Transportation engineering notes.doc

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RGCER DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG. BASICS OF CIVILENGINEERING

Unit II

Transportation Engineering

Introduction

Transportation means movement of people and material from one place to another.

Transportation engineering is branch of civil engineering which deals with study, design and

construction of roads, railways, bridges, tunnel, waterways, seaways and airways.

Role of Transportation

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of anycountry. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since everycommodity produced whether it is food; clothing, industrial products or medicine needs Transport

at production and distribution stages. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process ofsocio economic development of the country.

Economic activity and Transport

Production or supply Consumption for human wants or demand

Social Effects of Transportation

Sectionalism and transportation Concentration of population into urban area

Aspect of safety, law and order

Advantages of Transportation. Transportation is for advancement of the community.!. Transportation is essential for the economic prosperity and general development of the country,and". Transportation is essential for strategic movement in emergency for defense of the country andto maintain better law and order

Modes of transportatation

# $oadways!# $ailways"# %aterways Airways'# Seaway(# Special ways

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Roadways ) As par*s,garden,open space are lungs so also roads are arteries of city

communication among parts of country is only possible trough roads. They provide channel for

movement of people and goods between various centres of city. $oads can be used by all types

of vehicles such as bulloc* carts, carriages, ri*shaw, cycle, scooter, +eeps, cars, buses, orries

etc. there is complete freedom to roads user the vehicle from one place to another. -ut this

fleibility in particular railways is not possible.

$oads can lead to any remote places and farm product can brought to mar*et. They help in

growth of trade and other economic activity of the country. /n emergencies such as accident, the

in+ured person can be rushed to hospital by roads only. 0uring floods and draught, roads are

found to be great boon in transferring the basic commodities efficiently. They help to maintain law

and order within country.

Railways: The railways are useful for long distance +ourney. They carry heavy and bul*y

material. They are called permanent ways since the steel rail are laid permanently along the route

on which train runs. 1ow a day2s underground railways so called tube railways come in practice.

Water-ways: The transport on water is by boats and steamers. These are the cheapest form of

transport and include navigation on rivers, la*es etc. They also carry large volume of bul*y goods.

The transportation is very slow and therefore, consume more times.

Air-ways: These include aero planes, helicopter, aircraft, +et planes etc. /t is the fastest method

of travel. They are useful during war time transportation of armies and weapons and to supply

essential commodities during famine, flood and draughts. They require construction of runway,

control tower, terminal building, hangers etc. hence the cost of construction and maintains is high.

The balloons are used for air travels, but suitable for short distance.

Sea-ways: They transport goods through sea oceans from one harbor to other. The

transportation is by ships, boats and steamers. They consume more time. They also carry large

volume of bul*y goods. They require construction of ports, doc*s, harbors, brea*3waters, light3

house etc.

Special ways:

a Ropeways and ca!leways) These are cable cars and carriage, they run through

overhead cable and ropes hung between two short distance stations. They are generally

used for transportation of men and material in hilly and mountainous area. They are also

useful to carry coals, mine ore, sand etc. these are generally adopted when usual methodof transportation is not possible.!"elt conveyers:These are used for transportation of mines3ores, coals, grains etc.they

are also suitable for movement of the people in crowded part of city.c #ipe lines:The pipe line are useful for transport of liquid and gases, petroleum product,

water and sewage etc.

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Characteristics of Road TransportThe Characteristics of road tras!ort are "rie#$ %isted here&

4i# $oads are used by various types of road vehicles, li*e passenger cars, buses, truc*s, two and

three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles truc*s, etc. -ut railway trac*sare used only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by only ships and boats.

4ii# $oad transport requires a relatively small investment for government. 5otor vehicles are muchcheaper than other carriers li*e rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. Constructionand maintenance of roads is also cheaper than that of railway trac*s, doc*s, harbors an airports.

4iii# $oad transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one laneto another and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This fleibility ofchanges in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not available to other modes oftransport.

4iv# /n particular, for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at +unctions andmain stations for comparatively longer time.

4v# Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of the accident. The road safetydecreases with increasing dispersion in speed. $oad transport is sub+ected to a high degree ofaccidents due to the fleibility offered to the road users. 0erailment of railway locomotives and aircrash of air planes are also not uncommon. They are in fact more disastrous.

4vi# $oad transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community ali*e .

$%ASSI&I$ATI'( '& R'A)S

Types of Roads

The different types of roads are classified into two categories depending on whether they canbe used during different seasons of the year.. All3weather roads and!. 6air3weather roads

All weather roads are those which are negotiable during all weathers, ecept at ma+or rivercrossings where interruption to traffic is permissible up to a certain etent. The road pavementswhich are negotiable only during fair weather are called fair weather roads; on these roads, thetraffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways where streams may overflow

across the road.

The roads are generally classified on the following basis)

7 Traffic volume

7 oad transported or tonnage

7 ocation and function

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The classification based on traffic volume or tonnages have been arbitratory fied by differentagencies and there may not be a common agreement regarding the limits for each classificationgroup. -ased on the traffic volume the roads are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic

roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class should be clearly defined andepressed as vehicles per day etc. i*ewise the classification based on load or tonnage is alsorelative and the roads may be classified as class /, // etc. or class A, - etc. and the limits may beepressed as tonnes per day.The classification based on location and function should be therefore a more acceptableClassification for a country as they may be defined clearly.

$lassification !ased on material of construction# 1atural earth roads!# 8ravel roads"# %ater bound macadam road -ituminous or tar roads

'# Cement concrete roads(# Soil stabili9ed roads

* (atural eart+ roads: - it is the cheapest type of roads. /t is provided where traffic is rare. Thepavement of these roads is made of soil available at site. The is mied with optimum moisturecontent, spread and rolled in layers of : cm each. The wor*ing of these roads depends oneffective maintains and drainage. The pavement is provided with a camber in !' to in "".

, ravel roads: - These are called as unmetalled roads and are actually intermediate betweenearthen roads and metalled roads. The roadway or pavement of these roads is made bycompacting miture of gravel and earth. These are constructed with or without a trench. Sincethere is better confinement for the gravel, the trench type is preferred. The pavement is providedwith camber of in "" to in &:. These are superior to earth roads.

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. Water !ound macadam roads /W0"0M:-The roads are named after scot engineer +ohnmacadam. /t is superior to earth and gravel roads. The word macadam ns is termed now a day is

termed as crushed stone used in the construction of the base course of the roads. The crushedstone is also termed as road metal. As name suggest in the construction of water boundmacadam roads crushed stone *ept bonded by action of rolling and voids filled with screening andbinding material with help of water. The binding action achieved by using same dust as filler inpresence of water. To prevent the dis3integration of %.-.5 roads they are usually protected withany suitable surfacing li*e bituminous surfacing. A suitable camber of in "" to in &: is providedto drain off rain water or surface water.

1 "ituminous or tar roads: These are constructed with binder suchas bitumen. The top ofthese bituminous roads appear blac* so this road also *nown as blac*top roads. These are verypopular used all over world. The pavement is constructed with varying aggregate si9e,compositon and different type of bituminous binders. The pavement si9e varies from thin layers to!: to !' cm in thic*ness depending upon the sub grade and traffic condition. They can beprovided on any eisting road surface. They provided a smooth riding surface. They are free fromdust nuisance. The roads are also called as fleible pavement roads.

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2 $ement concrete roads: These are constructed with cement concrete i.e. a miture ofcement, fine and coarse aggregate. The thic*ness depends on density of traffic. These are morecostly than other type of toads. -ut they are found to be cheaper in long run because of their longspan life, low maintains cost. They less are suitable for heavy traffic. They provide better visibility,offer comparatively less tractive resistance and can be laid on poor type of sub3grade. They haveecellent riding surface and pleasing appearance cement concrete roads called rigid pavementroads since they do not allow any fleibility. The pavement is provided with camber of in ': toin (:. $einforcement is some time provided to construct a reinforce cement concrete pavement.

$lassification of Road System !y (agpur Road #lan or according tolocation and functionThe 1agpur $oad Plan classified the roads in /ndia based on location and function into thefollowing five categories. 1ational ighways 41#!. State ighways 4S#

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". 5a+or 0istrict $oads 450$#&.


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6leible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible fleural strength andare rather fleible in their structural action under the roads. A typical fleible layer consists ofthe following as shown in 6igure.

Su! grade

/t is the foundation layer, to support the load coming on the pavement. Since the entire loadsurface is ultimately transmitted to the sub grade, it should never be overstressed. Therefore it isdesirable that the top layer of :.' m of the sub grade should be well compacted at optimummoisture content.

Su!-!ase coursePurpose of the sub3base course is to permit the road of relatively thic* pavement at a low cost.Bconomy is the essential item in the design. ocally available material should be used. e.g.natural gravels, stabili9ed soil. /f the soils and drainage conditions are good, the sub3base may beomitted. Purpose of sub3base are. /ncrease the structural support for the base surface courses.!. /mprove drainage

". Bliminate frost heave and salt heave&. Prevent the base and surface courses from being affected detrimentally by the poorqualities of the under laying soil. /$C recommends a minimum thic*ness of : cm forfleible pavements.

"ase $ourseThat portion of the roadway superstructure which lies immediately under the wearing course orpavement. The purpose of the base course in fleible pavement is to provide a stress distributingmedium which will spread the load applied to the surface so that shear and Consolidationdeformation will not ta*e place in the sub3grade. /t also increases load supporting capacity of thepavement.

Rigid pavementA rigid pavement may consist of concrete slab directly over a base course as shown in6igure.".". They have good fleural strength or rigidity. Bample of the rigid pavement is thecement concrete road.

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Wearing CourseThe purpose of the wearing course are given below %heels of vehicle are in actual contact.Purpose is to provide a smooth riding surface that will resist destructive pressure eerted by thetraffic should prevent or minimi9e penetration of surface water into the road bed. Properly

designed wearing course adds appreciable strength to the entire road structure materials 3 lowcost surfaces 3 bituminous or cement.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEICE!

The ario/s aids ad deices /sed to cotro% re0/%ate ad 0/ide trac are1. Trac si0s2. ar3i0s'. Si0a%s

Tra"c !ignsThe Trac si0s sho/%d "e "ac3ed "$ %a4 i order to 5a3e the5 /sef/% ade6ectie. The$ !erfor5 a /5"er of f/ctios s/ch asGie ti5e%$ 4ari0 of ha7ardo/s sit/atios 4he the$ are ot se%f eidetAre of 0reat he%! i re0/%ati0 trac "$ i5!arti0 5essa0e to the driersa"o/t the eed to sto!8 0ie 4a$ ad %i5it their s!eeds.Gie ifor5atio re0ardi0 hi0h4a$ ro/tes8 directios ad !oits of iterestI ie4 of the a"oe8 trac si0s occ/!$ a si0i9cat !%ace i trace0ieeri0. The$ are 5o/ted o 9:ed or !orta"%e s/!!orts ad are !%acedo the side of the %oads.

I#portance of Tra"c !ignsTrac si0s are !roided to 4ar8 direct ad 0/ide road /sers. The$ are i; thefor5 of

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s$5"o%s or iscri!tios. The$ are 5o/ted o 9:ed or !orta"%e s/!!orts adare !%aced o the side of roads.The ario/s trac si0s are c%assi9ed as&1. =ari0 or ca/tioar$ si0s

2. Ifor5ator$ ad 0/idi0 si0s'. Re0/%ator$ si0

1. Warning or Cautionar$ !ignsThese si0s are /sed to ca/tio the driers a"o/t certai ha7ardo/s coditiosahead sho4 i Fi0/re. These si0a%s 4ar the drier so that he ca ta3e thedesired !reca/tio.

%. Infor#ator$ signs&These si0s are /sed to 0/ide the road /sers a%o0ro/tes8 ifor5 the5 of destiatio 8 distace etc.

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'. Regulator$ or (andator$ !ignsThese si0s are /sed to ifor5 road /sers certai r/%es ad re0/%atios 4hichhae to "eo"sered for safe ad free #o4 of trac. The io%atio of these si0s is a %e0a%o6ece. So5e of the 5adator$ si0s ic%/ded are sho4 i Fi0/re.'.)Dead s%o4No t/rS!eed %i5it

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Oer ta3i0 !rohi"itedSo/d hor !rohi"itedPar3i0 !rohi"ited

Mandatory signsThe si7e8 sha!e ad detai%s of trac si0s hae "ee stadardi7ed "$ IRC. Are0/%ator$ si0 has to "e dis!%a$ed o a red disc *


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2> Si0a%s !roide safet$ to ehic/%ar ad trac ad !edestria. The$red/ce ad aoid accidet.'> Si0a%s are eas$ to /derstad co5!are to trac !o%ice 5aa0e5etat itersectio.

)*R)O!E OF TRAFFIC !I+N!1. Trac Si0s are !roided to 4ar8 direct ad 0/ide the road /sers.2. The$ are i the for5 of s$5"o%s or iscri!tios.'. The$ are 5o/ted o 9: or !orta"%e s/!!orts ad are !%ace o the side

of road.(. Road si0s are /sed to 0/ide road /sers a%o0 ro/te8 ifor5 the5 a"o/t

destiatio ad distace ad !roide other ifor5atio so as to 5a3e

the road trae% easier ad safe.). Si0s are /sed to ifor5 the road /sers certai r/%es ad re0/%atios

4hich hae tootice for safe ad free #o4 of trac.

*. Arra0e5et or the !roisio 5ade to the road /ser so as to aoidaccidets o the

road ad for free ad e6ectie trac.

)AR,IN+ !-!TE(!

St/d$ of !ar3i0 area is 5ost i5!ortat factor i 5a?or cities i theco/tr$ "eca/se there is h/0e icrease of ario/s t$!es of ehic%es.Par3i0 of ehic%es "eco5es a co5!%e: ad tedio/s !ro"%e5 i 5a?orcities.

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@ece !ro!er !%ai0 ad desi0i0 5/st "e doe so as to o!ti5i7ethe 0oa% of !ar3i0.

T$pes of the paring s$ste#s

1. O street !ar3i02. O6 street !ar3i0

1. ON !TREET )AR,IN+ !-!TE(&

Par3i0 of a car8 ehic%e8 etc> that is or is a%%o4ed to "e doe o a

streetT$!e of o street !a3i0a >Para%%e% !ar3i0"> Per!edic/%ar !ar3i0c> A0%e !ar3i0eche%o !ar3i0

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'. Angle paring& / A0%e !ar3i08 3o4 as echelon parkingi Britai8 of cars issi5i%ar to !er!edic/%ar !ar3i0 for these ehic%es8 e:ce!t that cars are arra0ed ata a0%e to the ais%e a ac/te a0%e4ith the directio of a!!roach>. The 0et%er t/r

a%%o4s easier ad /ic3er !ar3i08 arro4er ais%es8 ad th/s hi0her desit$ tha!er!edic/%ar !ar3i0. =hi%e i theor$ the ais%es are oe;4a$8 i !ractice the$ aret$!ica%%$ 4ide eo/0h to a%%o4 t4o cars to !ass s%o4%$ 4he driers 0o do4 theais%es the 4ro0 4a$

O0 street paring& =he the !ar3i0 faci%it$ is !roided at a se!arate !%ace a4a$ fro5 the 3er" is3o4 as o6 street !ar3i0. The 5ai adata0e of this 5ethod is that there is o/d/e co0estio ad de%a$ o the road as i 3er" !ar3i0. B/t the 5ai dra4"ac3 is

so5e of the o4ers 4i%% hae to 4a%3 a 0reater distace after !ar3i0 the ehic%es. O6street !ar3i0 is /sed for i case of hos!ita%s8 ho/si0 co5!%e:es8 oce "/i%di0s8sho!!i0 5a%%s8 cie5as8 air!orts8 rai%4a$ statios ad a/ditori/5s. Desi0 of o6 ;street !ar3i0 de!eds /!o the ario/s factors 5etio as "e%o4&

1.Etrace ad e:ist2.Trac #o4'.Si0ht distace

(.Re%atie s!eedO0 / street paring gies the follo2ing 3ene4ts to the custo#er&

/ic3 ad e6ort%ess !ar3i0 for !ic3;/! ad dro!;o6.

Pa$ o%$ for the !ar3i0 d/ratio.

Safet$ ad sec/rit$ for ehic%es ad !asse0ers.

T$pe of o0 street paringa. Par3i0 ra5!" ./%ti stor$ !ar3i0c. Par3 ad rided .Va%et !ar3i0

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle#Types_of_angleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_and_ridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle#Types_of_angleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_and_ride


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$auses of accidents

An DaccidentD is an unplanned, undesired event which may or may not result in in+ury or

property damage that interferes with the completion of an assigned tas*.

6ollowing are the general causes of accidents)3

* )ue to pedestrians

i# Carelessness

ii# Crossing the roads at other places than 9ebra crossings

, )ue to passengers

i# Causing trouble to driver

ii# 0iverting the attention of driver by ma*ing noise and +o*ing inside the vehicle.

iii# Passengers getting down from wrong side.

"# 5e+icles

i# 0efective steering

ii# /mproper head lights conditions

iii# -rea* failure

Road conditions

i# %et and oily surface

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ii# %rong super elevation and wrong radius of curvature

iii# $eflective nature of road.

'#)rivers mental conditions

i# 6atigue

ii# Stress

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