central-Anatolian
cities like Tokat. Turkey is on the cutting edge of quality clothes and knitwear. Pottery
is an important tradition in Turkey. The style is changing regionally. İznik, Küthaya and
Çanakkale are famous from its ceramics.60
MUSIC AND DANCE
Turkish music and dance originates deeply from the history and traditions. Ottoman
classics, mysterious Sufi songs, different folk music, jazz and pop had an effect on
Turkish music. The result of these is a mixture of the ancient and the new styles. Today
these styles and traditions are still being fostered. Visitors of Turkey can easily meet
these styles.
The Mevlevi music is the music of Sufis. This music is based on instruments ney, ud
and kanun. Their music is long and stands for complex compositions, called Ayin.
While dancers are whirling and getting into a trans-like state, the choir sings pieces of
poetry of Jelaleddin Rumi. International well known mevlevi musicians are Necdet
Yasar and Kudsi Ergüner.
Mehters (janissary band) musicians accompanied the troops of Ottoman Empire to
battles from 1299 to 1826 with characteristic marching rhythm, which was based on the
words of “Pious God is good. God is merciful.” In our days the reborned Mehter
orchestra plays in the Museum of Military History in Istanbul and in the Topkapı
Palace.
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Like the traditional folk dance, the colourful traditional costumes also play a very
important part of Turkish culture. Kılıç Kalkan is a so called wooden spoon dance; it is
performed by the wooden spoons hit together. This dance originates from the Black Sea
part of the country.61
The fasıl music is similar to gipsy music. It is half classical music and played in concert
halls. It uses traditional wind, percussion and stringed instruments. Fasıl music is
mainly listened to and rarely danced to.61
Since one third of the Turkish population is alevi, their folk music is well-known. These
songs are about mystical topics. They pray through this to Avlevi saints and to Ali.
The arabesque and pop musicians are celebrated stars in Turkey. Arabesque is one of
the most famous popular music. The most famous arabesque performer is İbrahim
Tatlises and Yıldız Tilbe, their songs are about the difficulties of life and love. İbrahim
Tatlises has an own TV show also where famous people talk to each other and of course
there are music and dance elements.61
Pop music affected Turkish music also. One of the biggest pop stars in Turkey is Sezen
Aksu and the world famous Tarkan.
Of course belly dance is famous in Turkey. It is still the favourite of tourists. Belly
dance has lots of different styles; the Turkish belly dance is not as light as the Egyptian,
it is rather strong and forceful.61
The traditional instruments can be divided into 3 groups: wind, percussion and stringed
instruments. The main stringed instruments are Saz and Ud. Saz is a penance instrument
with 3 strings, while Ud has 11 strings and there is a piece of leather on it to protect the
strings. The wind instruments are Kaval and Ney. Both of them
have ancient origins and both are made of wood. Ney is carved
from cane, kaval is made of plum tree. Percussion instruments
are Darbuka and Davul. These instruments have Arab origins.
The body of darbuka is made of wood and its top is made of
various types of leathers - like goat, camel, sheep leather etc.
The body of davul is made of metal and it is hit by a tupan
stick.61
61 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft., 2007.
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LITERATURE
By Turkish literature I mean both written and oral texts in Turkish. Early peaces were
influenced by the Persian and Arab languages in the Ottoman Empire (Ottoman-Turkish
language), later on the reformed Turkish language.
The Turkish literature is almost 1500 years old. The earliest known Turkish text was
found in the Orkhon valley, Mongolia from the 8th century AD. The works from the 9th -
11th centuries were subsisting by oral traditions like the book of Dede Korkut and the
epic, Manasz.
Literacy appeared in the 11th century when the Seljuks settled in Anatolia. At the
beginning, lots of motives, topics and genre were adopted from the Arab and Persian
literature. The most well-known person of the Turkish literature today is Orhan Pamuk,
who won a Nobel Prize in Literature in 2006.
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HAMAM – TURKISH BATHS
The origin of Turkish bath comes from ancient Rome. They
were built with emphasis on the interior rather than the
exterior looks. There are double baths where there is a
separate space for men and women, whereas in a single bath
both sexes are allowed to go in but at different times. In
Istanbul, less than ten percent of the bath houses are
operational today, with both operational and non-operational
ones in private ownership.
Interesting as it may sound, Turkish people think that
European people are unclean. It is because we do not perform
their bath ceremony where the upper skin layer is scrubbed, which makes us unclean.
Bathing was also a form of social activity.
They connect their most important occasions in their life to bathing, for example:
the 'bridal bath ceremony', which was held one day before wedding festivities
commenced
the 'forty-day bath', which marked the fortieth day following the birth of a child
the 'tear-drying bath', attended by all relatives and friends of the deceased twenty
days after her death
the 'votary bath', held when a person's wish was fulfilled
the 'guest bath', to which the hostess invited her friends and relatives to meet a
special visitor
the 'holiday bath' which was taken on the eve of religious holidays.62
The order of bath:
After dressing in the dressing room or camekan it begins with the alternate of cold water
with warm sauna more times. People can wear a swimsuit or just a towel given in the
hamam. Then people go in a room called hararet, where there is a marble platform
(göbek taçı) in the middle, which is heated from under, people laid down there and
relax, after a time men start to sprinkle cold water on people. Following this, a man
starts to wash everyone’s body with a big sack full of soap. Than another man comes 62 Turkish Cultural Foundation: http://www.turkishculture.org/pages.php?ChildID=223&ParentID=12&ID=58&ChildID1=223 24 October 2009
Entrance of Cağaloğlu hamam
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and starts to peel off the upper layer of skin with rough soaped gloves (kese). After all
this, the people enter another room where they get a massage from head to toe. Finally
people sit down in a hall and drink water or tea.
It is good to know that the first towel was made for a Sultan in Bursa in the 18 century.
Still the best towels are made in Bursa. Bursa is a centre of the silk trade and towel
manufacturing. Özdilek is the leading towel and bathrobe producer in Turkey. It started
its business in 1971. Nowadays it exports to over 20 countries and holds a place among
Europe’s first four and the world’s first ten bathrobe manufacturers. 63
One of the most famous and luxurious hamam in Istanbul is the Cağaloğlu hamam. It
was built in 1741 by Mahmud I. Its construction was begun by Süleyman Ağa and
finished by Abdullah Ağa. This is the last example of this kind of building in Istanbul,3
it combines different Ottoman architectural styles. It was the last of the great hamams
to be built in the city before their construction was forbidden by Sultan Mustafa III in
1768.64 The sultan spent the income of the hamam to maintain the library of Aya
Sophia. In bigger hamams like this, there is a separate part for men and women. In this
hamam these parts are located at opposite angles to each other, and the entrances open
from different streets.3 The door of the women's section is on a side street called
Hamam street, while the men's entrance is from the main road of Yerebatan street.2 This
hamam is still operating and can be visited by tourists. The two parts are the same and
are made up of 3 segments. These are camekan, soğukluk and the main room hararet.
Famous people like Kaiser Wilhelm, Ferenc Liszt, Tony Curtis, Richard Harrison and
Harrison Ford visited this hamam.65
Ground-plan of the
Cağaloğlu hamam
CULINARY
63 http://www.ozdilek.com.tr/uk/ 25 October 2009 64 All about Turkey: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/ist_bath.htm 25 October 2009 65 Cagaloglu Hamam: http://www.cagalogluhamami.com.tr/ 24 October 2009
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CULTURE
The rich variety of Turkish cuisine can be derived on the one hand from the variety of
products offered by the lands of Asia and Anatolia and the interactions with numerous
different cultures (Seljuk and Ottoman empires) over a long historical process.
Moreover, the fact, that religious rules had to be considered partly accounts for the
diversity as well.66
Turkish cuisine keeps old traditions; it is a mixture of lots of origins. It is a transition
between the Middle-East and the Balkan. There are very big differences all over the
country, e.g. in cities the European norms can be found while in villages meals can still
sometimes be spread on the floor. In the past, it was impossible to transport fish to long
distances, thus fish dishes were popular at the sea side, while spicy meat dished were
favoured in the middle of the country.
In Turkey the religious prescriptions are not followed as strictly as in Arab countries.
Pork is not consumed at all, and because of this, they do not cook with lard, but with oil
(mainly olive oil) or butter. Beef has become widespread just recently. Fish, lamb,
poultry and mutton are preferred. Popular foods include meat roasted on the spit and
grilled meat. Most frequently sheep, beef and veal are used. Seasoning follows the
Eastern taste. Yoghurt has an important role in the cooking. Further milk products are
essential at everyday meals. Their sweets are heavier and sweeter than ours. From
vegetables the tomatoes, green pepper and onion is favoured. Garlic and pepper are
often used spices.67
In the Islam, there is a religious rule that animals can only be cut by a Muslim, while he
is reciting the Surahs from the Koran. Originally Muslims are prohibited to drink blood
or eat bloody-meats. In the Arab world there are special butchers, where those meats
can be bought which were prepared according to the Islam rules.
As in every field of life, in Turkey there are very big differences in what extent people
keep the religious rules. There are people who follow European norms (mainly in those
areas where tourists can be found e.g. Mediterranean part of Turkey), while in small
villages people keep all the Islamic rules.
66 Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism: http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A781CAA92714FCE03D26410A22C2CA34 24 September 2009 67 SILLE, ISTVÁN: Illem, etikett, protokoll, Budapest, Akadémia Kiadó, 2008.
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Lunch is usually followed by a 2-4 hour “siesta” or lunch break, because of the hot
weather early afternoon. Work continues after this, but it adopts the mood and character
of social meetings.68
FOODS:68
People who lived under the Ottoman domination contributed to the delicious taste of the
kitchen of Topkapi Palace from the Balkan to North-Africa. Different cultures and
different tastes can be felt in the Ottoman delicacies, which was widespread through
Turkey. More important foods were brought from Central-Asia by the migrating nomad
Turks to the West. The various Anatolian foods, together with the French and Chinese
culinary traditions are considered to be the best cuisines in the world.
Variations of Turkish bread68:
The Turkish word for bread is ekmek. The most common bread is the beyaz ekmek (it is
the white bread), pide (pita) and simti. Pide is eaten at religious ceremonies and with
kebab; it is flat wheaten bread. Simit is crispy, ring-shaped delicious bread with sesame
seed on the top of it.
MAIN MEALS
Breakfast67:
A Turkish breakfast consists of the following: bread, cheese, which is similar to feta,
other milk products (yoghurt), egg, tomatoes, olives, cucumber and further vegetables,
honey, jam, cold meat and butter. Tea is a customary drink.2 The yoğurt çorbası is a
yogurt soup made from legumes or rice. It can be consumed any time of day.3
Lunch68
In Turkey lunch is rarely the main meal. It contains mainly only soup and salad.
Dinner:
Dinner as the main meal contains the soup, main dish with salad and dessert.
Mezes68:
Turkish meals are started often by mezes (appetizer), which has hundreds of types, from
the simplest like the white-cheeses with melon to the special filled vegetables. Mezes
can be found in every restaurant, it is served often with raki. The specialties of 68 SWAN, SUZANNA: Törökország, Budapest, Panemex Kft., 2007.
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meyhanes (which are like tavernas where alcohol and mezes are served) are the
Anatolian mezes, which are served from filled trays. The appetizer consists of paté,
small kind of sausages, cold meats, cucumber, crabs, shells and many kinds of fish.67
Dolma is made of fillings. It is put on a leaf of grape, green pepper, or seashell. Böreği
is savory pasta filled with minced meat, spinach or spicy cheese. Çerkez tavuğu is
chicken meat cut into stripes and put into creamy sauce of nutmeat and bread crumbs.68
Cold mezes68:
Many mezes’ are made with yoghurt based sauce or in puree form. It is served with
fresh and hot bread. Most famous are patlıcan salatası (smoked eggplantpuree), haydari
(mint, garlic and yoghurt) and tarama (caviar). Examples are Lakerda is a cut smoked
tuna with lemon, which is popular at the Black Sea coast. Fasulye piyazı is a white bean
salad with olive oil and lemon, it is served sometimes with boiled egg and zeytinyağlı
enginar is artichoke, which is one of the special boiled vegetables, boiled in olive oil.
Soups67:
There is a wide range of soups (çorbasi). The tarhana çorbasi is a caraway-seed soup
with tomatoes, eggs, yoghurt, sprinkled with toast, cheese or browned meat. Sebze
çorbasi is a Turkish vegetable soup with carrots, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, cabbage,
celeriac, dill and spices. Yayala çorbasi is made from simple meat soup seasoning with
rice, flour, egg and yoghurt.
Main dishes67,68:
The main dishes are very colourful in Turkey. Usually these are simple and traditional
foods but they are often spicy and hot.
For example the karides güveç is one of the many kinds of güveçs (stew). It is made
from shrimps, tomatoes and pepper.68 Hünkar begendi (Sultan’s favorit) is similar to a
stew made of lamb, onion, aubergine, milk and cheese.67
Fırında mantı is a meat filled dumpling. An internationally-known food from Turkey is
kebab. It can be made from meat, fish and vegetables. It has several kinds, like döner
(roasted meat), şiş (meat roasted on skewer), Adana (minced meat roasted on skewer)
and the Iskender or Bursa kebab (döner meat on bread treacled with tomatoes sauce and
yoghurt).68
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Pilaf is originally rice with meat and vegetables in various flavours. It can be made in
many ways. The Istanbul Pilavi is made from chicken (breast, liver and gizzard of it)
with almond, pistachio, green peas and saffron.67
The dishes from meat cannot be imaginable without a wide rand of vegetables. Çoban
salatasi is cucumber, green pepper and radish mixed with olive oil with parsley and
lemon on top of it. Cacik is cucumber seasoned with garlic, mint and thyme. Padlican
salatasi can not be prepared without garlic and yoghurt after the skin is peeled of the
aubergine (Turkish tomatoes). Piyaz is bean salad with onion. Zeytinyagli kereviz is
celery in olive oil. Saray salatasi is a mixture of tomatoes, soaked and squeezed onion
and green pepper in olive oil and lemon on top of it.67
Fish dishes are very popular. They can be bought at many places. Fish can be prepared
in many ways, most of the times it is roasted or güveç (stew) is made from it. On the
East side of the Black Sea hamsi (anchovy) is very popular and it can be prepared at
least 10 ways.67
It is ideal to finish the Turkish meals with fresh fruit. Depending on the season, the most
popular fruits are banana, strawberry, cherry, peach, pear, grape (raisin is an important
export product) watermelon, fig, plum, apple, orange, grapefruit and pomegranate.67
SWEETS68
Turkish people eat sweets not only after the meal, but as a snack during the whole day.
Some sweets are eaten just at religious holidays. Perhaps the most famous Turkish
sweet worldwide is the baklava. It is baked from very thin pasta, filled with pistachio,
peanut and walnut spreaded with whipped cream and syrup and soaked in honey.2
Another example is the aşure also known as Noah’s pudding, it is made from fruits and
beans. Fırında sütlaç has to be baked in the oven. It is a baked rice-pudding which is
served in cold form.3 Helva is made from fruits, seeds and honey. Keskül is made in the
following way: the almond is cooked in milk, rice is mixed with flour and sugar is
added to it, and finally it is chilled and served in small plates sprinkled with drilled
almond and peanut.67
DRINKS68
The most popular drink is the çay (tea), which is served most of the times without sugar
in tulip shaped glasses. It is offered to the people everywhere, in shops, bazaar
furthermore in banks and offices also. People drink tea for the breakfast, kahve (coffee)
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is drunk after the meal and in the morning. Fresh juices like orange and cherry is served
at meals. Although wine and beer are produced in Turkey, the most popular alcoholic
drink is the raki, which is served with the mezes.
ALCOHOLS68
Against the religious prescriptions of Islam raki is traditional drink of Turkey. It is an
anise flavoured spirit of 50 degrees, which becomes “opaque”, when water is added to
it. It is served as an aperitif and especially with seafood and mezes. The other specialty
is the Efes beer which is produced in Turkey. The local wine production has not
developed. The most famous beers are Kavaklidere, Doluca and Sevilen. In Turkey
alcohol is considered a luxury item, because of a 400% tax imposed on all alcohol
products. In some smaller towns / villages alcohol is not available.
SOFT DRINKS
Water (su), ayran and boza are popular non-alcoholic drinks in Turkey. Ayran is a
savoury yoghurt drink made from yoghurt and water, while the other local drink, the
boza, is made from bulgur wheat and is served with cinnamon and roasted chickpeas.68
It is consumed especially in the winter months, because boza is rich in carbohydrates
and vitamins that is why the Ottoman Empire fed its army with it.68
Wide assortment of juices can be found everywhere, but the most popular juices are
made from cherry (vişne suyu), carrot (şalgam suyu), grape (şira), orange, grapefruit,
and tomato. Sometimes it is pressed on the scene.68 In Turkey, like in the whole Arab
world, the rose water is well-known. It is like water with the taste of rose.
COFFEE AND TEA
The habit of coffee drinking was widespread in Europe by Turkish effect. The first
coffeehouse was opened in Constantinople (today’s Istanbul) in 1554. Traditionally
women are not allowed to go in coffeehouses. The expression of Turkish coffee does
not refer to a special kind of coffee bean from Turkey, but the way of preparation.
Turkish coffee is very dark, strong and served in small cups. Turkish coffee is prepared
in a long handled brass pot, covered with tin, it is called cezve. The powdered coffee is
made with sugar, in Anatolia it is flavoured with smashed cardamom and it is not mixed
in the cup. So at the order it has to be stated with how much sugar is desired: sade
(without sugar), şekerli (with little sugar), orta şekerli (with one teaspoon of sugar-
standard) and cok şekerli (with much sugar).67
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Tea is called çay. In Turkey, tea is more popular, than coffee. The first tea shrub arrived
from Japan in 1878, but the cultivation did not began before the 1930s. The centre of
the Turkish tea industry is in Rize. The best teas are made from tomurcuk, the
blossoming bud of the tea shrub. Turkish people like the black tea, but they import
green tea. Tea is made here in a double-walled pot called samovar. It is consumed at
any time of the day. It is served without milk in tulip shaped glasses. The most famous
tastes are apple (elma), mint (nane), lime-blossom (ılhamur) and rose hip (kuşburnu)
tea.3 In the total production of tea in the world Turkey is the fifth with 6%. In the
consumption, Turkey is also the fifth - alongside Japan - with 5%.69
69 All about Turkey: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/tea.htm 13 November 2009
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CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Turkish people are Muslims, but the ancient religious prescriptions are not followed as
strictly as in the Arab countries. For example, at greetings and discussions we can keep
to the European norms, but one must be prepared to typical manifestations of Muslim
traditions, while in real connections the norms of Arab countries are kept.70
Way of thinking, idiosyncrasies of processing of information71
Turks always had hold aloof from the outside influences. Turkey was always the bridge
between East and West. Because of the traditional upbringing, the Turkish way of
thinking is characteristically subjective and associative. Turkey is a secular Islam
country, but one, where the personal involvement plays an important role in problem
solving.
Conversational strategy, evidences
The number one factor, which determines opinions, is the personal feeling and the
loyalty for the Islam. The objective facts rarely play a key role.
Values, factors which influence the behaviour
Three factors which characterize the values of Turkish culture:
1) Method of decision making
Decisions have to be made by the male leaders of the community, but they have to
consider family - community aspects while deciding. The framework of private life is
mainly the family, friends and smaller communities. These communities influence the
decision making. It is essential in business life also to ground the personal contacts well,
otherwise the official negotiations will not be successful. Personal identity evolves
through the integration to society: the rise definitely depends on one’s academic career
and qualifications.
2) Tools for ease the distress
Identity is the source of security – outside of the family- depends on the played role in
the structure of the society for Turkish people. Work has a high prestige, but their way
of understanding time still differs from the western way of thinking.
70 SILLE, ISTVÁN: Illem, etikett, protokoll, Budapest, Akadémia Kiadó, 2008. 71MORRISON, TERRI; CONAWAY, WAYNE A.; BORDEN, GEORGE A.: Meghajlás vagy kézfogás?, Budapest, Alexandra Kiadó, 1994.
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The self-image and self-confidence depend on pride over nationality, family, rank in
society. Open expression of feelings and will is natural in Turkey. Risks and dangers of
life are natural also, and are thought to be a necessary factor in improving self-
confidence and independence.
3) The question of equality/inequality
Turkish society is strongly divided. There are numerous prejudices against different
social classes, religious and ethnic groups. Power is in the possession of the privileged
elite. Certain consumer goods and education are seen as status symbols. Outside the
family and friends it is not characteristic to trust people. It is conspicuous that older
people have dominance over youth, and in men-women the relationships there is no
equality, but the legal background is assured by law. Despite the fast changes, women
and men form a separate society, and in public they still do not mix with each other.
BUSINESS PRACTICES
Meetings and appointments
At business meetings punctuality is important.
If someone wants to contact a Turkish partner by mail, more time is going to be needed.
Personal introduction or at least a cover letter is going to be needed, which will promote
the favourable reception.
Turkish businessmen speak at least 1, but sometimes rather more foreign languages.
Almost everyone speaks English, but many people understand French and German.
Negotiations and correspondence are mainly in English, but it is very useful to learn
some words, expressions in Turkish also.
At the beginning of the negotiations it is not customary to start with business. The
introductory talk can be longer. It has its causes, the Turkish partner likes to get to know
his future business partner.
Work time is from Monday to Friday, from 9 to 12, then from 14 to 17. The office hours
of banks are similar. Leaders in higher status arrive just around 9.30 and have longer
lunch-break till 14.30.
Friday is a traditionally Muslim rest day but there is no interruption in business
activities, namely the official rest-day is Sunday.
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There is a smaller chance for business in June, July and August, because Turkish
businessmen go for a longer holiday at this time of the year.
Obviously negotiations will not be continued on national holidays. Lots of people do
not work in the afternoon of the previous day of holidays.
Negotiations
In case of family businesses, the decisions are made by the older members of the family.
Advanced age is much respected in Turkey. Never loose self-control, and never shout
with an elder partner.
Negotiations are going to be longer than in Europe. Politeness is crucial, in the course of
meetings innumerable cups of teas and coffees are going to be consumed. The meeting
begins with personal questions about work, education and so on. Shortening the talk is
against the etiquette.
The text on the business card has to be in Turkish as well. Take plenty of it and give it
to everyone with whom you get to know, at the reception or secretariat and to the
partner.
At talks there are taboo topics, like the problem of Cyprus. Favored topics are family,
hobby, interests, profession and if the partner is man and has children, then it is
advisible to ask about them, because for Turkish men are most proud of their sons.
Almost everyone smokes in Turkey. In practice there are no “non smoking areas”.
Business and entertainment
Business get-togethers are mainly held in restaurants. It is an advantage because Turkish
cuisine offers the most delicious foods in the world. There is a small chance to entertain
Turkish partners. Because of the legendary Turkish hospitality they will insist on the
entertainment (and settling the bill).
Restaurants of international hotels are boring and featureless as compared to the true
Turkish restaurants, but western alcoholic drinks can be found more easily in the
restaurants of hotels.
The silverware is the same as in the West and is used in the same way.
The service in Turkish restaurants is very fast. Turkish people do not order the whole
menu together, but choose one dish and then they decide what next.
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Turks usually light a cigarette between dishes. Toothpicks are put on the table just after
the meal. It can be used at the table, but it is proper to hide the mouth with the hand.
The true national drink is not coffee, but tea. The tea concentrate or instant tea is filled
into glasses of tulip shape and it is watered down with as much water as desired. They
put sugar in it, but no milk. Because of the small size of the glass, it can be refilled
several times during a meeting. Usually it is served at an enjoyable tea drinking place in
the garden.
They drink the strong coffee right after the meal. They draw each portion of the coffee
separately and mix the sugar immediately to it, so the desired amount of sugar has to be
pre-told. Western instant coffees are available everywhere.
PROTOCOL
Greeting formulas
At encounters and at introduction Turkish men greet each other with a handshake. At
leaving it is not customary to shake hands.
Friends of the same sex shake hands with both hands at the same time and kiss each
other’s cheeks - first right and then left.
Older people have much respect, if an old man enters the room; it is proper to stand up.
In case of a bigger group, the oldest person enjoys priority in the introductions.
Since Turkey is an Islam country most business partners are going to be male. In
general, Turkish women keep away from business. Women more often take up work
from the Greek and Armenian community. Among women just after she has been
introduced, she has to hold out her hand.
Some common Turkish greetings: “Merhaba!” – “Good morning/afternoon!”,
“Nasilsiniz?”- “How are you?” and the answer is “Ijijjim, teshekur ederim”- “Well,
thank you”.
Form of address, rank and title
Professionals are addressed most respectfully with their title. They can be called Doktor
or Avukat (lawyer). In case of women add the word Bajan to the title is customary (i.e. a
woman lawyer is called: Avukat Bajan).
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If the partner does not have this kind of title, the situation is more complicated. Before
the “Name Act” came into force (21 April 1934), Turks did not have family names.
Today the order of names follows the western examples; first is the given name, second
is the family name.
Long ago Turks were called by the name which was given at birth, for which the bej
word was given in case of men and hanim in case of women. These addresses can be
used in case of older people.
In business life, the modern addresses are used, which consist of the family name and
the attached Baj (in case of men) or Bajam (in case of women).
So the name of the novelist, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2006 and who
was the first Turkish Nobel Prize winner, Orhan Pamuk’s address would be Orhan bej
(traditional version), Baj Pamuk (according to the modern version). The authoress
Nezihe Meric’s traditional name would be Nezihe hanim, the modern version would be
Bajam Meric.
Gestures
During sitting both legs have to be on the ground. Never turn the sole of shoes towards
others so that it could be visible.
It is inappropriate for women to cross legs when sitting in front of someone.
Folded arms and hands in the pocket are also inappropriate when standing in front of
somebody. Blowing the nose in public is not done – especially not in a restaurant. If it
happens, Turkish guests stand up from the table and leave the restaurant. If it is
necessary to do it, one should turn away from the others and do it as secretly as it is
possible, if possible in the restrooms.
Never cuddle or kiss a person with other sex in front of others, furthermore do not hold
hands.
The gesture for “yes” is the same as in west, they are nodding up and down with their
heads, but the “no” is different. They can express it in 2 ways:
The gentle way is when the eyebrow is lifted up, which is accompanied with the
characteristic “ck” sound.
The universal way is when the eyebrow is lifted up but the eyelids are let down.
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The shaking of the head means for us the “no” in Turkey means that “do not
understand”. Therefore at a business meeting waging probably leads the Turkish partner
to rephrase his message, perhaps in another language.
The length, what we show with our 2 hands on breast high they show it with one of their
hands on their other outstretched arm.
Pointing at people or things is considered rude.
Present giving
If it is known that Turkish partners drink alcohol then they are going to welcome a
vintage liqueur or whiskey.
If there is an invitation to the partner’s home it is necessary to bring present.
If the host drinks alcohol, than the liqueur or wine is an appropriate gift. Candies, cakes
or flowers (rose and the carnation) are appropriate. Glassware like vase, goblet and
ornamental glass are all regarded as valuable gifts.
If the invitation is not just for lunch or dinner, but for longer time, something more
substantial has to be given. English language books and CDs are popular, which are not
easy to get hold of in Turkey. For children, sweets or smaller toys ought to be brought.
Dressing
Turks dress conservatively at business occasions. Men wear dark suits, women wear
costumes with high-heels. In the summer, when the weather is very hot in Turkey, coats
and ties are often taken off. Women should dress cosily but solidly. They should never
wear a miniskirt or a low cut blouse.
Gala dresses are worn at balls around New Year and national holidays. Men wear dark
suits or tuxedos, women wear long evening-dresses at these times.
The casual wear is also decent. Short trousers are worn just at summer resorts. Farmer
trousers can be worn by both men and women.
Clothes have to be suitable for the local habits when you want to step into a mosque;
everyday wear is suitable, but it is important that it has to cover the body in appropriate
measures. Shoes have to be left outside, because it is forbidden to step on the carpets of
the mosque with shoes. Women can enter in trousers but their heads, shoulders and
arms have to be covered. During service entry is forbidden.
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CULTURAL DDIFFERENCES IN PROTOCOL (GRADUATION ASSIGNMENT)
PROBLEM DEFINITION
I would like to begin with placing the Protocol Department in the Ministry. In order to
do so, I am going to introduce the main tasks and main departments and their tasks in
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Then I introduce the Protocol Department in general. I
would write about the general tasks of the Department, I would like to give a brief
introduction into how an official visit has to be organized, what kinds of things have to
be considered and have to be taken care of at these visits, in what order. The first part of
my assignment would be about the tasks of protocol consultants before an official visit
and the tasks of the catering consultants at the same time. I plan to make a time line and
flow chart about the flow of the procedure. In the second part I would like to deal with
the problem that could arise if a delegation comes from a country where the culture,
traditions and probably the protocol are different and I would like to take a look at what
has to be done differently if the delegation comes from an Islam country, like Turkey,
which is between two civilizations. Is it the European norms or the Islam norms that are
more characteristic of Turkish diplomacy?
At the end I would like to explore the differences of culture and protocol and I would
like to give suggestions or solutions how these could or should be surmounted.
My main questions are: what are the differences between the Islam protocol – more
specifically Turkish protocol – and the European protocol? How can the possible
obstacles be surmounted?
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MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS72
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the administrative top organization, which deals with
the Hungarian foreign affairs. The ministry was established in the past century at the
Reform era, in 1848. The first minister was Prince Pál Eszterházy at the Batthyány
government; his origin was from a very famous Hungarian family. Today the foreign
minister is Péter Balázs. The tasks of the Ministry are very widespread. The tasks of the
Ministry are determined in the prevailing laws in force which disposes of the tasks and
competence of the minister. In the interest of supplying the tasks of the Ministry, it
operates around 100 foreign representations (embassies and consulates). These foreign
representations belong to one-one department according to territorial classing. The
Ministry does not have a domestic subservient organization.
The tasks of the Ministry are determined in accordance with the foreign aims and tasks
of the programme of the government. The main field of the foreign connections of
Hungary is the European Union, as a comprehensive, positive and acting framework
and community of interests, which also serves to enforce our interests. The Ministry
supports the competent State Secretary of the Office of the Prime Minister to fulfil their
job about national defence.
STATE SECRETARIES AND DEPARTMENTS OF THE MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
To the Minister of Foreign Affairs belong the following departments: Spokesman /
Spokesman's Office, Inspection Unit and the Communications and Public Relations
Department.
The Senior State Secretary is responsible for the following departments: Energy
Security Secretariat, Parliamentary Liaison Unit and National Diplomatic Policy Unit.
Another State Secretary is responsible for the Foreign and Security Policy; that person
is the Political Director also. The following departments belong to him: European
Foreign and Security Policy Department, Security Policy and Non-proliferation
Department, International Organisations and Human Rights Department, International
72 Ministry of Foreign Affairs : http://www.kum.hu/kum/en/bal/ 24 November 2009
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and EU Public Law Department, European Correspondent and Regional Co-operation
Unit.
Departments of the State Secretary of European Union Affairs are EU Presidency, Co-
ordination and Legal Department, EU Economic Policy Department, EU Sectoral and
Trade Policy Department and Enlargement Unit.
Departments of the State Secretary of EU Bilateral Relations and Policy Planning over
the 1st European Department, 2nd European Department, Strategic Policy Planning and
Information Department and EU Danube Region Strategy Ambassador.
To the 1st European Department belong countries from the Western and Southern parts
of the EU, i.e. the following countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the
Benelux Union, Germany, Andorra, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Malta, Monaco,
Italy, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Spain and the Holy See.
To the 2nd European Department belong the following Northern and Central European
countries: Great-Britain, Denmark, Estonia, Finland Ireland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania,
Norway, Sweden, Northern Council, Austria, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Swiss,
Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.
The fifth State Secretary is responsible for the issues concerning Eastern Europe,
Western Balkans, Caucasus Region, Central Asia, Economic and Scientific Relations
and Management Issues. Its departments are the 3rd European Department, 4th
European Department, Economic Relations Department, Management Department,
Security and Informatics Department, Protocol Department, Documentation
Department, Tender Management Unit, Public Procurement Unit, Real Estate
Management Unit, EU Presidency Budget & Logistics Unit.
To the 3rd European Department belongs: Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia,
Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey.
To the 4th European Department belongs: Eastern-Europe and Central-Asia and the
Caucasus: Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia,
Kazakhstan, Kirgizstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
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The sixth State Secretary is responsible for Relations outside Europe, Consular Affairs,
International Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid, the departments for this
are:, Department for the Americas, Department for Asia and the Pacific, Department for
Africa and the Middle East and Department for International Development Co-
operation and Humanitarian Aid.
The departments of the Chief of Cabinet are Ministry Cabinet, International and
European Union Constitutional Law Department, Consular Department, Human
Resources Department and Coordination and Legal Department.
PROTOCOL DEPARTMENT
The Protocol Department consists of 4 further departments which are the State Protocol,
Diplomatic Protocol, Protocol Office and Programme organization Department. Each
has its own tasks, which are the following:
The tasks of the Diplomatic Protocol are:
Assisting the connection of the Ministry, the foreign representations and other
organizations. Helping foreign representations in an undisturbed operation.
Managing the agréments of the ambassadors and permits of military attachés and
consul generals who are delegated to Hungary.
Managing the order of agréments of Hungarian ambassadors and military attachés;
the operational permits of the consul generals, the letters patent and making the
credentials.
Organizing the handing over and farewell visit of the ambassadors at the
President, organizing the official arrival at the public dignitary
Controlling continuously the accurateness of the data of the Corps of Diplomacy
list.
Publishing the protocol circular every day.
Organizing the entrance at the airport and booking the VIP lounge
Coordinating and managing the appointment cases
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The tasks of the Protocol Office are
Keeping a record about the stuff of the Corps of Diplomacy and Consular and the
Hungarian representatives of those international organizations which have
diplomatic exemption. Judging and issuing the members of the staff the income
applications for passes, the tax and duty discharges of the foreign representation
and its workers.
According to the standpoint of the International and European Union
Constitutional Law Department, managing the affairs of the staff and their
families of the Hungarian Diplomatic and Consular representations in abroad and
the foreign representations in Hungary and their affairs in connection with
exemptions and privilege of the international organizations and its officials.
Giving certificate about duty free, import and export licences for the Corps of
Diplomacy and Consular and the administration of these. Intervening on behalf of
the Corps of Diplomacy and Consular and the workers of the foreign
representations in case of application for vehicle licence and number plate.
Tasks of the Programme organization Department
It fulfils the protocol and organizational tasks of the foreign visits of the Minister and
State Secretaries, or when their partners come to Hungary.
Fulfilling the protocol and organizational tasks of the multilateral conferences at
ministry level or the sessions of international organizations in Hungary.
Organizing the foreign visits of the State Secretaries of the Ministry and the
visitors of their partners.
In case of multilateral international conferences –if the Ministry bears the costs-
taking part in organizing the programme.
In case of previous approval, giving help to organize programmes to other
ministries and organizations with national powers.
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The State Protocol deals with:
Fulfilling the tasks of arrival, Hungarian stay and departure of a foreign
delegation, whose leader is the guest of the President and the Prime Minister, and
for further reasons high-ranking qualified delegations and organizing the foreign
visits of delegations, whose head is either the President or the Prime Minister.
For the request of the Office of the President, Office of the Prime Minister or one
territorial department of the Ministry, it manages the affairs which go together
with the contact of Presidents or Prime Ministers.
Preparing and arranging the national and state ceremonies and the tasks of the
State Protocol at programmes of overriding importance.
Taking part in those programmes, which are organized by or in the attendance of
the state dignitaries to the Corps of Diplomacy.
Taking part in carrying out and sending out the New Year’s greetings of the
President and the Prime Minister.
In case of the defined events in the first point, it also sees to have the appropriate
level of gifts.
It takes care of the formal usage of the allocations of the State Protocol.
Keeps a record of data of the visits and programmes, which are in its field.
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COURSE OF ORGANIZING AN OFFICIAL VISIT
When the protocol consultant gets the information about who and when would arrive,
he/she starts his/her work by drawing up the programme of the guest.
The work starts with drawing up a programme scheme with the label “working copy”.
The elements of the scheme are:
1. List of the people who are going to participate
2. The movement of the participants
3. Accommodation of the participants
4. Detailed description of each programme point
5. Drawing up a contact list
6. Negotiation of the details of each programme points with the guest side (or embassy)
7. (Scene) Scenarios of each programme
8. Drawing up a gift-list
9. Additional tasks
List of the people who are going to participate
The announcement of arrival of a delegation is the task of the Embassies. When an
Ambassador announces it and the Protocol Department gets it officially the protocol
consultants start their work. May be the most important is that who is going to be the
main guest. It is important because his/her rank determines lots of things, for example,
what kind of safety conditions are needed. It is also important to know who are going to
be the members of the delegation, how many press representatives will come and who
and where is going to joint to the delegation (for them the accommodation and the
tickets have to be arranged separately, but that has to be done by the Embassy in this
case). The security officers have to be registered before they arrive with their names,
rank and what kind of gun they want to bring (its type and calibre) and how many
missiles they want to come with. In Hungary only 2 securities are allowed to go into the
Parliament and in the Sándor Palace also. The Hungarian Dignitary Protection Service
decides about for who has to be secured on what level that is, do we need to provide an
armoured car? The Dignitary Protection Service decides also about which frequency can
be used by the member of the foreign security. All these information have to be clarified
before the visit.
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The rank of the main guest determines also whether a doctor should join to the
delegation or not. Meanwhile organizing the different programmes all of the needed
information has to be asked from the Embassies like what is the blood group of the
main guest, does he have an allergies or what are those thinks the does not eat (because
of vegetarianism or religious rules) etc.
The movement of the participants
The details of the vehicles which are going to be of assistance in the programme have to
be considered. At every programme point the parking places have to be assured for each
car; this is done by the Dignitary Protection Service.
If it is a car, then how many vehicles are needed for the transportation, how many can
be assured by the host country (it is usually on a mutual basis). The main guest seated in
one car and official delegates on minister level has to be seated in cars also, but
maximum 2 or 3 ministers can be seated in one car. For the further delegation members
bus can be ordered. All numbers of the number plates have to be given to the Embassy
and to the Dignitary Protection Service, whom check all the cars and allowed them to
the different programme places. In case of rented cars before the travelling all have to
be combed by bomb-disposal experts. For the members of the press a separate bus have
to be assured, because of easier transportability, another bus has to be assured for the
luggage if it is needed. If the delegation comes with car to the boarders than there they
take another sit into the Hungarian cars. In case of travelling by ship or airplane the
journey time has to be asked for and taken into consideration.
The exact times of arrival and departure have to be fixed in advance and the VIP lounge
has to be ordered according to that. The transfer of the luggage have to be organized.
Usually someone from the Embassy stays at the airport to collect the passports and to
show up. The transfer of the luggage is organized by the Dignitary Protection Service,
the arrangement of the convoy is made also by them, it has to be checked and prepared
for the departure. If a private airplane is needed then it has to be ordered and the flight-
permission has to be asked in advance. If the arrival is happened with a private flight
than the convoy departs from the concrete, if it is a scheduled flight then the main guest
uses the VIP lounge. The luggage of the main guest is handled separately.
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Accommodation of the participants
In case of the accommodation it has to be considered who and how long are going to be
with the delegation. Usually the Embassies tell in which hotel they want to the
accommodation. If the main guest is a President, Prime Minister or Minister, a suit has
to be provided for him. For the further delegation members on minister level they get
the junior suits. Those who are under this rank get normal room with view to the
Danube. The security who assures the main guest has to get the room near by or in front
of the secured person. The representatives of the press can be accommodated in a
separate hotel. If there is a special order by the delegation than that has to be organized
in advance like a fax machine into the main guest’s room. For the main guest, additional
fruit juice with fibre, soft drinks and in some cases decoration is needed. Financing the
accommodation happens on a mutual basis also.
A room arrangement has to be done before the arrival, which makes the procedure of
the arrival to the hotel easier. The hotel makes a recommendation for the arrangement
the protocol consultants check it.
Detailed description of each programme point
The next step is the completion of the programme points. The followings have to be
stated in every case:
type of the event
starting time and its duration
and who are going to be the participants
In some cases, when not the whole delegation takes part at a certain programme, it has
to be decided where they are going be/wait and what they are going to do at this time.
Similarly, the length of the program and the length of time needed for the transfer have
to be taken under consideration. If there is a gap in the programme, then that has to be
filled in for example with a visit in the Parliament. In every case the exact place with
address, floor and the name or number of room has to be given. The name of the person,
who is going to await the guest before each program also has to be given.
In case of ceremonies, everything has to be written down in detail, who stands where;
when the flower is given, how long the event is going to be, etc.
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Draw up a contact list
The most important telephone numbers, addresses and fax numbers have to be collected
in a list. It has to contain the numbers of the places of events and delegation members,
embassy, the number of the ambassadors, organizing consultants, according to the
programme the number of the offices of the President and Prime Minister. It has to
contain the address, numbers of the head of the security, restaurants and hotel as well.
The country-code of each telephone number must be given, in case of Hungary the 00
36.
Negotiation of the details of each programme points with the guest side (or embassy)
Usually, when the programme points start to fall into place, than the best solution, if the
Hungarian and the foreign side meet and discuss everything in a very detail (for
example whether the hotel, the menus are good and which side pays what and for how
many people). It is useful because questions may arise and they can discuss them
immediately.
Scenarios of each programme
In case of business lunch or dinner the list of the participants has to be made. The names
have to be recommended and then the competent office decides who is going to be there
from the Hungarian side. After this the invitation cards have to be written and sent out.
The President independently from the nationality of the invited people invites only in
Hungarian.
Draw up a gift-list
In this case, it has to be considered who the participants are, and for whom it is essential
to give a gift. The nature of the gift has to be considered, whether the commonplace gift
is appropriate or something special is needed. In case of the main guest, the kind of gift
he has already received have to be considered, if a special gift is asked to be given than
his or his wife’s hobbies, or a special connection to a town etc. has to be taken into
account. The basis of the presentation is also the mutuality and the aim of the
presentation. It has to be careful with not to give the same gift what he has already got,
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or to give a complementary gift to that what he has received. Some examples for gifts
from the Hungarian side are lace from Halas, porcelain from Herend or commemorative
medal. Further gifts have to be given to the members of the delegation.
Additional tasks
One of these tasks is to order the flags, for the streets, for every room where the
delegation is going to have a meeting, to the hotel, for the cars and if needed for ships
and other vehicles. The flag of the delegation nation can be only on the main guest’s
car.
From the point, when the programme points start to fall into place the tasks run on two
ways, one is the further organization of the programme the other is the catering part.
The catering consultants get a draft of the programme from the protocol consultants
from which they chose, on which program they have to participate. Usually the
programs contain the same elements - like the habit of long standing -, and as a help
sometimes they refer to previous cases.
The catering consultants have to book the needed places for the events, for example in
the Parliament, what kind of event should be in which room. Events can be private
discussions, plenary sessions, business lunches or dinners, banquets, press conferences.
Their task is also to ask for an offer for menu for the main guest (this is called V1), for
the V2, which consists of the members of the Dignitary Protection Service and the
protocol and for the V3, which consists of the police and rented drivers, order the guard
of honour, audio settings (amplification, etc.), flowers and they have to send the list
about those people who can be admitted to these events.
In general it starts with a request for an offer for a menu for the V1, V2 and for the V3.
The V2 has to be close to the V1 so their meal is usually at the same place but the V3 -
who do not have to be close to the V1 - is usually ordered to a restaurant nearby. For the
V1 the menu consist of a first course with wine, soup, main dish with wine and a dessert
with an appropriate wine also. Usually 3 menus are offered and from these the choice is
to be made. The menus must not be a general, “puritan” menu. The offered menus have
to be checked weather the wines are appropriate for that meal, if not it has to be
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changed and the naming of the meals as well. In case of the President and the Prime
Minister the Chief of the Protocol Department in the Office of the President or in the
Office of the Prime Minister chose from the 3 menus, if it is a private meal, the Chief of
the Protocol Department in the Ministry chose the one, which is going to be served. Of
course when the menus are drawn up the information, which is got from the Embassy or
the protocol consultants have to be taken under consideration that is if the main guest
has an allergy, or there are some meal which he does not eat because of dislikes,
vegetarianism or religious rules than those must not be given to him.
For the V2 buffet meal is ordered, which similarly consists of a first course, soup, main
dish and dessert. Usually it is asked to be filling with the used Hungarian tastes and do
not contain sour cream and cream. Before the order the Dignitary Protection Service has
to state the number of people that are going to eat there (in both cases of V2 and V3).
All costs have to be checked and the order has to be written according to the
agreements, within the order these have to be fixed.
When the menu is chosen than it is sent to the interpreter to translate (usually it is 1
day). For the Hungarian participants the menu is in Hungarian, for the foreign
delegation it is either on their language or in English. For these the interpreters have a
common tariff system.
If that is ready and there is a need for a double-sided menu card, especially at banquets,
then the printing house has 2 days to get ready with that.
At the same time the flowers have to be ordered. There are customs about which room
and for what kind of event how many flowers have to be ordered. The colours of the
flowers have to reflect the colours of the national flag of the delegation.
If there is going to be a press conference than the press cordon has to be put up.
Usually the guard of honour is ordered form the level of the Foreign Minister in the
Parliament and Sándor Palace.
All of the supplementary services have to be entered separately, for example: who
transfers the flowers, decorations, audio settings, etc. Otherwise no one is allowed to go
in these buildings.
That is why permanent connections have to be between the Ministry and the Dignitary
Protection Service, the florist and the further service providers.
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The list of people who could enter the building at the days of event has to be sent 1 day
before the event.
If a delegation comes only for one day, then the leader of the delegation often requires a
rest room, which is usually one of the rooms in the Parliament or the guest house of the
government on the Andrássy Street to refresh himself or to change his clothe. In case of
longer programmes a press centre has to be settled and for the other members of the
delegation scones, sandwiches and water have to be arranged.
If the event is in the countryside for example, in case of a cabinet meeting, it is arranged
half way between the 2 countries, and all offers have to be from 2 service providers, one
from the countryside and one from the capital city. But of course in case of countryside
programmes the organising process is much harder, because all of the places have to be
visited in advance, at least 2 times, for the first time with the Dignitary Protection
Service and for every programme point the appropriate places have to be found. The
Dignitary Protection Service has to examine how these places can be secured. For the
second time around, the inspection is done with the representative of the other country.
And it is harder because the protocol has to cooperate with those service providers, who
have not done these kinds of events before.
Some days before the events the following tasks have to be done:
The badges and car slips have to be ordered and allocated. The labels for the members
of the foreign delegation on their language, and for the Hungarians in English have to
be written. Usually the following badges can be found: Protocol, Official delegate,
Accompany, Security, Interpreter and Press.
When all the names of participants are collected then the seating can be made according
to the protocol list. For the seating the name cards have to be made and printed. The
invitation card, name card are printed on a golden edged cards where the arms of
Hungry is printed also with gold in case of the President, it is the same in case of the
Prime Minister but with silver.
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Tasks on the scene
In case of a meeting, at first the tables and chairs have to be placed in the appropriate
order, if there is additional furniture, than that has to be taken out. If it is completed, the
name cards can be put on the tables according to the seating. It is followed by the
putting out of notebooks and pens. Then the flowers can be put on the table and the
good order of the flags has to be checked. After this the drinks have to be put on the
table and the ordered coffees and teas have to be checked to be ready for serving.
In case of banquets, the tables have to be set by the restaurant, which made the menu.
After this, the printed menus and name cards have to be put on the tables. The printed
versions of toasts have to be put on the chairs, in case of the foreign delegation the
Hungarian President’s toast has to be put on their native language or in English, for the
Hungarians the toast of the foreign side has to be put in Hungarian. For this kind of
meal the “information card” has to be printed, which consists the name and rank of the
participants for the introduction and from this he gets to know the number of his table.
The flowers also have to be placed.
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WEEKS TO DO’S
Week 5: The Ambassador announce to the Protocol and the
appropriate territorial Department about the arrival. The
official memorandum has to be got. The members of the
Protocol Department make a draft about the programme.
Week 4: The Hungarian side looks around possibilities, tries to
make the programme to be better and if it is needed than
goes to a scene tour
Week 3: Fall into place the official list of the members of the
delegation, the hotel can be booked
Week 2: Discussion of the 2 sides, talks with the associate
organizations, the programme has to be send for opinions
Week 1: Decide who sits to which negotiation, finalize and order
of the menus
Days before the arrival: Everything has to be checked again, the programme has
to be finalized and printed.
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START
END
Get the list of participants
Find and book the accommodation
Programme points of the delegation
Movement of the delegation
Gift‐list
Detailed description of each programme
point
Contact‐list
Flag ordering
Ask for an order of Menu
Choose a menu
Booking of the negotiation rooms
Ordering flowers
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CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PROTOCOL
We live in a global world, which is not totally global: we have to face the cultural
differences, especially who deals with protocol in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
because here people have to handle delegations from different nations and cultures from
week to week. We have to be aware of these differences to understand people with a
different cultural background and in this way cooperation can be more successful and
problem free. It is important to recognize that people from different cultures differ in a
variety of ways, including different ways of looking at things, different ways of
dressing, and different ways of expressing personality or emotions.
First of all, I would like to define what we mean by culture: it is excellence of taste in
the fine arts and humanities, an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and
behaviour that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning, the
set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution,
organization, group or nation.73 We can also say that it is the behaviour at the national
level or an inherited ethical habit.74
A difference between cultures can be based on the fact whether or not a certain culture
is explicit as opposed to being rather implicit? In low context cultures, things are made
explicitly. In high context cultures, things are spelt out less explicitly and are much
more subtle or communicated in indirect ways. The interactions of two nations from
different context cultures could bring about problems. Of course it is relative which
those countries are, but if we look at the European Union and Turkey, Turkey would
definitely be the high context culture.
There can be difference in whether a country has a Future-, Present-, or Past-
Orientation. Past-oriented societies are concerned with traditional values and ways of
doing things. That would be Turkey or if we look for an example within the European
Union: Great Britain. Future-oriented societies have a great deal of optimism about the
future, like the United States has. Present-oriented societies deal with the present only
and perhaps Hungary is one of them.
73 Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. 74 FUKUYUMA (1995), Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity
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How societies manage time, differs as well. Turkey is an Islam country, where people
are often late, this can be annoying for Europeans. Muslims think that the Koran
disposes of everything properly and because it is stated in the Koran that “the human
being is impatient” („Al-Iszrā”, Surah [17], aja 11) they think they have enough time.
There is an Arab proverb which says that “Patience is form Allah, hurry comes from
Satan.”, so they will never be in a hurry – unlike people from EU countries, especially
Hungary.
There is a difference between the ways nations handle things. In a monochromic culture
like Turkey, it is believed that everything has a right time and place, so they do things
after one another, while in a polychromic culture (e.g.: Hungary) things are managed in
a parallel manner. In this respect there are differences within member countries of the
European Union also, because French is also a polychromic country while Germany is
rather monochromic.
The Hofstede-model75 of cultural dimensions has to be examined when we try to
examine cultural differences among countries.
One element of this is the Power distance index which shows the extent to which the
less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like family) accept and expect
that power is distributed unequally.
Second is the Individualism as opposed to collectivism. There are societies, in which the
ties between individuals are loose; everyone is expected to look after himself.
Masculinity: it shows the gap between male and female values. In feminine countries
women have the same modest, caring values as men, while in the masculine countries
they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as men.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index shows to what extent a culture programs its members to
feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.
Values associated with Long-Term Orientation are thrift and consistence, and the basic
values of short-term orientation are respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations.
In case of Turkey the Uncertainty Avoidance Index is quite high; while the Masculinity
is around the average and Individualism index is lower than average. A high
Uncertainty Avoidance Index - like in case of Turkey - means that they handle 75 http://www.geert-hofstede.com/ 13 December 2009
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dissimilar things as a curiosity and not as a danger. Low Individualism index shows that
this country is rather collective, which means, society and family play very important
roles. The higher than average Masculinity shows that masculine and feminine
behaviours differ. Considering this, Turkey should have a higher grade, but it also
means that the feminine features are characteristic as well, because they take care of
each other and they honour human connections. From these we can get an average
grade.
In case of Hungary, all of these indexes are higher than average, which means we are
more individualistic than Turkey, so we are more self-centered and independent.
Hungary’s masculinity is just a little bit higher than that of Turkey, so more or less the
same things are true for us, but here is a smaller difference between the roles of men
and women. Our uncertainty avoidance is much higher than average, which means we –
similarly to Turks– handle dissimilar things as curiosity and not as danger.
There are big differences between customs. I would like to list and give examples from
both Turkey and the European Union and if it necessary global examples, as well.
The first thing that happens when people meet is the greeting. Greetings in Turkey and
the EU are quite similar, because they shake hands at the beginning, but not necessarily,
when saying goodbye. In Turkey, friends from the same sex - even men - kiss each
other on the cheeks, while it is not customary in the European Union. But there is a big
difference in how people greet on the Far-East.
They have the same rules in case someone enters the room. The newcomer has to greet
everyone else, and in case an older or respected person enters, it is proper to stand up.
Turkish people are glad if we learn few worlds on their language, so we can use the bej
and hanim expressions, which stand for Mr. and Mrs. or Miss.
There are special gestures which are characteristics of one culture only, but some
gestures may exist in more cultures with a different meaning. For example in Albania
head nods are reversed. While in the other European countries shaking the head around
the vertical axes means yes, in Albania that is the sign of no and the horizontally nod
means yes for them. In Turkey there is no difference in this respect, but they can
express the no in two ways. The gentle way is when the eyebrows are lifted up, which is
accompanied with the characteristic “ck” sound and the universal way is when the
eyebrow is lifted up but the eyelids are let down, but they have further ways to express
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their feelings or agreements which differs from the European norms for example
shaking the head in Turkey means that “I do not understand”.
As for dress codes, Western norms are followed - except of course in case of religious
representatives. What to wear for certain events is strictly ruled, e.g.: white-tie, black-
tie, informal, casual etc.
I think when we talk about groups of cultures, we can divide the world according to
cultures. This was done by Samuel P. Huntington in his book The clash of civilizations
and the remaking of world order. According to Huntington, in the future the nature of
conflicts is not going to be interstate but intercultural, because “The most important
conflicts of the future will occur along the cultural fault lines separating civilizations
from one another”.
Here we can see the groups of cultures. We can see that the Western societies are
basically located in North America, Australia and Western Europe. The interesting thing
is that there are two countries from the European Union which do not belong to the
Western countries. These are Romania and Bulgaria. Huntington grouped them to
Russia, because of their Orthodox religion.
I think this picture shows also where the fault lines are, where cultures are changing and
different habits start appearing.
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We can see the Muslim world where the Koran regulates even the every day life, for
example the 5 prayer per day. The protocol staff has to accommodate for it, if the main
guest wishes to carry out these prayers. In this case, some solution has to be found, for
example, his programmes have to be organized in a way so that he could withdraw to
his room for prayer at the desired times. In case of a Turkish a delegation there would
be no problem with this, because they do not hold these religious habits – unlike guests
from other Islamic countries.
Of course different things have to be taken care of in case of a Chinese or Japanese
delegation. Far-Eastern people tend to be rather introverted. More attention has to be
paid to the hierarchy (ranks and age) in case of such delegations.
There are further interesting countries, like India with its Hinduism, Latin America or
Africa.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Today protocol is a complex of written and sometimes unwritten rules, which contains a
culture of behaviour, an order of ceremony and ceremony organization. It determines
the ways of official contacts. By this, someone can be hurt and honoured.
To some extent it is more or less the same around the world, but it can differ in small
things from nation to nation, mostly because of the diversity of habits.
What I found during my research is that it requires great care and circumspection to
know how to deal with different nations.
The first thing is that we have to be aware of the habits of the country where the
delegation comes from. Lots of books deal with the differences of cultures, these can be
useful, we can get ideas about what things are regarded as taboo in one country and the
characteristics of communication. As a first step, the differences have to be learned.
The embassies can also help in informing us about what we can expect. During the
organizational period their help has to be asked because they have an overview about
the habits and customs of both nations. Diplomats they have been living here and
experienced the differences between the nations, therefore they know exactly what to
expect from both parties and how to solve possible problems.
It is paramount to learn the cultural differences of the member states of the European
Union as well, because - despite the European unity - there are a number of differences
among member states, even though these differences are smaller than the ones that
occur in other parts of the world.
We have to be very circumspect towards the cultures when organizing programmes and
carrying out diplomacy related tasks. And of course the person who wants to deal with
this has to be adaptable, tolerant and understanding.
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THE POSSIBLE CULTURAL PROBLEMS OF THE TURKISH EU ACCESSION
“There is no bigger challenge for the identity – and economic welfare- of the EU, than
the potential membership of Turkey. Similarly, nothing makes harder the identity-
dilemma of Turkey, than the longing for the membership in the Union.” Ömer
Taspinar
Nowadays, the Turkish EU accession is a topic of high importance, which has a major
significance from the viewpoint of the European Union and Hungary as a member
state.76 The EU began the negotiations about the accession with Turkey on 3 October
2005. For the first time in the EU it is an open-ended negotiation. 77
In this part I would like to examine what the cultural (and culture related) problems of
Turkey in the EU accession could be. Are these problems real or just created by the EU
to delay the accession? What are be the pros and cons of the possible accession?
One of the criteria which can be doubted is Turkey’s “European nature”. It is the basic
question of the dispute about the Turkish accession. In geographic sense it is beyond
doubt that much of its territory and population is outside Europe, but in the historic
sense there is no European history without the Ottoman-Turkish Empire. So its history,
culture and economy are connected in many ways to the Old Continent.72 The European
intellectual and ideological trends not only reached the Ottoman-Turkish Empire, but
the entire modernization process was based on European norms. E.g. the examples of
the Turkish enlightenment were French. Turkey has been struggling for belonging to the
West for about a hundred years. Turkey is aiming at becoming a country with working
democracy and market economy. In Turkey’s neighbourhood more significant centres
of crisis were formed, nevertheless Turkey could maintain its stability, furthermore it
could join the crisis management (e.g. Iraq). That is why Turkey wants to play the role
of bridge between East and West because it lies on the boarder of the developed West
and the “backward” East, on a borderline of civilisations. Turkey is on its way to
76 V PFENIG, VIOLA: Törökország EU-tagsága - érvek és ellenérvek, Förköli Gábor, Sági Tamás (szerk.), ADSUMUS V.: tanulmányok a VII. Eötvös Konferencia előadásaiból, Budapest, ELTE Eötvös József Collegium, 2007, 281-296. 77 VÁSÁRY, ISTVÁN (szerk.): Törökország és az iszlám: az iszlám szerepe Törökország EU-csatlakozásának megítélésében, Piliscsaba, Avicenna Közel-kelet Kutatások Intézete, 2008.
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become a regional power. Turkey is the only Islam country with a good relationship
with Israel, moreover, it is a country, that other Arabic countries accept as a mediator.
This way Turkey could have a prominent role in the peace making process of the Near-
East. In the Caucasian area, Russia, USA and the Union all want to increase their
influence. For this end, Turkey could give assistance because of its military presence
and economic involvement in the area. According to the Turkish point of view, it could
lead the EU to outgrow the role of “economic giant-political dwarf” and become an
independent political actor in the Near-East. But it raises the problem that this way, the
EU itself would become on the border with these crisis centres, which would mean
safety risks. It is hard to say, whether the prevention of such risks or the acquired
influence is more important for the EU.
The military potential of Turkey has to be mentioned as well. It could increase the
military potential of the EU and the position of the Union in the NATO; since Turkey
has the second largest army in the NATO after the USA (Turkey has the 27% of the
European NATO members’ army).
According the official standpoint the fear from Islam as a reason is not included.
According to the constitution of the Turkish Republic, it is a secular state, at he same
time the majority of its population is Muslim. The reason of the Turkish indignation was
that in 1997, six Christian Democratic Prime Ministers refused the possibility of the
Turkish accession by stating: “We want the closest connections, but we build a
European Union.” At the next appointment of the Foreign Ministers of the Union, it was
declared that the Islam identity cannot be an obstacle of the membership. Turkey gives
a certain impression of some kind of bastion of the Union which protects Europe from
the Islam fundamentality. This fact has to be considered, since Turkey is the only Islam
country where democracy actually works. If the EU refused the request of the state,
which has been waiting for the membership for 40 years, it would lead to a rapid
advance of fundamentalism in Turkey. That would increase the instability in the region
as well. Turkey tries to do its best in accomplishing everything that the EU expects, so
in their interpretation, the refusal of the accession request would mean the failure of
both the Western model and democracy. It could also strengthen those thoughts that the
EU is a “Christian club”. The failure of Turkey would affect further states in the region,
and could interfere with the development of democracy. However, if the wish of Turkey
came true and Turkey became a member state, it would confirm in the Near-East that
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democracy, human rights and freedom can be achieved and respected in an Islam
state.72 The fear of “otherness” in the European society has to be examined, because
there are anti-Turkish hatred in those countries also, for example France, where the
number of Turkish immigrants is insignificant. It is because they have a great
experience of Arab immigrants, while there are huge differences among the European
Islam communities. In general, the Muslim communities which live in Europe today can
be divided into 3 groups: those, who have been living for hundreds of years in the
South-Eastern part of Europe. The first bigger immigration was after the World War II.
Masses came from the colonies to the former colonial countries. Masses of Muslim
aboriginals moved to Great-Britain, from the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands
or from South –Africa to France. After this, the European economic development in the
50’s and 60’s, required a great amount of cheap labour. In the beginning Germany
received Turkish immigrant workers in a fixed contractual form. Later France followed
the same to Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. At that time these contracts were fixed-
period contracts, later the residency became opened for the employees who came to
Europe.
The lack of integration of the Muslim communities became the centre of attention in the
European countries after 11th September 2001 and especially after the terrorist attacks in
Madrid and London. In the European public opinion and in the eye of the political elite,
they became the biggest source of contingency and threat. Host societies gradually
reject the “otherness”. This phenomenon raises a double problem in Central-European
member states. On the one hand, they do not have a significant Muslim minority, on the
other hand, they have to count with that sooner or later as gradually they will became a
target of migration also. With that kind of attitude in the older member states, hatred can
easily appear in the new member states too, where that particular problem had not
existed before. It has to be emphasised that the experience of the European states are
quite different. While from Bulgaria to Slovenia and Slovakia the experiences are
connected to the Ottoman-Turkish Empire, this way it is defined as a historic
connection, while for the society of France, Spain and Great Britain the South-East
Asian Pakistanis and Muslims of India mean the Islam and the threat.73
Because of this, there is a fear from the Turkish immigrants. The EU fears from the free
flow of cheap labor. The member states have already stipulated that if Turkey accesses
the EU then the free flow of labour cannot be fulfilled immediately, a long transition
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period can be expected. On the other hand, the EU could benefit from it, because the
society of Turkey is younger. (In Turkey the increase of population is 1,8% while in
Europe only 0,2%.) It could mean the source of supply of labour for the EU.72
There are also further cultural related problems like the Kurdish, Armenian and Greek
problem.
That is well-known that the –linguistically and ethnically Iran- Kurds were out of the
territorial arrangements on the Near-East after the partition of the Ottoman-Turkish
Empire. The number of the Kurds today is estimated to be around 20-25 million. They
live on the mountainous territory near the boarders of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria and
Armenia. Their aim is to establish a Kurdish state. Around half of them live on the
Eastern part of Turkey but significant amount of them has spread to other parts of
Turkey. Kurds fight political - and often armed - fights in order to establish an
independent Kurdish state. The PKK – Partiya Karkaren Kurdistan – Turkish Kurd
Labour Party gave up the armed fight in 2004, but its successor organization started the
armed fight and executes terrorist acts against Turkey from their Northern-Iraq basis.
The Kurdish problem was an internal affair of Turkey for decades, but today it became
foreign affair and a task for prevention of terrorism. In the framework of the EU
accession Kurds got cultural rights (education, newspapers and electronic media). That
is an interesting fact that 100 of representatives of the ruling party (AKP) have Kurdish
origins.
There was an extensive argument about the Turkish events under the First World War,
when around 1,5 million Armenian were relocated and killed. Numerous countries of
the world like the USA, half of the members of the EU pronounced it officially
genocide. According to the Turkish viewpoint it was not genocide, but connecting to the
happenings of the World War ethnic and religious confrontation happened, where
300.000 Armenian and around the same amount of Turks died. Yet, the Turkish
documentation is closed till today. Jacques Chirac, French President at that time on his
Armenian visit said, that Turkey should recognize the fact of genocide before it
becomes member of the EU. Although is has not been a condition of the accession.73
The third problem is the problem of Cyprus. There is has been a conflict between
Greece and Turkey for hundred years. Today it has two segments, one is the problem of
Cyprus the other is he dispute about the Aegean Sea. In 1954 when Cyprus was
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liberated from the control of Great-Britain Cyprus wanted to be unified with the native
country, but it was not allowed by the Turks who live in the Northern part of Cyprus.
This problem is still not settled even today.
The other problem started in 1995 when Greece signed the Convention on the Law of
the Sea. It provides possibility to expand their line of territorial waters from 6 to 12
miles. To apply this rule to the islands, which belong to Greece, would cause that the
international surface of water dropped from 56% to 26,1%, while the Greek territory
would increase from 35% to 63,9%. This situation could not be acceptable from
military-strategic point of view for Turkey, because it would prevent the free movement
of the Turkish (military) air force and fleet. Moreover, the whole Anatolian seacoasts
would be broke off from national waters. This opposition is still an acute problem of the
NATO and it caused a regional arms competition between two member states of
NATO.78
There is a theory of Huntington that in the following period of history conflicts are not
going to be interstate but intercultural because “The most important conflicts of the
future will occur along the cultural fault lines separating civilizations from one
another”- Huntington. It can be because “The people of different civilizations have
different views on the relations between God and man, the individual and the group, the
citizen and the state, parents and children, husband and wife, as well as differing views
of the relative importance of rights and responsibilities, liberty and authority, equality
and hierarchy.”- argues Huntington. There is a fault line of 3 great civilizations in
Europe: Christianity, Orthodox and Islam. According to Huntington there are 5 kinds of
states: the core-states, which is the leading states of a civilization (there are no core-
state in the Islam, in Africa and in Latin-America), the member state, which identifies
itself entirely with the civilization, the solitary state like Ethiopia or Japan which are
surrounded by states from other civilization, the splitting states, where there are people
from more civilizations like India (Muslims and Hindis) and the "torn countries", which
are changing civilization, like Turkey, because its been too secular to be a member state
of Islam, but it has not been close enough to the European Union.79
78 SZIGETVÁRI, TAMÁS: Törökország és az Európai Unió ambivalens viszonya avagy "Törököt fogtam, de nem ereszt", Budapest, MTA VKI, 1998. 79 Huntington, Samuel P.: A civilizációk összecsapása és a világrend átalakulása, Budapest, Európa Kiadó, 2008.
- 104 -
As a possible problem there is also the absorption capacity of the European Union,
which is obviously restrained. According to the German viewpoint the ability to expand
the EU should not be overburdened by the accession of new member states, especially
Turkey, which is a “special economic, demographic and cultural challenge”. In 2006 the
absorption ability became a precondition of the accession. The argument about the
absorption ability –from the Turkish point of view- is “the new rhetoric joker”.73
As a summary I would like to sum up the pros and cons of accession.
The pros are:
Turkey was part of Europe for hundreds of years; furthermore it was a leading
power.
European Neighbourhood Policy. It includes the following countries: Russia,
Belarus, Moldavia, Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,
Syria, Tunisia and State of Palestine. The European Committee suggested
expanding it to the countries of Caucasian i.e. Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia
Europe wants to expand its political influence in the world (Although the last
two can be seen as cons at the same time, as the European Union would be the
neighbour of the most conflicting part of the world.)
The society of Europe is aging while in Turkey there is a demographical boom
(Perhaps this is seen as the biggest problem of Turkey, because educated labour
would come to older member states, while the Turkish economy gives work for
half million immigrant workers from the former soviet countries.)
This is the country, which has been “on the waiting list” for the longest time
(since 1959).
Turkey was the bastion of West in the Cold War and be ready to be it again.
Turkey serves as a pattern for the Islam countries. (The Islam world is keeping
an eye on the Turkish accession. They would not totally accept the Turkish
example, but if it were rejected then it would be attributed to its Islam religion.)
The cons are:
just a very small part of Turkey is located in Europe
its neighbourhood is full of conflicts (it would be very costly for the Union)
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its institutions are not working properly
there has been problems with the equal usage of law and human rights
a confrontation line of 3 big civilizations (Christianity, Orthodox and Islam) lies
here80
There are further possibilities for cooperation like the “customs union and the 3+”
formula, which means nearby the customs union with the EU and the 3+ would be a
long term financial cooperation, restricted share of the EU funds and they could have
the right to attend definite ministerial appointments. Or another version could be the full
membership minus the free flow of labour.
CONCLUSION
As I see the accession of Turkey, considering the economic, politic and social situation
of Turkey, the accession can be imaginable not in the near future, but in midterm. By
that time it is paramount that Turkey stabilized and developed with the help of the EU
and the relation between them is strengthened.
In the 19th century Turkey was the “sick man of Europe” that means it was considered
as a European country. And if we consider, how hard Turkey tries to become a member
state, it is easy to see that there has been no other country that had to wait as much as
Turkey has to. Turkey is making strenuous efforts to carve out a new identity for itself,
which has to be done unlike in case of any other country. And if we look at the history,
there has not been hundred years ago when Germany and France were enemies in
World War I and fought against each other. Less than fifty years later: both of them
were founders of the European Union (in case of Germany it was only West Germany)
(that time it was the European Coal and Steel Community than the European Economic
Community). The European Union builds for long term of course, but who knows what
happens in the next hundred years.
Finally it has to be examined whether the European rights allows such a member state -
considering that only 5% of its territory is in Europe. If this question is decided, then
80 BÖSZÖRMÉNYI-NAGY, GERGELY: Törökország EU-csatlakozásának kérdőjelei: tanulmányok, dokumentumok, Székesfehérvár, Kodolányi János Főiskola, 2006.
- 106 -
the answer has to be stated and the EU has to behave according to that, without letting
Turkey hoping to become a member state for long decades and then telling them that
there is a problem with this. (Even if it had been too late for this after the beginning of
the accession negotiations). If it is decided that Turkey can in the end become a member
state then there is one problem to be solved before the accession. The European Union
has to consider that the Iraq-Turkey and Turkmenistan-Iran-Turkey pipeline goes
through Turkey, which is very important for the Union because of the safety of energy-
supply.
The other problem is its religion. In the European Union there is a religious liberty, so
basically that could not be a problem, but things are more complex of course. Lots of
cultural differences arise from this. If Turkey were to join the European Union as an
Islam country, there should be a high degree of tolerance and acceptance on both sides.
(Similarly, according to Huntington, Romania and Bulgaria do not belong to the
Western countries like the other members of the European Union, because their
Orthodox religion, even if it is a branch of Christianity, they belong to states like
Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. It also has to be considered what the reaction would be not
only on Turkey’s part, but on the part of the Islam world if Turkey was rejected because
it is an Islam country.
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APPENDIX
MAIN MACROECONOMIC INDICATORS81
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
GDP Growth (%) 9,4 8,4 6,9 4,6 0,9
Total net debt (% of GDP) 49.0 41.6 34.0 29.5 28.2
External Debt (% of
GDP)
13.4 6.5 4,0 1.3 2.1
Domestic Debt (% of
GDP)
35.7 35.2 30.0 28.1 26.1
Current Account Balance
(million $)
-14,431 -22,088 -32,051 -38,219 -41,289
Current Account Balance/GDP
(%)
-3.7 -4.6 -6.1 -5.9 -5.6
Trade Balance (million $) -22,736 -33,001 -40,962 -46,677 -52,844
Export, fob (million $) 68,444 78,174 92,915 114,332 137,311
Imports, fob (million $) 87,773 107,053 130,086 156,142 35,086
FDI (million $) 2,024 8,726 19,261 19,940 15,414
External Debt (million $) 160,918 169,503 207,325 248,958 278,146
GENERAL ECONOMIC INDICATORS82 (A): IMF staff estimation
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009(A)
GDP (US$bn) (current
prices):
392.206 482.685 529.187 649.125 729.983 593.533
GDP PPP (US$bn) 658.633 747.326 824.864 888.095 915.212 869.068
GDP per capita (US$): 5,862 7,108.4 7,767 9,422 10,479.4 8,427
GDP per capita PPP
(US$)
9,844 11,006 12,107 12,891 13,138.6 12,339
81 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TURKEYEXTN/Resources/361711-1227089539790/5593793-1233304555697/200910stats.pdf 2009.10.27. 9.44 82http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2004&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=944%2C186&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPI%2CPCPIPCH%2CPCPIE%2CPCPIEPCH%2CBCA%2CBCA_NGDPD&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=26&pr1.y=16 2009.10.26. 10.04
- 108 -
Real GDP growth (%
change yoy):
9.4 8.4 6.9 4.7 1.1 -5.1
Current account balance
(% GDP):
-3.679 -4.586 -6.027 -5.805 -5.656 -1.864
Goods & services
exports (% GDP):
23.3 21.8 22.5 22.2 23.9 22.8
Inflation (% change
yoy):
8.598 8.179 9.597 8.756 10.444 6.200
MAIN TRADE PARTNERS OF TURKEY IN 200883
Turkey's principal export destinations,
2008: Turkey's principal import sources, 2008:
1 Germany 9,8% 1 Russian Federation 13,3%
2 United Kingdom 6,2% 2 Germany 9,3%
3 United Arab Emirates 6,0% 3 China 5,1%
83 http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=pbXY3Rhjkhmji3gKPDrQFIQ&gid=1 26 October 2009
- 109 -
COLLECTION OF PICTURES
Biggest towns of Turkey
Pilgrimage to the Kaaba stone,
Mecca
Times of prays a day
Entrance of the Kaaba stone
Mihrab Well of mosque
Minbar
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Mahfili
Rosary
Hünkar mahfili
al-Fátiha
Whirling dervishes Tugra
- 111 -
Wells Konak in Safranbolu, Karabük
Yali Yali
Nazar on a plane of a Turkish Airlines, Fly Air
Nazar
Young boy goes to circumcision in a traditional dress
Traditional women wear
- 112 -
Hamsa
Calligraphy
Ceramics from Iznik
Miniature
Mehters (janissary band)
Arabesque performer İbrahim Tatlises
Davul
- 113 -
Ud Ney Kaval
Saz Hamam-Turksih bath Fez
Hararet of Cağaloğlu hamam
- 114 -
Raki Çay
Samovar
Efes beer Ayran Different kinds of breads
Huntington’s civilizations
- 115 -
LIST OF SOURCES:
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
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- 117 -
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f
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%2CBCA%2CBCA_NGDPD&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=26&pr1.y=16
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions: http://www.geert-hofstede.com/
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