Truman’s Presidency Truman’s Presidency and the Cold Warand the Cold War

1945-1953

Roots of the Cold WarRoots of the Cold War US Point of View:

Stalin sought to create "spheres" of influence in Eastern Europe Yalta Conference: Soviet pledge to allow

democratic elections in eastern Europe was broken

The U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong United Nations to maintain global peace

EASTERN EUROPEAN NATIONS TAKEN OVER BY THE USSR AFTER WW II YUGOSLAVIA, WHILE COMMUNIST, REMAINED INDEPENDENT

Churchill’s "Iron Curtain" Speech warned Americans of Soviet expansion (March 1946 in Fulton, Missouri) Americans now realized that a protracted

conflict with the USSR was a reality

"A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victories. . . . From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in

the Adriatic, an iron curtain has

descended across the continent.”

Soviet point of view: U.S. did not open a second front in Western

Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers died fighting brunt of German armies alone

U.S. terminated lend-lease to the USSR in 1945 and refused $6 billion to Stalin

Soviets wanted a security guarantee for the Soviet western border USSR had been twice attacked by Germany in

20th century Eastern Europe would now become a "buffer

zone"

Partitioning Korea & Vietnam split into northern and

southern zones: controlled by communists in the north and pro-democracy forces in the south

Germany split into 4 zones with Berlin also being split in to quadrants

Shaping the Postwar Shaping the Postwar WorldWorld

Bretton Woods Conference (1944): International Monetary Fund (IMF) created by western Allies World Bank founded to promote economic

growth in war-torn and underdeveloped areas

Soviets declined to participate

United Nations San Francisco Conference opened on April 25,

1945 UN Charter created a General Assembly Security Council composed of five permanent

members: U.S., USSR, China, Britain, and France Any single veto would overrule a proposal Responsible for settling disputes among UN member

nations

The German QuestionThe German Question

Nuremberg Trials Potsdam Conference had decided on

punishing war crimes and a program of de-Nazifying Germany

Allies tried 22 top Nazis at Nuremberg, German from 1945-1946

12 Nazis hanged and seven sentenced to long jail terms

Nuremberg Trials:

Goering, commander of Luftwaffe, on far left, front row

Partition of Germany 1949, a democratic West Germany created;

East Germany created under Soviet domination

1949 SAW THE FORMAL ESTABLISHMENT OF TWO GERMAN NATIONS COMMONLY KNOWN AS EAST AND WEST GERMANY. EAST GERMANY WAS RULED BY THE

USSR WHILE WEST GERMANY WAS INDEPENDENT.

Reconstruction of JapanReconstruction of Japan U.S., led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur,

implemented democracy in Japan Japanese war criminals tried between

1946-48; 7 hanged (including Tojo), 18 sent to prison

Japan adopted a constitution in 1946 renouncing militarism & introducing Western-style democracy

Policy of "Containment"Policy of "Containment" 1947, US Ambassador to Russia,

George Kennan, warned Truman that USSR sought to expand its

empire Kennan’s ideas became the

basis for Truman’s

"containment" policy

Truman Doctrine -- Defined U.S. foreign policy for next 20 years Initiated a policy of "containment":

prevention of the spread of communism Truman quickly recognized Israel in 1948-

would be stronghold of democracy in Middle East

EgyptSaudi Arabia

Iraq

Jordan

Syria

Turkey

LebanonIsrael

Marshall Plan (1947) France, Italy and Germany were still

suffering from economic chaos after WWII Fear Communist parties could exploit hardships

Sec. of State George C. Marshall invited Europeans to create a joint plan for economic recovery US would provide

financial assistance

Congress balked at am’t but changed course after the Soviet-sponsored a coup d’ etat in Czechoslovakia in 1948

Plan allocated $12.5 billion over four years in 16 cooperating countries "economic miracle”

Eastern European nations prohibited from accepting aid from US & W. Europe

GERMAN CITY OF HAMBURG IN 1947

BEFORE THE MARSHALL PLAN

HAMBURG, 1952, AFTER THE

MARSHALL PLAN

EFFECTS OF THE

MARSHALL PLAN

WITH HELP FROM THE MARSHALL PLAN WESTERN EUROPEAN ECONOMIES REVIVE

The Marshall Plan is a major factor in Western Europe's

recovery from the devastation of WWII

U.S. gov’t reorganization U.S. gov’t reorganization and rearmamentand rearmament

National Security Act of 1947 created the Department of Defense Headed by new cabinet post -- Sec. of

Defense National Security Council (NSC) and

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) created NSC Number 68 (1950)

U.S. would implement a rigorous worldwide defense of Communism with "an immediate and large-scale build up of our military."

"Voice of America" authorized by Congress; beamed US broadcasts behind the iron curtain

Atomic Energy Commission created in 1946 -- president sole authority over use of atomic weapons

Berlin Airlift (1948-49) Berlin, inside East Germany, was cut off

from the west by Soviet forces in 1948 U.S., French, & British zones in Berlin became

an "island" inside East Germany Soviets also shut off electric power 2 million West Berliners became hostages

U.S. organized a massive airlift for nearly a year; 277,000 flights

Many thought World War III was inevitable Soviets lifted the blockade in May 1949 and

the crisis subsided

POLITICAL CARTOON ASKS THE QUESTION

“WHAT WILL PRESIDENT TRUMAN DO ABOUT

BERLIN?”

TRAINS PREVENTED FROM MOVING TO BERLIN

BERLIN AIRLIFT: JUNE 1948 TO MAY 1949

EVERYTHING FROM COAL TO CHOCOLATE WAS FLOWN IN BY FLEETS OF AMERICAN AND BRITISH CARGO PLANES

LOADING BAGS OF COAL

MAKING SMALL PARACHUTES TO DROP

CANDY TO BERLIN CHILDREN

PRESIDENT TRUMAN MADE IT CLEAR THAT IF ONE

CARGO PLANE WAS SHOT DOWN IT WOULD MEAN WAR BETWEEN THE US

AND USSR

CRASHED CARGO PLANE DUE TO AN ACCIDENT

IN MAY OF 1949 THE RUSSIANS ENDED THE BERLIN BLOCKADE

Cold War during Cold War during Truman’s 2nd termTruman’s 2nd term

Secretary of State Dean Acheson North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO) Created April 4, 1949 by 12 nations

including U.S., France, Britain, Italy NATO created in response to Berlin Crisis

Dwight D. Eisenhower, NATO’s first allied supreme

commander

Collective security organization; warned USSR that a threat to any NATO members would be met with force In 1955, USSR formed Warsaw Pact as a

response to NATO which included all Eastern Bloc countries -- satellite countries

ANZUS -- U.S. forged a collective security agreement with Australia and New Zealand to buttress democracy in Pacific

CENTO -- Central Treaty Organization (in Central America)

Soviet Union exploded atomic bomb in Sept. 1949; U.S. no longer had monopoly The world now had two atomic powers

China became Communist in 1949 US supported Nationalist leader Jiang Jieshi

(Chang-Kai-Shek) during WWII Late 1949, Mao Zedong’s (Mao Tse-tung)

communist forces defeated the last of Jiang's forces and the Nationalists fled to Formosa (Taiwan) Mao supported by the Soviet Union

TAIWAN

CHIANG KAI SHEK LEADER OF NATIONALIST CHINA WAS FORCED TO FLEE TO THE ISLAND OF TAIWAN TO

ESCAPE THE COMMUNISTS

Loss of China was seen as a major defeat for U.S. containment 25% of world's population became communist in

one shot Truman criticized for allowing China to fall to

communists

U.S. refused to recognize the People’s Republic of China ("Red China") and maintained Jiang’s regime on the UN Security Council USSR boycotted Security Council People’s Republic of China not recognized

as a permanent Security Council member until 1973

Korean War (1950-53)Korean War (1950-53)

Background During WWII, Russian troops occupied

northern Korea, US troops occupied southern Korea

1949, both set up rival regimes on each side of the 38th parallel

June 1950, North Korean army with Soviet-made tanks invaded S. Korea

Truman invoked NSC-68 U.S. soon spending $50 billion per year on

defense

UN voted to establish UN force with Truman’s choice, Gen. Douglas MacArthur, as UN commander who took his orders from directly from the U.S.

By August 1950, North Korea captured nearly all of South Korea NK had superior military aid from Soviet Union

MacArthur directed surprise amphibious landing at Inchon behind Korean lines Within two weeks, UN forces recaptured nearly all of

SK (N. Koreans pushed behind 38th p.) **MacArthur ordered UN forces to cross North of the

38th parallel with support of Truman and UN NK forces driven back near the Chinese border

UN calls for the establishment of a unified and democratic Korea

November 1950, 300,000 Chinese soldiers poured into North Korea; forced UN troops to retreat with heavy losses across 38th parallel

THE WAR IN KOREA TURNED INTO A STALEMATE RESEMBLING WORLD WAR I TRENCH WARFARE.

Truman fires MacArthur Truman seeks limited war

Nuclear weapons would not be used Original objective again to restore border

between N. & S. Korea

MacArthur against limited war -- "No substitute for victory”

MacArthur circumvents Truman and demands total N. Korean surrender Undercuts Truman’s attempt at negotiations;

threat to president’s power

Truman removes MacArthur from command and orders him back to US

Cease-Fire Negotiations began in July 1951 and

continued for 2 years while war continued Cease-fire signed on July 27, 1953

38th parallel as boundary is restored DMZ along boundary Americans disappointed at unclear conclusion

PRESIDENT ELECT EISENHOWER MAKES

GOOD ON HIS PROMISE AND VISITS KOREA IN DECEMBER OF 1952

ON JULY 27TH 1953, AFTER THREE YEARS OF

FIGHTING, AN ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED

ENDING THE KOREAN WAR. KOREA REMAINED

DIVIDED AT THE 38TH PARALLEL.

Results of Korean War 54,000 US soldiers

Total casualties as high as 4 million

UN successfully repelled North Korean attack on S. Korea

US successfully enforce its "containment" policy

Truman’s First Term - Truman’s First Term - domestic policydomestic policy

Taft-Hartley Act , June 1947 Passed by Congress over Truman’s veto

Major provisions of Taft-Hartley Act Most important:  80 day cooling-off period for

strikers in key industries Outlawed the "closed-shop" (process of hiring only

union members)

By 1954, 15 states passed "right to work" laws outlawing the "union-shop."

Civil Rights: gains for African Americans 1946, Truman created the President’s

Committee on Civil Rights In 1947, committee published To Secure These

Rights, calling for desegregation of American society, anti-lynching legislation and an end to poll taxes

1948, desegregation of armed forces in 1953 Jackie Robinson first African American in Major

League Baseball in 1947 (Brooklyn Dodgers)

Presidential Succession Act of 1947 Created as a contingency for nuclear war

22nd Amendment, 1951 (“Anti-FDR amendment”) Limited president to two terms

Anti-Communist Crusade- Anti-Communist Crusade- "Red Scare""Red Scare"

American Fears -- Paranoia regarding communism and its sympathizers due to: Communism at home: fear of spies

infiltrating U.S. gov’t: Alger Hiss, Rosenbergs

Fear of nuclear war: Soviet A-bomb in 1949; H-bomb in 1953, Sputnik in 1957

Spread of communism around the world (Eastern Europe, China, Korea)

Continued

Demagogue politicians using fear for gain (HUAC, McCarthy)

Fear of another depression (recessions in 1946-47 & early ‘50s) A depression might trigger the growth of

communism

Note: this was the 2nd red scare of 20th century (first occurred after WWI: 1919-1920 during Wilson's presidency)

Culture reflected these fears: movies such as Invasion of the Body Snatchers, The Blob

Smith Act of 1940 Made it illegal to advocate the overthrow of

the government by force or to belong to an organization advocating such a position

Used by Truman administration to jail leaders of the American Communist Party 11 communists brought to trial in New York in

1949 and sent to prison for advocating the overthrow of the US gov't by force

Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) indicts Alger Hiss, 1947 HUAC created in 1945 to root out

communism during the "Red Scare" after WWII that lasted into the mid-1950s Committee was sensationalistic, also going after

public figures in Hollywood Liberals targeted Senate counterpart to HUAC also active in anti-

communist investigations

Richard Nixon led the movement to indict Alger Hiss Distinguished member of the "eastern establishment,"

prominent ex-New Dealer, and current member of the U.S. State Department

Hiss denied being a Communist agent in the 1930s but was convicted of perjury in 1950 and sentenced to 5 years in prison

Anti-red scare cartoons by Herblock

Truman's "loyalty" program Truman countered HUAC with anti-communist

programs of his own Attorney General identified 90 "disloyal" organizations who

were not given the right to prove their innocence Truman gave FBI approval and resources to go after

suspected "reds“ Loyalty Review Board investigated more than 3

million fed. Employees Loyalty oaths were increasingly demanded of

employees, esp. teachers Many felt civil liberties were being suppressed Gov’t employees forbidden to:

Criticize US foreign policy Advocate equal rights for women Own books on socialism Attend foreign films

The Rosenbergs, 1954 Julius and Ethel

Rosenberg were convicted and executed for allegedly giving atomic bomb secrets to the Soviets

Both were confirmed communists

Notice the caption below

the picture which ties the case to

the anti-immigrant

sentiment and red scare of the

1920s.

Blacklisting Many actors, writers, and directors had

dabbled with the Communist Party in the 1930's when it was considered fashionable

10 of these movie industry people, the "Hollywood Ten" refused to testify and decided to go to prison rather than testifying to the HUAC

The industry responded by denying work to 250 actors, writers, and directors

The “Hollywood 10” and their supporters

McCarthyism Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (Wisconsin

Republican) became a demagogue In Feb. 1950, asserted that 200 unknown

Communists were in the State Dept Made sweeping accusations, employed guilt by

association and documents out of context Public convinced he was looking out for national

security Was unable to substantiate his claims but ruined

many gov't officials Supporters tended to be Republican and blue-

collar

Right: Nixon and other members of HUAC

Other Accusations: Claimed Democratic party was guilty of 20 years of

treason Wanted Truman impeached for being soft on

communism Hinted Eisenhower was "soft on communism” McCarthy would sometimes publicly claim people

were gay as well as communist McCarthy’s Senate hearings created an atmosphere

of conformity and fear

Downfall of McCarthy occurred when he took on the Army in 1954 McCarthy was intensely examined by

Joseph Welch, Army attorney By Dec., 1954, Senate passed a resolution

condemning McCarthy 67-22

Did the end of McCarthy signal the end of the red scare? Not really, but the hysteria did mellow Sputnik caused some hysteria in 1957; Americans

feared Soviets were technologically superior Some Americans built bomb shelters in their back

yards fearing nuclear war with Soviets School’s continued “duck and cover” drills to

prepare for a nuclear attack John Birch Society, an ultra-conservative

nationalist group, emerged in late 1950s; continued an attack on liberals for the next two decades

Arthur Miller’s The Crucible: popular play in 1950s that used the 1692 Salem Witch Trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism

Herblock cartoon on the “witch hunt” at the State

Department.

Franco was the Fascist leader of Spain, an ally of Hitler in WW II but

anti-communist. Chiang was the former leader of China until defeated by communist armies and

forced to flee to the island of Formosa

(Taiwan).

Election of 1948Election of 1948

Democrats split into three camps: Truman, southern States' Rights Party led by Strom Thurmond of S.C., and new Progressive party under Henry Wallace

Thomas Dewey was nominated by the Republicans

Truman called for full employment, higher minimum wage, better farm supports, new TVAs and extension of Social Security and more civil rights for Af. Am.— “Fair Deal”

Truman's support from farmers, workers, and blacks (felt threatened by R party)

Truman defeats Dewey in a stunning upset

The “Vital Center”: 1948-The “Vital Center”: 1948-19681968

A political consensus developed in America Three major components common in both

parties: Anti-communism; containment Belief that economic growth could solve all of

society’s problems JFK: “rising tides lift all boats”

Political pluralism: belief that a variety of ideas could compete in America (New Deal accepted by both parties)

“Vital Center” was shattered in 1968 Vietnam War pits hawks against doves;

amplifies generation gap White conservative backlash against

liberalism: “Great Society” programs of Johnson, the civil rights movement, and apparent lack of law and order, contributed to Republican control of the White House for 20 of the next 24 years

The “Affluent Society”: The “Affluent Society”:

American Society in the Post-WWII era (1945-1970) GI Bill of Rights, 1944

Response to unemployment fears from 15 million returning GIs from WWII

Unrest after WWI resulted in race riot

Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 sent millions of veterans to school

Veteran’s Administration (VA) guaranteed about $16 billion in loans for veterans to buy homes, farms, and small businesses

Bill contributed to economic prosperity that emerged in late 1940s

The “Affluent Society”: The “Affluent Society”: contd…contd…

Baby Boom 1950s population grew by over 28 million;

97% in urban and suburban areas Between 1946 and 1961, 63.5 million babies

were born Proportional growth in population

unprecedented in American history

Economic boom: 1950-1970 National income nearly doubled in 1950s;

almost doubled again in 1960s Home ownership up to 60% from 40% in 20s Majority of postwar jobs went to women in

urban offices and shops By 1990s, women accounted for about half of

total workers Clash between demands of suburban domesticity

and realities of employment sparked the feminist revolt in the 1960s

Consumerism mushroomed as Americans had more disposable income Americans bought cars, gadgets for their homes,

vacations, etc. in unprecedented numbers

Middle class Over 12 million by early 1960s Suburbs

Grew 6X faster than cities in 1950s Resulted from increased car production, white flight from

urban areas due to black migration into Northern and Midwestern cities

Cult of domesticity re-emerges Dr. Benjamin Spock: Commonsense Book of Baby and

Child Care Message: Women’s primary responsibility was to stay home

and nurture their children

Culture in the 1950sCulture in the 1950s

Television & Movies TV emerged as the most popular

entertainment medium in the 1950s replacing radio TV tended to reflect the conformity of the decade Some movie stars became icons to the younger

generation in1950s: James Dean, Marilyn Monroe

Rock n’ Roll: derived from African American blues (before Elvis it was known as "race" music) Elvis Presley burst on the scene in 1956 as

brought rock n' roll to masses Rock n’ Roll became the music of the younger

generation and emphasized the increasing generation gap between youth and their parents

Art: Abstract expressionism (1950s) Artists attempted spontaneous expression of their

subjectivity using splattered paint and color field painting Jackson Pollock

The Beat generation (beatniks) -- late 1950s Group of young men alienated by 20th-

century life Movement began in Greenwich Village, NY Rebelled against the conformity and

conservatism of middle-class America

Jack Kerouac: On the Road became the "bible" for restless youth

Emphasized alcohol, drugs, sex, jazz, Buddhism, and a vagabond lifestyle

To what extent was there either conformity or consensus in American society between 1945 and 1960?

Eisenhower and the Eisenhower and the 1950s1950s

Election of 1952 Election of 1952

Democrats nominated Adlai E. Stevenson Republicans nominated Dwight D.

Eisenhower ("Ike") Eisenhower extremely popular hero of World War II Richard Nixon nominated for Vice President

Eisenhower won by a landslide: 442-89 First time since 1928 the Republicans won some

Southern states

Eisenhower & "dynamic Eisenhower & "dynamic conservatism"conservatism"

In effect, Ike maintained New Deal programs Ike stated dynamic conservatism meant

“being conservative when it comes to money and liberal when it comes to human beings.”

Social Security benefits extended and minimum wage raised to $1.00/hr

Interstate Highway system (1954) created modern interstate freeway system $27 billion plan built 42,000 miles of freeways Federal gov’t paid 90% of cost and states 10% Underlying purpose: evacuation in case of nuclear

war or need to move troops and equipment quickly throughout the country

St. Lawrence Seaway: Massive project of locks opened the Great Lakes as seaports as they were now connected (via the St. Lawrence River) to the Atlantic Ocean

Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare created in 1953 to oversee some of FDR’s New Deal programs

Civil Rights during the Civil Rights during the 1950s1950s

Eisenhower did not intend to be a "civil rights" president Yet, oversaw some of most significant civil rights gains in U.S.

history 1940s, NAACP began to attack "separate but equal" by

suing segregated colleges & universities; blacks gained entrance into many Southern universities Elementary and secondary schools remained segregated

Earl Warren appointed by Eisenhower as Chief Justice of Supreme Court in1953 Although viewed as a conservative, Warren would become the

most significant Chief Justice of the 20th century

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954 NAACP filed suit on behalf of Linda Brown, a black

elementary school student Topeka school board had denied Brown admission to an

all-white school Case reached Supreme Court in 1954

Thurgood Marshall represented Linda Brown Charged that public school segregation violated the "equal

protection" clause of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution

Segregation deprived blacks an equal educational opportunity

Separate could not be equal because segregation in itself lowered the morale and motivation of black students

Chief Justice Warren persuaded the Court to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. It

has no place in public education.” One year later, Court ordered school integration "with all

deliberate speed."

Response to Brown v. Board of Education Southern officials considered ruling a threat

to state and local authority 80% of southern whites opposed Brown

decision Some white students, encouraged by

parents, refused to attend integrated schools KKK reemerged in a much more violent

incarnation than in 1920s

Southern state legislatures passed more than 450 laws and resolutions aimed at preventing enforcement of Brown decision "Massive Resistance", 1956: Virginia state

legislature passed a massive resistance law cutting off state aid to desegregated schools

By 1962, only one-half of one percent of non-white school children in the South were in integrated schools

End of "Massive Resistance“ 1959, federal and state courts nullified Virginia

laws which prevented state funds from going to integrated schools

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56) December 1955, Rosa Parks arrested in

Montgomery, Alabama, after refusing to give her bus seat to a white man; she was ordered to sit at the back of the bus Found guilty and fined $14

African Americans leaders called for a boycott; nearly 80% of bus users were black Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., leader of Dexter

Avenue Baptist Church, became a leader of the boycott; emerged as leader of civil rights movement

Montgomery bus boycott lasted nearly 400 day 1956, Supreme Court ruled segregation on

Montgomery buses was unconstitutional

Crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957 Gov. Orval Faubus ordered National Guard to surround

Central High School to prevent 9 black students ("Little Rock Nine") from entering the school

Federal court ordered removal of National Guard and allowed students to enter Riots erupted and forced Eisenhower to act

Eisenhower reluctantly ordered 1000 federal troops into Little Rock and nationalized the Arkansas National Guard, this time protecting students First time since Reconstruction a president had sent federal

troops into the South to enforce the Constitution

Next year, Little Rock public schools closed entirely August 1959, Little Rock school board gave in to

integration

Martin Luther King, Jr. and the SCLC Jan. 1957, King president of Southern

Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Nonviolent resistance

King urged followers not to fight with authorities even if provoked

Mohandas Gandhi (both were inspired by Henry David Thoreau’s On Civil Disobedience)

Use of moral arguments to change minds of oppressors

King linked nonviolence to Christianity: "Love one’s enemy"

Sit-ins became effective new strategy of nonviolence Students in universities and colleges all over

U.S. vowed to integrate lunch counters, hotels, and entertainment facilities

Greensboro sit-in (Feb. 1960): First sit-in by 4 North Carolina college freshman at Woolworth lunch counter for student being refused service After thousands participated in the sit-in

merchants in Greensboro gave in six months later

Student movement Nonviolence of students provoked

increasingly hostile actions from those who opposed them Some blacks were beaten, and harassed by

white teen-agers Student Nonviolent Coordinating

Committee created by SCLC to better organize the movement. (SNCC pronounced "snick") "Jail not Bail" became the popular slogan Students adopted civil disobedience when

confronted with jail

Cold War: 1953-1961Cold War: 1953-1961 Sec. of State John Foster Dulles initiated new

policy of massive retaliation Two major principals:

Encourage liberation of the captive peoples in Eastern Europe by widespread use of political pressure and propaganda Voice of America and Radio Free Europe urged people to

overthrow their communist governments

Massive retaliation Soviet or Chinese aggression would be countered with

nuclear weapons directly on USSR and China Brinksmanship -- the art of never backing down from a

crisis, even if it meant pushing the nation to the brink of war

Rejects containment policy as it tolerated Soviet power where it already existed US foreign policy should destroy

communism; communism was "immoral“ US & USSR begin arms race to

accumulate sophisticated nuclear arsenals Preemptive strike capabilities emphasized:

destroy the other side before they can destroy you

Eisenhower was able to appear as a moderate (“good cop”) when compared to Dulles (“bad cop”)

Emergence of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) Soviet development of the hydrogen bomb in

1953 meant Dulles’ policy of Massive Retaliation was less practical

Both sides would lose in a thermonuclear war

MAD became an important deterrent for nuclear war during the next four decades

"New Look Military” Eisenhower sought to reduce military budget

by scaling back the army and navy while building up an air fleet of superbombers with nuclear weapons

Nuclear force would cost less than huge conventional force – "more bang for the buck.“ Nuclear force = "overkill"; US unable to respond to

minor crises

Eisenhower’s "Farewell Address" (1961) : warned Americans of the dangerous growth of the military-industrial-complex Vast, interwoven military establishment and arms

industry Power was enormous (largely in National

Security Council) and had potential to effect democracy itself

Warsaw Pact West Germany welcomed into NATO in

1955 with half million troops 1955, Soviets sign Warsaw Pact in response

new NATO strength in west Countries include all the E. European satellite

countries controlled by Moscow

Easing of the Cold War tensions occurred after Stalin’s death in 1953 Stalin succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev in 1955

New leadership offered opportunity to reduce tension Publicly denounced bloody excesses of the Stalin regime

Set out to improve living conditions in USSR "Peaceful coexistence" with the western democracies Khrushchev hoped to impress nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin

America with superiority of communism as an economic system

To the West: "We will bury you“

War between USSR & West now seen as unnecessary

U.S.S.R. agreed to leave Austria in May 1955 Eisenhower moved to relax tensions

Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July) US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to

begin discussions on European security and disarmament No agreements made

USSR resists idea of reunited Germany Both sides agreed to necessity of nuclear

disarmament US & USSR voluntarily suspend atmospheric

testing in October, 1958

ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR BOMB TESTS WERE

POISONING THE ATMOSPHERE WITH DEADLY RADIOACTIVITY

THAT WAS SHOWING UP IN MILK AND OTHER FOODS. IN

MARCH OF 1958 RUSSIA SUSPENDED ATMOSPHERIC TESTING FOLLOWED BY THE

US AND BRITAIN IN OCTOBER.

Sputnik, 1957 – beginning of the “Space Race” 1957, Soviets launch first ever unmanned

artificial satellite in orbit Americans horrified at the thought of Soviet

technology being capable of transporting nuclear weapons US technological superiority over the Russians

seemed over Public demanded "missile gap" be eliminated

National Defense Education Act (NDEA): Eisenhower ordered rigorous education program to match Soviet technology 1/3 of all university scientists & engineers went

into full-time weapons research Special emphasis on math, science, & foreign

languages 1958, US successfully launched its satellite

into orbit, Explorer I 1958, NASA (National Aeronautics Space

Agency) launched by Ike US conducted massive arms buildup: more

B-52’s, nuclear subs, short-range missiles in Europe

The U.S. did not get an object into orbit until January of 1958 after several embarrassing

failures. The space race was on.

Khrushchev issues ultimatum on Berlin in November 1958 Gave Western powers 6 months to vacate West

Berlin Eisenhower and Dulles refused to yield; world held

its breath Vice president Nixon visited USSR in 1959;

"Kitchen Debates" with Khrushchev over which economic system was better

Sept. of 1959, Krushchev made a two-week trip to US Left U.S. shaken at America’s affluence

Ike and Khrushchev agree to hold summit next year Khrushchev stated Berlin ultimatum extended

indefinitely

U-2 Incident results in worst U.S.-Soviet relations since Stalin May 1, 1960 -- U-2 spy plane shot down

deep in Soviet territory Incident occurred 10 days before planned

Paris Summit Eisenhower admitted he authorized U-2

flights for national security Ike suspended further flights but Khrushchev

demanded an apology at Paris Ike refused and Khrushchev angrily called

off Paris summit conference

A US U-2 RECONNAISSANCE (SPY) PLANE WAS SHOT DOWN OVER THE SOVIET UNION AND ITS PILOT GARY

POWERS CAPTURED AND PUT ON TRIAL. KHRUSHCHEV USED THIS INCIDENT TO CANCEL A PLANNED

EAST-WEST SUMMIT CONFERENCE IN PARIS.

MAY 1960: THE U-2 INCIDENT

Cold War in the Middle Cold War in the Middle EastEast

Iran CIA engineered coup in Iran in 1953 that

installed the Shah as dictator In 1979, the Iranian Revolution overthrew

the Shah and exacted revenge against the U.S. by holding 50 Americans hostage for 444 days

Suez Crisis Egypt: Gamal Abdel Nasser becomes president

(Arab nationalist) Opposed existence of Israel (U.S. had supported Israel’s

creation in 1948, at the expense of the Palestinians) Nasser seized & nationalized the Suez Canal that

was owned mostly by British and French stockholders

October 1956, France, Britain & Israel attacked Egypt in an attempt to internationalize the canal

Eisenhower honored the UN charter's nonaggression commitment and reluctantly denounced the attack on Egypt Siding with the US, the Soviets threatened to send troops

to Egypt Britain, France and Israel withdrew troops and UN

force sent to keep order Nasser gained control of Suez

Eisenhower Doctrine Empowered the president to extend

economic and military aid to nations of the Middle East if threatened by a Communist controlled country

1958, Marines entered Lebanon to promote political stability during a change of governments

Cold War in Latin AmericaCold War in Latin America Cuba

Prior to 1959, U.S. companies active in Cuba Owned 90% of Cuban mines and 40% of Cuban sugar

operations Cuba: 2nd highest standard of living in Latin America;

among highest literacy

Fidel Castro took control of

Cuba, New Years Day, 1959

September 1959, Khrushchev decided to aid Cuba

U.S. began plotting against Castro July 1960, Khrushchev publicly extended

Soviet nuclear umbrella to Cuba Khrushchev stated Monroe Doctrine was dead

and he would shower missiles on the U.S. if it attacked Cuba

Sept 1960, CIA opened talks with mafia to arrange a "hit" on Castro

U.S. broke diplomatic relations in January, 1961 Castro encouraged revolution in other parts of

Latin America Embargo est. in 1962

CASTRO DECLARED HIMSELF A COMMUNIST AND ALLIED CUBA WITH

THE SOVIET UNION

CASTRO AND KHRUSHCHEV