Trimurti / TridevaCreation , Preservation and

Destruction; Universe

The Trimurti at Ellora

Affiliation Brahma (creator), Vishnu(preserver), and Shiva(destroyer) ; Deva

Abode Satyaloka abode ofBrahma

Vaikuntha abode of Vishnu

Kailash abode of Shiva

Mantra Om Tridevaya Namah

Weapon Bramhastra andKamandala(Brahma);Sudarshanaand Kaumodaki(Vishnu) ;Trishula (Shiva)

Mount Swan (mount of Brahma),Garuda (mount ofVishnu) and Nandi(mount of Shiva)

Consort Tridevi which consists ofSaraswati (Bramha'swife), Lakshmi (Vishnu'swife) and Parvati (Shiva'swife)

Translations of Trimurti

English Three forms

Sanskrit ि�मूित� (trimūrti)

Bengali ি�মূিত� (trimūrti)

Hindi ि�मूित� (trimūrti)

TrimurtiThe Trimūrti (/trɪˈmʊərti/;[1] Sanskrit: ि�मूित� trimūrti, "three forms") is the Tripledeity of supreme divinity in Hinduism[2][3][4][5] in which the cosmic functions ofcreation, maintenance, and destruction are personified as a triad of deities, typicallyBrahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer,[6][7] thoughindividual denominations may vary from that particular line-up. When all threedeities of the Trimurti incarnate into a single avatar, the avatar is known asDattatreya.[8]

Evolution

Trimurti temples

Views within HinduismSauramShaivismBrahmanismShaktismSmartismVaishnavism

See also

References

Sources

External links

The Puranic period saw the rise of post-Vedic religion and the evolution of what R.C. Majumdar calls "synthetic Hinduism."[9]

This period had no homogeneity, and included orthodox Brahmanism in the formof remnants of older Vedic faith traditions, along with different sectarian religions,notably Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism that were within the orthodox foldyet still formed distinct entities.[10] One of the important traits of this period is aspirit of harmony between orthodox and sectarian forms.[11] Regarding this spiritof reconciliation, R. C. Majumdar says that:

Its most notable expression is to be found in the theological conception of theTrimūrti, i.e., the manifestation of the supreme God in three forms of Brahmā,Viṣṇu, and Śiva... But the attempt cannot be regarded as a great success, forBrahmā never gained an ascendancy comparable to that of Śiva or Viṣṇu, andthe different sects often conceived the Trimūrti as really the threemanifestations of their own sectarian god, whom they regarded as Brahman orAbsolute.[12]

Contents

Evolution

Javanese �������� (trimurti)

Kannada ��ಮೂ�� (trimūrti)

Malayalam �ി�ർ�ികൾ(trimūrttikaḷ)

Marathi ि�मूत� (Trimūrti)

Nepali ि�मूित� (trimūti)

Punjabi �ੀਮੂਰਤੀ (trīmūratī)

Tamil ������க�(mum'mūrttikaḷ)

Telugu ��మూ�� � (trimūrtulu)

Glossary of Hinduism

The identification of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva as one being is strongly emphasizedin the Kūrma Purāṇa, where in 1.6 Brahman is worshipped as Trimurti; 1.9especially inculcates the unity of the three gods, and 1.26 relates to the sametheme.[13] Historian A. L. Basham explains the background of the Trimurti asfollows, noting Western interest in the idea of trinity:

There must be some doubt as to whether the Hindu tradition has everrecognized Brahma as the Supreme Deity in the way that Visnu and Siva havebeen conceived of and worshiped.[14]

The concept of Trimurti is also present in the Maitri Upanishad, where the threegods are explained as three of his supreme forms.[15]

Temples dedicated to various permutations of the Trimurti can be seen as early as the8th century C.E., and there are even temples today in which the Trimurti are activelyworshiped.

Baroli Trimurti TempleElephanta CavesMithrananthapuram Trimurti TemplePrambanan Trimurti TempleSavadi Trimurti TempleThripaya Trimurti Temple

The Saura sect that worships Surya as the supreme person of the godhead andsaguna brahman doesn't accept the Trimurti as they believe Surya is God. Earlierforms of the Trimurti sometimes included Surya instead of Brahma, or as a fourthabove the Trimurti, of whom the other three are manifestations; Surya is Brahma inthe morning, Vishnu in the afternoon and Shiva in the evening. Surya was also amember of the original Vedic Trimurti, which included Varuna and Vayu. SomeSauras worship either Vishnu or Brahma or Shiva as manifestations of Surya, othersworship the Trimurti as a manifestation of Surya, and others exclusively worshipSurya alone.

Shaivites hold that, according to Shaiva Agama, Shiva performs five actions -creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, and revealing grace. Respectively, these first three actions are associated withShiva as Sadyojata (akin to Brahma), Vamadeva (akin to Vishnu) and Aghora (akin to Rudra). Thus, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra arenot deities different from Shiva, but rather are forms of Shiva. As Brahma/Sadyojata, Shiva creates. As Vishnu/Vamadeva, Shivapreserves. As Rudra/Aghora, he dissolves. This stands in contrast to the idea that Shiva is the "God of destruction." To Shaivites,

Trimurti with Tridevi

An art depiction of the Trimurti at theHoysaleswara temple in Halebidu.

Trimurti, painting from AndhraPradesh

Trimurti temples

Views within Hinduism

Sauram

Shaivism

Shiva is God and performs all actions, of which destruction is only but one. Ergo,the Trimurti is a form of Shiva Himself for Shaivas. Shaivites believe that LordShiva is the Supreme, who assumes various critical roles and assumes appropriatenames and forms, and also stands transcending all these.[16] A prominent visualexample of a Shaivite version of the Trimurti is the Trimurti Sadashiva sculpture inthe Elephanta Caves on Gharapuri Island.

The Brahmins follows to Brahma. For them Brahma is the Parabrahaman andSupreme being, they believe Vishnu and Shiva as child of Brahma and forms of himonly. In Brahmanism they believe that Brahma is Creator, Vishnu is Preserver andShiva as Destroyer. They believe Brahma as the Param-pita of the world and gods.He only creates, preserves, and destroys everything to create again..

The Female-Centric Shaktidharma denomination assigns the eminent roles of thethree forms (Trimurti) of Supreme Divinity not to masculine gods but instead tofeminine goddesses: Mahasarasvati (Creator), Mahalaxmi (Preserver), and Mahakali(Destroyer). This feminine version of the Trimurti is called Tridevi ("threegoddesses"). The masculine gods (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) are then relegated asauxiliary agents of the supreme feminine Tridevi.

Smartism is a denomination of Hinduism that places emphasis on a group of fivedeities rather than just a single deity.[17] The "worship of the five forms"(pañcāyatana pūjā) system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopherŚankarācārya among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the fivedeities Ganesha, Vishnu, Brahma, Devi and Shiva.[18][19] Śankarācārya later addedKartikeya to these five, making six total. This reformed system was promoted byŚankarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the six major sects on anequal status.[20] The monistic philosophy preached by Śankarācārya made itpossible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same timeworship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading Brahman.

Despite the fact that the Vishnu Purana describes that Vishnu manifests as Brahma inorder to create and as Rudra (Shiva) in order to destroy,[21] Vaishnavism generallydoes not acknowledge the Trimurti concept, but they believe in avataras of Vishnulike Buddha, Rama, Krishna, etc.They also believe that Shiva and Brahma both areforms of Vishnu. For example, the Dvaita school holds Vishnu alone to be thesupreme God, with Shiva subordinate, and interprets the Puranas differently. Forexample, Vijayindra Tîrtha, a Dvaita scholar interprets the 18 puranas differently. Heinterprets the Vaishnavite puranas as satvic and Shaivite puranas as tamasic and thatonly satvic puranas are considered to be authoritative.[22]

Trimurti Sadashiva sculpture onGharapuri Island

Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma adoringKali

Trimurti from Angkor. Made ofsandstone, statue dates back to 11thcentury. On display at the NationalMuseum of Cambodia.

Brahmanism

Shaktism

Smartism

Vaishnavism

Unlike most other Vaishnavite schools such as those of Ramanuja, Madhva and Chaitanya, Swaminarayan, guru of the HinduSwaminarayan sects (including BAPS), did not differentiate between Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva; Swaminarayan notably differs frompractically all Vaishnavite schools in holding that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of the same God.[23] (see also verses 47 and84 of Shikshapatri, a key scripture to all followers of the Swaminarayan faith.)[24][25] Moreover, Swaminarayan followed a Smartaapproach (see more detail on the Smarta view below) by instructing his followers to venerate all five deities of the Panchayatana pujawith equal reverence.[26]

DattatreyaHariharaTrideviTrinityTriple deitiesBrahmanarayana

1. "Trimurti" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/trimurti). Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

2. Grimes, John A. (1995). Ganapati: Song of the Self. SUNY Series in Religious Studies. Albany: State University ofNew York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2440-5.

3. Jansen, Eva Rudy (2003). The Book of Hindu Imagery. Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-74597-07-6.

4. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (Editorial Chairman) (1956). The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The RamakrishnaMission Institute of Culture.

5. Winternitz, Maurice (1972). History of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.

6. For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. I real all the three deities are avatar of Shiva. The Brahma is"Swetamber"(one who wears white clothes), Maha Vishnu is "Pitamber"(one whp wears yellow/red/orange clothes)and the Shiva is "Digamber/Vaagamber"(one who doesn't wears any cloth, only the skin of tiger). "The Purāṇas", in:Flood (2003), p. 139.

7. For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as thedestroyer. see Zimmer (1972) p. 124.

8. Mhatre, Sandeep. "Datta Sampradaay and Their Vital Role" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074548/http://swamisamarthmath.com/en/dattasampraday.html). Swami Samarth temple. Archived from the original (http://swamisamarthmath.com/en/dattasampraday.html) on 4 March 2016.

9. For dating of Puranic period as c. CE 300-1200 and quotation, see: Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution of Religio-Philosophic Culture in India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI, 1956), volume 4, p. 47.

10. For characterization as non-homogeneous and including multiple traditions, see: Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution ofReligio-Philosophic Culture in India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI, 1956), volume 4, p. 49.

11. For harmony between orthodox and sectarian groups, see: Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution of Religio-Philosophic Culturein India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI, 1956), volume 4, p. 49.

12. For quotation see: see: Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution of Religio-Philosophic Culture in India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI,1956), volume 4, p. 49.

13. For references to Kūrma Purana see: Winternitz, volume 1, p. 573, note 2.

14. Sutton, Nicholas (2000). Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.p. 182. ISBN 81-208-1700-1.

15. "Brahma, Rudra and Vishnu are called the supreme forms of him. His portion of darkness is !Rudra. His portion ofpassion is Brahma. His portion of purity is Visnu" Maitri Upanisad [5.2]

16. "How can the god of destruction be the Supreme ?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060926191301/http://www.shaivam.org/shpdestr.htm). Shaivam. Archived from the original (http://www.shaivam.org/shpdestr.htm) on 26 September2006. Retrieved 9 July 2018.

See also

References

Basham, A. L. (1954). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before TheComing of the Muslims. New York: Grove Press, Inc.Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-505742-2.Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.Zimmer, Heinrich (1972). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton, New Jersey: PrincetonUniversity Press. ISBN 0-691-01778-6.

Media related to Trimurti at Wikimedia Commons

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17. Flood (1996), p. 17.

18. Dating for the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins is from Courtright, p. 163.

19. For worship of the five forms as central to Smarta practice see: Flood (1996), p. 113.

20. Grimes, p. 162.

21. Flood, Gavin, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, p. 111, ISBN 0-521-43878-0

22. Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliestbeginnings to our own times (https://books.google.com/books?id=FVtpFMPMulcC&pg=PA412&dq=Varaha+sarabha&cd=11#v=onepage&q=sarabha&f=false). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 412. ISBN 81-208-1575-0. Retrieved15 January 2010.

23. According to this site, http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll, verses 47, 84, of their scripture,Shikshapatri, a key scripture to all followers of the Swaminarayan faith. [1] (http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll) states, "And the oneness of Narayana and Shiva should be understood, as the Vedas havedescribed both to be brahmaroopa, or form of Brahman, i.e., Saguna Brahman, indicating that Vishnu and Shiva aredifferent forms of the one and same God."

24. "Swaminarayan Satsang - Scriptures" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110716171647/http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=2&MediaType=). p. 2. Archived from the original (http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=2&MediaType=) on 16 July2011. Retrieved 9 July 2018.

25. "Swaminarayan Satsang - Scriptures" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110716171700/http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=4&MediaType==). p. 4. Archived from the original (http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=4&MediaType==) on 16July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2018.

26. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism, by Raymond Brady Williams at https://books.google.com/books?id=tPkexi2EhAIC&pg=PA25&dq=Shikshapatri+Vishnu+shiva&lr=&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Shikshapatri%20Vishnu%20shiva&f=false

Sources

External links

Murti in Hinduism

Parvati Shiva

Radha and Krishna Durga

Murti (idols, images) of different deities

MurtiA murti (Sanskrit: मूित�, IAST: Mūrti; literally any form, embodimentor solid object)[1] is an image, statue or idol of a deity or person inIndian culture.[2] In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A Murti isitself not the god in Hinduism,[3] but it is a shape, embodyment ormanifestation of a deity.[4] Murtis are also found in some nontheisticJainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered personsinside Jain temples, and are worshipped in Murtipujaka rituals.[5][6]

A Murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metalcasting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their properproportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas andSamhitas.[7] The expressions in a Murti vary in diverse Hindutraditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fearand violence (Durga, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to expressjoy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images aremost common in Hindu temples.[8] Other Murti forms found inHinduism include the Linga.[9]

A Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus.[7] In religious context, they are found inHindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of Puja rituals in Hinduism.[10] Inother occasions, it serves as the center of attention in annual festive processions and these are called Utsava Murti.[11] The earliestmurtis are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served as a template for thetemple.[12]

Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima.[13]

Etymology and nomenclature

Types

Methods and manuals

Role in worship

Role in history

Significance

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Murti literally means any solid body or form with definite shape or limits produced from material elements.[1] It contrasts with mind,thought and the immaterial in ancient Indian literature. The term also refers to any embodiment, manifestation, incarnation,personification, appearance, image, idol or statue of a deity.[1]

Contents

Etymology and nomenclature

The earliest mention of the term Murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed inthe 1st millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5of Prashna Upanishad.[14] For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the termto mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time exists,acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology inIndian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemologicalproof as follows,[15]

On account of subtleness of Time, this is the proof of its reality; On account of it the Time is demonstrated. Because without proof, the assumption which is to be proved, is notadmissible; But, that which is itself to be proved or demonstrated, when onecomprehends it in its parts, becomes the ground of proof, throughwhich it brings itself into consciousness (in the inductive way).

— Maitri Upanishad 6.14[16]

The section includes the concept of Time and non-Time, stating that non-Time asthat which existed before creation of universe, and time as which came intoexistence with the creation of universe.[15] Non-Time is indivisible, Time isdivisible, and the Maitri Upanishad then asserts that "Year is the Murti oftime".[15][17] Robert Hume translates the discussion of Murti of time, in verse 6.14of the Maitri Upanishad, as "form".[18]

Most scholars, such as Jan Gonda, Max Muller, PV Kane and Stephanie Jamison,state that there were neither Murti nor temples nor idol-facilitated worship in theVedic era.[19] The Vedic Hinduism rituals were directed at nature and abstract deitiescalled during yajna with hymns. However, there isn't universal consensus, withscholars such as AC Das, pointing to the word Mūradeva in Rig Veda verses7.104.24, 10.87.2 and 10.87.14.[19] This word may refer to "Deva who is fixed" or"Deva who is foolish". The former interpretation, if accurate, may imply that therewere communities in the Vedic era who had Devas in the form of Murti, and thecontext of these hymns suggest that the term could possibly be referring to practices of the tribal communities outside of the Vedicfold.[19]

One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of Murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskritgrammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE.[20] He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine,and the latter meaning images that were carried from place to place.[20] Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning custodians ofimages of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as people whose source of livelihood was the giftsthey received from devotees.[20] In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine imageswith terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others.[20] These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggestthat temples and Murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms thatthe knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE).[20]

By early 1st millennium BCE, the term Murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts such as Bhavishya Purana verse132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of India.[2] The term Murti has been a more generic term referring toan idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art.[2][21] Pratima includes Murti as well as painting ofany non-anthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba.[2]

A murti of Parvati Ganesha inMaheshwar temple, Madhya Pradesh

Goddess Durga and a pantheon ofother gods and goddesses beingworshipped during Durga PujaFestival in Kolkata. This image wastaken in Block - G.D, Saltlake DurgaPuja 2018 in North Kolkata.

A Murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be movedwith a festive procession (Utsava Murti),[11] or just be a landmark. It is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implementedin many ways. Two major categories include:[8]

Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carryweapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or bypeople in times of distress or errors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariablyoutside and in remote areas of a kingdom.[8]

Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness andother virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth,flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages andtowns.[8]

Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murtis, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols areshaped into a Murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu.[9][22][23]

Murtis, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras.[24] They recommend materials,measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage ofmanufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the imageare found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras.[25] In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the

6th-century Brihat samhita, an influential encyclopedia whose chapters 57-60 are dedicated to the design andarchitecture of murti and temples. This Sanskrit text exists in many Indian scripts, and was preserved in Buddhist,Jain and Hindu temples and monasteries (each shown clockwise above).

Murti in diverse Hindu traditions vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express destruction, fearand violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such asSaraswati (center). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples.[8] Linga murti (right) are an alternateform.[9]

Methods and manuals

Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward andDavid Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one wouldwelcome a friend.[26] According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattvafollow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers anicon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell".[27] The use of Murti and particularly the pranapratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticized by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice camefrom more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony.[28]

The artists who make any art or craft, including Murti,were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpinsshape the Murti not in accordance with fancy but inaccordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamasand the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma.[7]

The material of construction range from clay to wood tomarble to metal alloys such as panchaloha.[31] The sixthcentury Brihat Samhita and eighth century textManasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art usingmethod of measurement"), identify nine materials formurti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood,sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta).[32][33] For abhasa,the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialized stones, colors, and a range of opacity (transparent,translucent and crystal).[32]

Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple

design,[34] specifies in Chapter 56 that the Pratima (Murti) height should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima

height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width,thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions.[35] Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of variousanatomical parts of a Murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations indress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the Murti is the artistic tradition.[36]

The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colors,garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and otherdetails.[40] The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, differenttypes of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti.[41] The textsrecommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, usingtwelve types of comparative measurements.[42]

A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a Murti

Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity, Salutations to you! I worship you per rules, kindly accept it. May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere, May they forgive us now, we bow to them.

—Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11[29][30]

Proper Murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions, posture,expressions among other details, often referencing to nature.[37][38][39]

In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murtis is black granite, while material in North India is white marble.However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal AbsoluteBrahman.[43] More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through Murti symbolism ofGod (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a Murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism,[44] thus making thematerial of construction or the specific shape of the Murti not spiritually important.[45]

According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human,did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities".[46] This view is, however, not shared by otherscholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainismand Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographictraditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism.[47]

Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaismfavor the use of Murti. These traditions suggest that it is easier to dedicate time andfocus on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hinduscriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,

“ It is much more difficult to focus on God as theunmanifested than God with form, due tohuman beings having the need to perceive viathe senses.[48] ”

In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a Murti itself is not god, it is an "image ofgod" and thus a symbol and representation.[3] A Murti is a form and manifestation,states Fowler, of the formless Absolute.[3] Thus a literal translation of Murti as idolis incorrect, when idol is understood as superstitious end in itself. Just like thephotograph of a person is not the real person, a Murti is an image in Hinduism butnot the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of emotionaland real value to the viewer.[3] When a person worships a Murti, it is assumed to bea manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideasand needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is notconfined in it.[3]

Devotional (bhakti movement)practices centered on cultivating adeep and personal bond of lovewith God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more Murti, and includesindividual or community hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts ofdevotion, in major temples particularly, are structured on treating the Murti as themanifestation of a revered guest,[49] and the daily routine can include awakening themurti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, andgarlanded."[50][51] In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti isconsidered an act of devotion, but non-Murti symbolism is also common wherein thearomatic Tulsi plant or Saligrama is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism inVishnu.[50] These Puja rituals with the Murti, correspond to ancient culturalpractices for a beloved guest, and the Murti is welcomed, taken care of, and thenrequested to retire.[10][52]

Role in worship

A Murti of mother goddess Matrika,from Rajasthan 6th century CE.

A collection of modern-day Murtisfeaturing the elephant-headed God,Lord Ganesha.

Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the object of worship is the divinewhose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship asit contains divine energy emanating from the one god.[53] According to the Agamas, the Bimba Murti (�थूलमूित� / िब�बमूित�) isdifferent from the Mantra Murti (म��मूित�) from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings.

Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship.[54][55]

Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of DelhiSultanate in the late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction duringraids and religious wars between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century.[57][58][59]

During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus toChristianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, whichMitter, Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalized stereotypes, where Murtiwere claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of"idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to Biblical demons, callingMurti as monstrous devils to eroticized bizarre beings carved in stone.[60][61][62]

The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought andsometimes seized, then transferred Murti from India and displayed it in their"trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were givenup by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry".[63] In other instances,the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introducedPilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples.[64][65]

The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonialrule of India by attacking Murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguingthat it was, states Tanisha Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moralsociety" in India. This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed thefoundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial era, and it blamedMurti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society".[61][66] By 19th-century,ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newlytranslated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additionalevidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authoritiesin British India.[66]

The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding divergent responses.[67] It rangedfrom activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced all Murti,[67] to Vivekananda who refused to denounce Murti and askedHindus in India and Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in thefollowing words,[68]

Superstition is a great enemy of man, but bigotry is worse. Why does a Christian go to church? Why is the crossholy? Why is the face turned toward the sky in prayer? Why are there so many images in the Catholic Church? Whyare there so many images in the minds of Protestants when they pray? My brethren, we can no more think aboutanything without a mental image than we can live without breathing. By the law of association the material imagecalls up the mental idea and vice versa.

— Vivekananda, World Parliament of Religions[68]

Role in history

8th-century ivory murti parts fromKashmir. Numerous Hindu andBuddhist temples and sculpture inKashmir were built and destroyed,during Indian subcontinent's Islamicrule period.[56] During this period,some murti of Hindu deities werepreserved in Tibetan Buddhistmonasteries.[56]

Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and material symbols cherished byother religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of one's own religion, characterizing the material symbols ofothers as grotesque and wrong, in some cases dehumanizing the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others.[69][70]

The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as "false worship" first, then calls "false worship"as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitiveand barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a differentmaterial symbol than one's own.[69] In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (Murti) have been areligious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian religiouspowers and missionaries.[70]

Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of Murti in spiritual terms. TheVāstusūtra Upaniṣad, whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970samong remote villages of Orissa – four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit,asserts that the doctrine of Murti art making is founded on the principles of originand evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" thatempirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towardscontemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman).[73] This text, whosecomposition date is unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discussesthe significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating andpurifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision ofsupreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond".[73] It adds(abridged):

From the contemplation of images grows delight, from delight faith,from faith steadfast devotion, through such devotion arises thathigher understanding (parāvidyā) that is the royal road to moksha.Without the guidance of images, the mind of the devotee may goastray and form wrong imaginations. Images dispel falseimaginations. (... ) It is in the mind of Rishis (sages), who see andhave the power of discerning the essence of all created things ofmanifested forms. They see their different characters, the divine andthe demoniac, the creative and the destructive forces, in their eternalinterplay. It is this vision of Rishis, of gigantic drama of cosmicpowers in eternal conflict, which the Sthapakas (Silpins, murti andtemple artists) drew the subject-matter for their work.

— Pippalada, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Introduction by

Alice Boner et al.[74]

In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form, underlying principle) come thepratirupani (images)".[75] In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universalconcepts, with the statement "the work of the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created theuniverse).[75] Non-theistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti along the samelines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon",images are part of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavors inJainism.[76]

Significance

6th-century murti carvings, Badamicaves, Karnataka.[71][72]

While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu worship.[45] Among Hindus,states Gopinath Rao,[77] one who has realized Self (Soul, Atman) and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there isno need for any temple or divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolicmanifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in theHindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:[77]

िशवमा�मिन प�यि�त �ितमासु न योिगनः | अ�ानं भावनाथ�य �ितमाः प�रकि�पताः || ५९ || - जाबालदश�नोपिनषत्

A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself, images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)

— Jabaladarsana Upanishad, [78]

Hindu iconographyHindu deitiesIshta-DevaThangkaUthsavar

1. Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6 (Reprinted in2011), page 824

2. PK Acharya, An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture (https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/526/mode/2up), Oxford University Press, page 426

3. Jeaneane D Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-60-8,pages 41–45

4. Flueckiger, Joyce Burkhalter (2015). Everyday Hinduism (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=EBT1BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=murti+hinduism+god+prana+pratishta&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjssYmeic7eAhUHP48KHasBCtsQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=murti%20hinduism%20god%20prana%20pratishta&f=false). John Wiley & Sons. p. 77.ISBN 9781118528204. Retrieved 12 November 2018.

5. John Cort (2011), Jains in the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199796649, pages 80-85

6. Murtipujakas (http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/murti.html), Overview Of World Religions, University ofCumbria (2009)

7. Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4,pages 264–267

8. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography (https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071128825#page/n61/mode/2up)Madras, Cornell University Archives, pages 17–39

9. Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01930-7, pages 179–187

10. Michael Willis (2009), The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51874-1,pages 96–112, 123–143, 168–172

11. James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4, page 726

12. Subhash Kak, Time, space and structure in ancient India. Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: AReappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, February 21 & 22, 2009.[1] (https://arxiv.org/pdf/0903.3252.pdf)

See also

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13. "pratima (Hinduism)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/398379/pratima). Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved 21 August 2011.

14. G. A. Jacob, A concordance to the principal Upanishads (https://archive.org/stream/UpanishadVakyaKosha-AConcordanceOfThePrincipalUpanishadsAndBhagavad/UpanishadVakyaKoshaSktEng#page/n755/mode/2up), HarvardUniversity Press, Reprinted Motilal Banarsidass, page 750

15. Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4, pages 355–358

16. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4, page 356

17. Diana L. Eck (1986), Darshan of the Image (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23001674), India International CentreQuarterly, Vol. 13, No. 1, Images (March 1986), pages 43–53

18. Robert E Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads (https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n455/mode/2up), Oxford University Press, page 434; Sanskrit: काला��वि�त भूतािन काला�ृि� ं�याि�त च । काले चा�तं िनय�छि�त कालो मूित�रमूित�मान ्॥ ॥ १४॥, Source: Archive (http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/maitri.html?lang=sa), Archive2 (https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/मै�ायिण_उपिनषद)् Wikisource

19. Noel Salmond (2004), Hindu Iconoclasts, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0-88920-419-5, pages 15–17

20. Noel Salmond (2004), Hindu Iconoclasts, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0-88920-419-5, pages 18–20

21. John Cort (2011), Jains in the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-979664-9, pages 250–251

22. Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne Fowler, pgs. 42–43, at Flipside of Hindu symbolism (https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C&pg=PA42&dq=Hinduism+murtis+shiva+linga&lr=&cd=18#v=onepage&q&f=false), by M. K. V.Narayan at pgs. 84–85

23. T Richard Blurton (1994), Hindu Art, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5, pages 163–164

24. For Śilpa Śāstras as basis for iconographic standards, see: Hopkins, p. 113.

25. Elgood, Heather. Hinduism and the Religious Arts. Cassell 1999. ISBN 0-304-33820-6.

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27. |Gudrun Bühnemann, Puja: A Study in Smarta Ritual, Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Gerold & Co.,Vienna, 1988. p. 27 with footnotes

28. Buhnemann, Gudrun, Puja: A Study in Smarta Ritual, Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Gerold & Co.,Vienna, 1988. p. 57 with footnote 354. "The mantras used for infusing the icon with life (pranapratistha) have comefrom false tantra books, which are opposed to the Vedas (p. 485.7-13)." [...] cf. Furquhar (1915), pp. 297-350"

29. Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (https://archive.org/stream/Brihatsamhita/brihatsamhita#page/n537/mode/2up), PVSSastri and VMR Bhat (Translators), Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass (ISBN 978-81-208-1060-0), page 520

30. Sanskrit: (Source (http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_sociology_astrology/varbrhs.pdf)), pages 142–143(note that the verse number in this version is 58.10–11)

31. Lo Bue, Erberto (1991). "Statuary Metals in Tibet and the Himalayas: History, Tradition and Modern Use", Bulletin ofTibetology 1–3, pp. 7–41.. [2] (http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/bot/bot_1991_01-03.pdf)

32. PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded byRijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, OCLC 898773783 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/898773783), pages49–50

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35. Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (https://archive.org/stream/Brihatsamhita/brihatsamhita#page/n509/mode/2up), PVSSastri and VMR Bhat (Translators), Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass (ISBN 978-81-208-1060-0), pages 491–501

36. Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (https://archive.org/stream/Brihatsamhita/brihatsamhita#page/n521/mode/2up/search/idol), PVS Sastri and VMR Bhat (Translators), Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass (ISBN 978-81-208-1060-0), pages503–518

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39. John Cort (2011), Jains in the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-979664-9, pages 20–21, 56–58

40. PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded byRijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, OCLC 898773783 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/898773783), pages49–56, 63–65

41. PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded byRijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, OCLC 898773783 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/898773783), pages57–62

42. PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded byRijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, OCLC 898773783 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/898773783), pages66–72

43. The Goddess lives in upstate New York, by Corinne Dempsey, Oxford University Press, page 215, 228–229

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48. http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/verse-12-04.html

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61. Tanisha Ramachandran (2008), Representing Idols, Idolizing Representations: Interpreting Hindu Ima from theNineteenth Century to the Early Twentieth Century (http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/975224/1/NR45676.pdf),PhD Thesis granted by Concordia University, Thesis Advisor: Leslie Orr, pages 57–71

62. Brian Pennington (2007), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion,Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-532600-0, pages 62–64

63. Richard Davis (1999), Lifes of Indian Images, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-00520-1, pages 164–171

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"Idolatry and The Colonial Idea of India: Visions of Horror, Allegories of Enlightenment" by Swagato Ganguly.Routledge.Prasanna K Acharya, Indian Architecture According to Manasara-Silpasastra, South Asia Books, ISBN 978-81-86142-70-7, OCLC 296289012Prasanna K Acarya (1927), A dictionary of Hindu architecture : treating of Sanskrit architectural terms, withillustrative quotations from silpāśāstras, general literature, and archaeological records, Oxford University Press (Outof Print), OCLC 5709812Alice Boner (1965), Principles of composition in Hindu sculpture, BRILL, OCLC 352681TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0878-9Vidya Dehejia (1997), Indian Art, Phaidon, ISBN 978-0-7148-3496-2P Mitter (2001), Indian Art, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-284221-3Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche (2012), Rediscovering the Hindu Temple, Cambridge Scholars Publishing,ISBN 978-1-4438-4137-5

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67. Noel Salmond (2004), Hindu Iconoclasts, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0-88920-419-5, pages 2–9

68. Tanisha Ramachandran (2008), Representing Idols, Idolizing Representations: Interpreting Hindu Ima from theNineteenth Century to the Early Twentieth Century (http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/975224/1/NR45676.pdf),PhD Thesis granted by Concordia University, Thesis Advisor: Leslie Orr, pages 107–108

69. Moshe Halbertal and Avishai Margalit (Translator: Naomi Goldblum) (1998), Idolatry, Harvard University Press,ISBN 978-0-674-44313-6, pages 2–11, 39–40

70. Brian Pennington (2007), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion,Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-532600-0, pages 62–63, for context see pages 61–71

71. Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-81-208-0705-1, pages 89–95, 115–124, 174–184

72. George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press,ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1, pages 98–100

73. Alice Boner, Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā and Bettina Bäumer (2000), Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-81-208-0090-8, pages 7–9, for context see 1–10

74. Alice Boner, Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā and Bettina Bäumer (2000), Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-81-208-0090-8, page 9

75. Alice Boner, Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā and Bettina Bäumer (2000), Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-81-208-0090-8, pages 18–23

76. John Cort (2010), Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1, pages 345–346, 247–254

77. Gopinath Rao (1914), Elements of Hindu Iconography (https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071128825#page/n61/mode/2up) Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp. 17–39.

78. Jabaladarsana Upanishad (http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/jabaladarshana_sa.html) 1.59

Further reading

External links

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