Transportation Human Factors Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve.

Transportation Transportation Human FactorsHuman Factors

Human Factors PsychologyHuman Factors Psychology

Dr. SteveDr. Steve

BackgroundBackground

• StatisticsStatistics– ½ million auto accident fatalities world wide per year½ million auto accident fatalities world wide per year– 40,000 / year in US40,000 / year in US– Almost 3,000,000 injuries/year in US Almost 3,000,000 injuries/year in US – 90% of motor vehicle accidents blamed on human error90% of motor vehicle accidents blamed on human error

Video on Distracted Driving

Driving Task AnalysisDriving Task Analysis• Strategic TasksStrategic Tasks – Purpose of trip, driver’s – Purpose of trip, driver’s

overall goaloverall goal Where? When? How? (route selection)Where? When? How? (route selection)

• Tactical TasksTactical Tasks – Choice of maneuvers, – Choice of maneuvers, immediate goalsimmediate goals

Setting speed, passing, lane changesSetting speed, passing, lane changes

• Control TasksControl Tasks – Moment-to-moment – Moment-to-moment operationoperation

Speed adjustment, gap distance, lane maintenanceSpeed adjustment, gap distance, lane maintenance

Primary Control TasksPrimary Control Tasks

2nd order tracking Control (lane maintenance)

1st order tracking Control (speed, gap maintenance)

What impacts control?• Poor visibility (fog, rain, dark)• Distraction by secondary tasks

•Visual (in cab and external scanning)• Auditory, cognitive, motor

• Road curvature• Roadway hazards (objects, vehicles, pedestrians)

Vehicle Controls & Vehicle Controls & DisplaysDisplays

• In order to keep drivers’ eyes on the road In order to keep drivers’ eyes on the road (PVAL),(PVAL), Displays should: Displays should:– Be simple, easy to read and interpret – high contrast, Be simple, easy to read and interpret – high contrast,

large sizelarge size James Bond Rule: Height/Distance > .007James Bond Rule: Height/Distance > .007

• Controls should:Controls should:– Be in a consistent location (e.g., wiper controls)Be in a consistent location (e.g., wiper controls)– Compatibly linked to display (proximity compatibility)Compatibly linked to display (proximity compatibility)– Provide adequate separation (be able to feel for Provide adequate separation (be able to feel for

control)control)

0.25”

36.0”

Visibility Issues for PVALVisibility Issues for PVAL• AnthropometryAnthropometry – Seating, reach, viewpoint – Seating, reach, viewpoint

– Need for user-friendly adjustment controls (e.g., seat Need for user-friendly adjustment controls (e.g., seat position)position)

• IlluminationIllumination – traffic lights, reflectors, – traffic lights, reflectors, headlights (e.g., new LEDs)headlights (e.g., new LEDs)

• SignageSignage – Minimize clutterMinimize clutter– Consistent location (height and distance)Consistent location (height and distance)– Easily identifiable class (shape, color)Easily identifiable class (shape, color)– Efficient readability (contrast sensitivity, glare)Efficient readability (contrast sensitivity, glare)

• Resource CompetitionResource Competition – in-cab distractions – in-cab distractions– Glances away from road should be < .8 s & > 3 s Glances away from road should be < .8 s & > 3 s

betweenbetween

Controlling Resource Controlling Resource CompetitionCompetition

• Eliminating cell phones while driving could Eliminating cell phones while driving could save 2600 lives and prevent 330,000 save 2600 lives and prevent 330,000 accidents per year accidents per year (Cohen & Graham, 2003)(Cohen & Graham, 2003)

– Use auditory or tactile displays (e.g., talking Use auditory or tactile displays (e.g., talking navigation systems, virtual rumble strips)navigation systems, virtual rumble strips)

– Speech recognition systemsSpeech recognition systems– Heads-up displays – (problem: may mask real Heads-up displays – (problem: may mask real

world)world)– Hands-free phones – reduce glances, but not Hands-free phones – reduce glances, but not

cognitive distractionscognitive distractions

Problem of Distracted Problem of Distracted DrivingDriving

• Between 4,000 and 8,000 crashes related to distracted Between 4,000 and 8,000 crashes related to distracted driving occur driving occur dailydaily in US. in US.

• Driver inattention was involved in 80 percent of all Driver inattention was involved in 80 percent of all vehicle crashes (65 percent of near-crashes)vehicle crashes (65 percent of near-crashes)

• They contribute to as many as ½ of the 6 million They contribute to as many as ½ of the 6 million crashes reported annually.crashes reported annually.

• Distracted driving includesDistracted driving includes– Cell phone useCell phone use– EatingEating– Changing radio stations/CDs/tapesChanging radio stations/CDs/tapes– Looking for items in vehicleLooking for items in vehicle– Trying to change equipment settings, etc.Trying to change equipment settings, etc.

Incidence of Cell Phone Use Incidence of Cell Phone Use Among DriversAmong Drivers

Experiment 1: Driver Experiment 1: Driver DistractionDistraction

0

0.5

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1.5

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w/ out Phone w/ Phone

Att

enti

on L

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w/ out signal task

w/ signal task

Beede & Kass, 2006

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w/ out Phone w/ Phone

Tra

ffic

Vio

lati

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w/ out signal task

w/ signal task

Attention Lapses: • Failure to scan intersection• Stop in absence of stop sign• False start at red light• Stop at green light

Traffic Violations: • Speeding• Running stop signs/red lights• Lane violations (centerline or edge crossing)

Experiment 2: Driver Experiment 2: Driver Situation AwarenessSituation Awareness

as a factor of Experience Level & Cell Phone as a factor of Experience Level & Cell Phone UsageUsage

Kass, Cole, & Stanny, 2007

Driving InfractionsDriving Infractionsas a factor of Experience Level & Cell Phone as a factor of Experience Level & Cell Phone

UsageUsage

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Novice - No Cell Experienced - No Cell Novice - w/Cell Phone Experienced w/CellPhone

Tota

l Dri

ving

Err

ors

Road Excursions

Pedestrians Struck

Stop Signs Missed

Centerline Crossing

Collisions

Speed Exceeded

Kass, Cole, & Stanny, 2007

CollisionsCollisions

• Reasons for CollisionsReasons for Collisions– Control lossControl loss– SpeedingSpeeding– Risky behaviorRisky behavior– Impaired drivingImpaired driving

FatigueFatigue AlcoholAlcohol Age/ExperienceAge/Experience


Control LossControl Loss – Lane Departure (lateral tracking) or – Lane Departure (lateral tracking) or Roadway Hazard (longitudinal tracking)Roadway Hazard (longitudinal tracking)– 40% of all driving fatalities, 30% of all collisions40% of all driving fatalities, 30% of all collisions– Due to:Due to:

Road/weather conditions (slick, poor visibility)Road/weather conditions (slick, poor visibility) Fatigue or inattentionFatigue or inattention Overcorrection at high speed (rollover)Overcorrection at high speed (rollover)

– Solutions:Solutions: Wider lanes (2-lane highways 8x more likely to produce Wider lanes (2-lane highways 8x more likely to produce

fatalities than interstates)fatalities than interstates) Rumble strips, reflective lane markersRumble strips, reflective lane markers

Hazard ResponseHazard Response– Brake RT (~1.5 s) slowed by age, alcohol, & distractionBrake RT (~1.5 s) slowed by age, alcohol, & distraction

SpeedingSpeeding – avg vehicle separation on busy road = 1.32 sec (safe – avg vehicle separation on busy road = 1.32 sec (safe braking time = 2 sec)braking time = 2 sec)– Increases control lossIncreases control loss– Decreases hazard detectionDecreases hazard detection– Increases distance traveled after hazard detection (less time to respond)Increases distance traveled after hazard detection (less time to respond)– Increases physical damage on impactIncreases physical damage on impact– Perceptual problemsPerceptual problems

Smaller cars perceived as farther awaySmaller cars perceived as farther away Higher off ground (SUV) lead to perception of slower speed (motion parallax)Higher off ground (SUV) lead to perception of slower speed (motion parallax) Adapting to higher speed leads to perception of moving slowerAdapting to higher speed leads to perception of moving slower

Risky BehaviorRisky Behavior– Risk taking, showing off, overconfidence, hurriedRisk taking, showing off, overconfidence, hurried



Impaired DrivingImpaired Driving• Fatigue (50% of trucker deaths, 10% of all vehicle Fatigue (50% of trucker deaths, 10% of all vehicle

fatalities)fatalities)– Low arousal / circadian rhythms (2 - 4 am, 12 – 2 pm)Low arousal / circadian rhythms (2 - 4 am, 12 – 2 pm)– Tired (long distance)Tired (long distance)

47% of truckers have fallen asleep at wheel47% of truckers have fallen asleep at wheel < 6.5 hrs / day of sleep increases risk< 6.5 hrs / day of sleep increases risk

• Alcohol (50% of fatal accidents)Alcohol (50% of fatal accidents)– Legal limit = .08 BAC in FL; RT, tracking, info processing all Legal limit = .08 BAC in FL; RT, tracking, info processing all

affected at less than .05 BACaffected at less than .05 BAC– Confounded by time of day, drowsiness, low visibility, Confounded by time of day, drowsiness, low visibility,

personality.personality.

Drowsy DrivingDrowsy Driving• Sleepiness slows reaction time, decreases awareness, impairs Sleepiness slows reaction time, decreases awareness, impairs

judgmentjudgment• Roughly 51% or 100 million people are on the roads feeling Roughly 51% or 100 million people are on the roads feeling

sleepy while they are driving.sleepy while they are driving.• Nearly 2 in 10 drivers (17%) or 14 million people say they Nearly 2 in 10 drivers (17%) or 14 million people say they

have actually fallen asleep at the wheel in the past year.have actually fallen asleep at the wheel in the past year.• Drowsy driving causes at least 100,000 crashes and 1,500 Drowsy driving causes at least 100,000 crashes and 1,500

deaths annually in the US each year according to NHTSA deaths annually in the US each year according to NHTSA reportsreports

• Roughly 1/6Roughly 1/6thth of all crashes are thought to be produced by of all crashes are thought to be produced by driver inattention/lapsesdriver inattention/lapses

• Possible contributing factor: Possible contributing factor: SopiteSopite

Drowsy Driving Drowsy Driving CountermeasuresCountermeasures

Avoid Driving during your body’s down time. take mid afternoon break. avoid driving between midnight and 6 a.m.

Avoid alcohol and medication (that may impair driving). Avoid heavy meals.

eat healthy snacks instead. Plan for the unexpected.

e.g., poor road conditions, delays . do not stress about them, take a deep breath and relax. do not rush or speed to make up time.

Get a good night’s sleep (8 hrs). Drive on long trips with companion.

passengers can help look for warning signs of fatigue, share driving.

Schedule regular stops, every 100 miles or 2 hrs.

CollisionsCollisionsAge / Experience Age / Experience • Young drivers more involved in loss of control accidentsYoung drivers more involved in loss of control accidents

– Less skill, greater risk taking, overconfidenceLess skill, greater risk taking, overconfidence– Faster, more likely to drive at night, alcoholFaster, more likely to drive at night, alcohol– Lack of tactical/strategic judgment (distraction)Lack of tactical/strategic judgment (distraction)

• Older drivers more involved in loss of attention accidentsOlder drivers more involved in loss of attention accidents– Slower RTSlower RT– Smaller field of attentionSmaller field of attention– Inability to time shareInability to time share– Reduced visual capability (only minor issue)Reduced visual capability (only minor issue)

Compensate by driving more slowly and under more favorable Compensate by driving more slowly and under more favorable driving conditionsdriving conditions

Possess less control, but greater tactical judgmentPossess less control, but greater tactical judgment

Aging of DriversAging of Drivers(in Florida)(in Florida)

Causes of Crashes in FloridaCauses of Crashes in FloridaUnder 70 vs. Over 70Under 70 vs. Over 70

For detailed statistics on all vehicle crashes in Florida in 2004 go to: http://www.hsmv.state.fl.us/hsmvdocs/CF2004/CF2004ToPrint.htm

Improving Driving SafetyImproving Driving Safety

• Driver CharacteristicsDriver Characteristics– Selection & TrainingSelection & Training

Drivers education - little evidence of improved safety Drivers education - little evidence of improved safety Raising driving age - increase 16 to 18 saves livesRaising driving age - increase 16 to 18 saves lives Graduated licensing – restrictions for first few yearsGraduated licensing – restrictions for first few years

– (e.g., daytime driving, to school or work, no young passengers, (e.g., daytime driving, to school or work, no young passengers, driving w/adult, NO CELL PHONES)driving w/adult, NO CELL PHONES)

– Adaptation and Risk CalibrationAdaptation and Risk Calibration Calibration of risk – take risks because of perceived low Calibration of risk – take risks because of perceived low

probability of accidentsprobability of accidents Risk Homeostasis Theory Risk Homeostasis Theory (Wilde, 1988)(Wilde, 1988) – Drivers maintain stable – Drivers maintain stable

level of risk regardless on innovation (e.g., ABS)level of risk regardless on innovation (e.g., ABS)– Theory not well-supported – drivers not good as assessing risk.Theory not well-supported – drivers not good as assessing risk.

• Driver CharacteristicsDriver Characteristics– Regulatory Compliance Regulatory Compliance

Speed limit enforcement – raising speed limit from 55 to Speed limit enforcement – raising speed limit from 55 to 65 mph increased fatalities by 16%65 mph increased fatalities by 16%

Automatic Speed Adjustment – regulates auto’s Automatic Speed Adjustment – regulates auto’s maximum speed when entering zonesmaximum speed when entering zones

– Not likely to be used (voluntarily)Not likely to be used (voluntarily)

– Fitness to DriveFitness to Drive Assess driver’s cognitive and psychomotor abilitiesAssess driver’s cognitive and psychomotor abilities

– Computerized tasksComputerized tasks

– Driver monitoring systems (e.g., EEG, Perclos)Driver monitoring systems (e.g., EEG, Perclos)


• Vehicle CharacteristicsVehicle Characteristics– Sensors & Alerts – draw attention to following Sensors & Alerts – draw attention to following

distances and lane departuresdistances and lane departures E.g., haptic feedback accelerator pedal, virtual E.g., haptic feedback accelerator pedal, virtual

rumblestriprumblestrip Problems – cry wolf syndrome, complacencyProblems – cry wolf syndrome, complacency

– High Mounted Brake Lights – mandatory after High Mounted Brake Lights – mandatory after 1980’s HF research (taxi cab study)1980’s HF research (taxi cab study)

– Amber Accelerator Release Light (experimental)?Amber Accelerator Release Light (experimental)?


• Roadway Characteristics (signage)Roadway Characteristics (signage)– Positive Guidance – signal light cycles consistent with driver Positive Guidance – signal light cycles consistent with driver

expectations and speedexpectations and speed– Consistency – sign placement, road curvatureConsistency – sign placement, road curvature– Guardrails, Lane Separations, Emergency LanesGuardrails, Lane Separations, Emergency Lanes

• Driver x Vehicle CharacteristicsDriver x Vehicle Characteristics– Mandatory Seatbelts, AirbagsMandatory Seatbelts, Airbags

Seatbelt non-compliance raises fatality risk by 40%Seatbelt non-compliance raises fatality risk by 40%

– Automatic Notification (GM- OnStar) Automatic Notification (GM- OnStar) in case of airbag deploymentin case of airbag deployment


AAA Tips for ManagingAAA Tips for Managing

DistractionsDistractions

• Familiarize yourself with the features of your cell phone before you get Familiarize yourself with the features of your cell phone before you get behind the wheel and use only when necessary behind the wheel and use only when necessary – (Steve’s advice: only use when vehicle is (Steve’s advice: only use when vehicle is notnot in motion) in motion)

• Do not engage in emotional conversations while you driveDo not engage in emotional conversations while you drive– (Steve’s advice: this applies to in-vehicle passengers, avoid (Steve’s advice: this applies to in-vehicle passengers, avoid allall cell phone cell phone

conversations while driving)conversations while driving)• Do not combine distracted activities such as eating, tending to children Do not combine distracted activities such as eating, tending to children

and talking on your cell phone all while drivingand talking on your cell phone all while driving– (Steve’s advice: pull off the road to engage in any (Steve’s advice: pull off the road to engage in any oneone of these activities) of these activities)

• Preset radio stations/climate control and familiarize yourself with the Preset radio stations/climate control and familiarize yourself with the features of your vehicle’s equipment, especially if renting a vehiclefeatures of your vehicle’s equipment, especially if renting a vehicle

• Secure items that could move around when car is in motionSecure items that could move around when car is in motion• Pull safely off the road to deal with children, reading a map or trying to Pull safely off the road to deal with children, reading a map or trying to

locate objects in the vehicle. Review road maps prior to entering vehicle.locate objects in the vehicle. Review road maps prior to entering vehicle.• Do your personal grooming at home – not in the car.Do your personal grooming at home – not in the car.• Ask passenger to help with activities that may be distractingAsk passenger to help with activities that may be distracting

Transportation Human Factors Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve.

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Transcript of Transportation Human Factors Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve.