A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Environmental ethics

There are several different approaches to environmental ethics issues. Your view on what we should do about animal welfare or climate change, for example, will be shaped by your view of where we fit in the world.

Anthropocentrism is the view that humans are the most important thing. The rest of the environment (including all plants and animals) only have instrumental value – they are valuable only insofar as they contribute to the good for humans.

Ecocentrism (or biocentrism) is the view that humans are an equal part, along with all other animals and plants, of the natural world. Living things have intrinsic value – they are valuable in themselves, regardless of how important or unimportant they are to humans.

Theocentrism is the view that God is the most important thing. The environment is important because it is God’s creation. If it has been created, then it is valuable because it is valuable to God.

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God

A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Secular Approaches to the Environment

a) Conservationism

Conservationism (shallow ecology): the theory that we should look after the environment because it is useful/valuable to us.

Instrumental value: belief that something is only valuable because of its importance to something else Anthropocentric belief: that humanity is central and more important

Intrinsic value: belief that something is valuable in itself

This theory looks at the value that the environment has to us as humans and how its welfare will affect us. For example, recycling in order for humans to not run out of resources is conservationism.

Plants and animals have instrumental value so their usefulness only lies in usefulness to humanity. They are a means to an end. If what it produces has importance for humans it must be protected and preserved.

It is a shallow ecology approach and is anthropocentric. Humans have intrinsic value and their interests should be protected at the expense of other non-human entities. This approach also believes that only humans have true moral worth and standing.

Michael La Bossiere (1966- ) suggests that the anthropocentric approach can be justified as part of the natural order of evolution. Ie. If an animal becomes extinct due to human activities, this can be deemed as nature taking its course.

La Bossiere is not suggesting that humans should try and wipe out specific species, however, if it becomes extinct naturally as a consequence of humanity’s actions, this is acceptable.

b) Libertarian extension

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Libertarianism (deep ecology): the belief that all life forms have intrinsic value

Speciesist: discrimination in favour of one species, usually the human species, over another

Ecosophy: the idea that all living things, whether humans, animals or plants, have rights

“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the bionic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise”.

-Aldo Leopold, 1949

Leopold said it was wrong to see the world in terms of its economic worth to humans. We need to think about our relationship with the land, animals and plants.

This approach is known as libertarian extension because it extends the realm of morality from just humans to all living things and their environment. It has been around for many years, but has been championed by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess.

In 1973, Naess wrote a book on Deep and Shallow Ecology. He explained that there are two ecology movements:

1) Concerned with pollution, depletion of natural resources, and the usefulness of the Earth for humans (shallow ecology)

2) Concerned with the richness, diversity and intrinsic value of all the natural world (deep ecology)

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

For deep ecologists like Naess, it isn’t enough to care about the environment because it benefits humans. We should be concerned for the environment for its own sake.

The intrinsic value and inherent worth of the environment is important. Every being, whether human, animal or vegetable, has an equal right to live and blossom.

“By an Ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium”. -Arne Naess

The term ecosophy literally means ‘ecological philosophy’. It refers to philosophies which have an ecocentric or biocentric perspective such as deep ecology.

Naees didn’t agree that humans were more important because they have a soul. Nature does not exist to serve humans. This requires a change in how humans relate to the natural world. He thinks the Christian view on stewardship is arrogant.

Naess’ conclusion: Humans should:

Radically reduce the Earth’s population.

Abandon all goals of economic growth.

Conserve diversity of species. Live in small, self-reliant

communities. “Touch the Earth lightly”.

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Naess and Sessions:

Naess joined forces with the American philosopher George Sessions. They listed eight principles of deep ecology:

1. All life has value, independently of its usefulness to humans. 2. Richness and diversity contribute to life’s wellbeing. 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness. 4. The impact of humans in the world is excessive and is getting worse. 5. Humans lifestyles and population are key to this impact. 6. The diversity of life can only flourish with reduced human impact. 7. Basic ideological, political, economic and technological structures must change.8. If you agree with these points then you have an obligation to implement changes, and do so peacefully and democratically.

A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

c) Gaia Hypothesis

Ecological extension (eco-holism): the belief that all ecosystems and living things are dependant.

Gaia Hypothesis: the hypothesis that suggests that the world’s physical properties and the biosphere join together to form a complex interacting system.

Gaia: the idea of Gaia comes from the Greek goddess of the earth, who was believed to be intrinsically part of the planet. Symbiosis: the mutually beneficial relationship between two things where they are dependent on each other.

Eco-Holism Focuses not on the rights of humans but the interdependence of all the ecosystem and sees the environment as a whole entity, valuable in itself. It challenges the view that humans are the most important species. The word Gaia is a Greek word for the goddess of the earth.

James Lovelock stated that looking at the earth from space you see a self-regulating living system; it is almost a living being.

“For me, Gaia is a religious as well as a scientific concept, and in both spheres it is manageable....God and Gaia, theology and science, even physics and biology are not separate but a single way of thought”.

-James Lovelock

According to Lovelock, life can not be destroyed. He believed this by evidence of fossils that showed that even with extreme changes in weather in the past, life in some form has always survived.

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Human life may be wiped out, but humans are just part of Gaia, and Gaia herself would survive without our presence. If we abuse Gaia we risk our own survival, as Gaia owes us nothing and we owe her our very existence.

Responses to Gaia hypothesis:

Richard Dawkins (1941- ) claims that Lovelock’s theory that all life ‘clubs together’ for some sort of mutual advantage or benefit is inconceivable. The scientific idea of ‘survival of the fittest’ means that species that adapt and develop in response to altered conditions will survive.

However, Lynn Margulis (1938- ) suggests that Dawkin’s perspective and the Gaia hypothesis are compatible if ideas of a symbiosis are accepted. She believes that organisms will, at times, combine with other organisms in a symbiotic relationship in order to survive, whilst remaining individual organisms i.e. pilot fish cleaning the teeth of sharks in return for their protection! The idea of symbiosis suggests that living organisms will work together to ensure mutual survival, therefore bringing some of the ideas of Darwinism closer to the ideas of the Gaia hypothesis.

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Tasks:

1. What evidence can you see in the world around you that would support Naess’ observations?

2. What would need to happen in the UK if we were to put Naess’ theory into practice?

3. What would the global implications be?4. Is it conceivable to you that the whole environment on Earth is

one single organism?5. If we believe the Gaia hypothesis, how should this change our

attitudes and behaviour?6. How deep/shallow is your attitude to the environment?7. How would each of these secular approaches be applied to

environmental issues?

A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Christian approaches to the environment

The Christian approach to the environment is theocentric. The environment is important and should be protected, because it is God’s creation. The creation stories (Genesis 1 and 2) tell of God creating a perfect world, out of his limitless love.

Dominion:

Christians believe that part of this act of limitless love is the creation of humans who represent the pinnacle of God’s love. Humans are special, set apart from other creatures, because they are created in the image of God. Humans have a special position in Creation. Man goes on to name all the creatures of the earth. The giving of a name signifies control, power over the creature named. God has, in this act, given humanity control of the earth and its creatures. Humans are given dominion over nature. It is a function they are given because they are unique. Dominion means that humans are in charge of the earth – we are to “rule over” and “subdue” the rest of creation.

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

“With great power comes great responsibility” – Spiderman

Stewardship:

Although humans are given dominion, we are also given a duty of stewardship. Stewardship means that we have to look after God’s creation. Christians believe they have a duty of care for the environment because God created it for them.

The Bible is full of examples of good stewardship. Both the OT and NT reflect the idea that individual humans have a moral responsibility to look after the planet. Farming is seen as an honourable profession as farmers take part in the process of creation. Husbandry (the care, cultivation and breeding of animals and crops) is a virtue since it imitates the act of God in creation.

Take note of the following quotes, and decide whether they represent dominion or stewardship:

Genesis 1:26

Genesis 1:28

Genesis 2:19

Luke 12:6

Psalm 24:1-2

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

Creation Spirituality: St Francis of Assisi believed that God can be seen and found in all creation. Animals and birds convey to us the understanding of God’s purpose and plan; to destroy or harm them is a sin as God entrusted their well-being to us.

There are many stories of how Francis behaved towards animals; he preached to them and they listened, he took in injured animals and nursed them back to health, he released fish back into the water warning them not to be caught again. Animals reportedly reacted very strongly to him too; they followed his instructions and often sat with him for long periods, listening to him preach.

His approach was one that is viewed as a form of creation spirituality similar to other Christian mystical writers, like Mother Julian of Norwich. This has been compared to the Gaia approach – humanity is part of the whole of creation rather than separate to it.

Is this approach biocentric, anthropocentric or theocentric?

Consequences of Sin: Many Christians believe that the original sin that humans committed has had a negative effect on the relationship between God and humankind, as well as human’s attitude towards the environment. As a consequence of disobedience in the Garden of Eden, humans have neglected their responsibility and ownership of the environment and this has therefore damaged their relationship with God.

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A Level Religious StudiesEthics Topic 1.1

So, the reason why the environment suffers is because of our sin and poor relationship with God. To rectify this relationship, we must return to the principles of stewardship.

Is this approach biocentric, anthropocentric or theocentric?

Strengths and weaknesses of a Christian approach

Strengths: 1. Christian views on environmental issues concentrate on two main ideas: God created the world out of love and humans have a duty of care to the earth. These two ideas mean that ecological issues are treated seriously and that the world is not to be exploited in an unsustainable way.

2. Christians also link ecological issues to world poverty and social injustice. Exploitation of the planet is seen as socially unjust. This can be seen in the Amazon rainforest where soya production has ruined large areas of the forest and, as a consequence, destroyed the lives of indigenous peoples.

3. These Christian attitudes to ecology show that a primary strength lies in its anthropocentric nature. Humans are at the centre and are responsible for what happens to the environment. However, this strength can also be seen as a weakness.

Weaknesses: 1. Some ecologists reject the notion that humans are stewards of the earth. They believe that this idea sets humans apart as superior to Creation, rather than seeing humanity as one part of the created order. The dominion given by God to Adam and Eve is seen as the cause of destruction of the planet. It gives humans a belief that they can do whatever they like with creation.

2. James Lovelock and others argue that there is a second fundamental error in Christian views. Christians see the world not only anthropocentrically but also in a theocentric way. They believe that because God is ultimately in control, all will be well in the end. This limits human responsibility. Lovelock argues that this theocentric understanding must be removed so that people take full responsibility.

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Tasks

1. Explain the difference between dominion and stewardship.2. What is meant by a theocentric approach to the environment?3. “Christian ecology is shallow”. Assess this claim.4. In groups, apply both secular and Christian approaches to one of

the following issues: animal protection, sustainability, waste management, or climate change.