Translation Quality Assessment: Naguib Mahfouz's Midaq Alley as...

Translation Quality Assessment: Naguib Mahfouz's Midaq Alley as Case Study

Dima Adwan Aladwan

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

The University of Leeds

School of Modern Languages and Cultures

Department of Arabic and Middle Eastern Studies

October, 20 I 1

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is hislher own and that appropriate

credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and

that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper

acknowledgement.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratefulness to my dedicated supervisors who have

guided me through this dissertation throughout the last four years. Without their

revisions, constant feedback and editorial notes, this study would not have reached

this stage. Dr. Zahia Smail Salhi has given me a lot of her time, and understanding

to make sure I am on the right path. Her patience and support have helped me

through. Her remarks have alerted me to significant issues in my work. Dr. 1eremy

Munday, a well-known figure in translation studies has provided me with a lot of

guidance with regards to my studies. He has also been very understanding and

patient. His feedback was very insightful despite his busy schedule.

My special thanks go to my beloved husband Dr. Osama AI-Fawair, who took

a leave and came to the United Kingdom with me to offer his support to me

throughout the last couple of years. I will never forget his sacrifice and patience

during my studies. I would also like to address my thanks to my two children, Zaid

and Layth for their patience and love. Doing the PhD has kept me away from them,

however, I hope I will compensate this time in the near future.

I cannot thank enough my dear parents who have offered and still offer all they

can to ensure things go smoothly for me and my family.

I would also like to express my gratefulness to Professor Abdul Saki A'Safi,

for his support and for motivating me to do my doctorate. He has taught me during

my first degree years, and guided me through my Masters Degree and doctorate. I

will always remember his support and help.

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Abstract

This thesis is a descriptive, evaluative and comparative study in the field of

translation studies. One of the objectives for this thesis is to explore a valid criterion

by which a literary translation can be evaluated efficiently and to assess the

translation of the selected novel for this research. The aim of this study is to

measure the shifts which occurred between TTl and TT2 when compared to the ST.

The thesis also aims at highlighting the significance of culture and the way

cultures are introduced to the Target readership through translation. It is thought that

the strategy of Foreignization enriches target texts and introduces cultural elements

to the target reader.

The corpus of the study is Ziqiiq Al Midaq the well-known novel by Naguib

Mahfouz, the Nobel Prize Laureate in Literature in 1988. This novel has been first

translated by Trevor Le Gassick in 1966 and a revision of this translation was

published in 1975. The main objective of this study is to explore the translation

shifts which were applied in TTl and TT2. The methodology of this thesis relies on

the Nord Model (2005). It focuses on the translation problems introduced by Nord.

The four aspects of translation problems Nord identifies are Pragmatic, linguistic,

cultural and text-specific translation problems.

A final assessment of the quality of both versions of translation is discussed at

the end of the study.

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Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... ii

Abstract ........................................................................................................... iii

Contents .................................................................................................................... iv

Figures ...................................................................................................................... vii

Tables ...................................................................................................................... viii

Abbreviations .................................................................................. ix

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

0.1 The Aim of this Study ....................................................................... 3

0.2 The Significance of the Corpus of the Study ................................... .3

0.3 Research Questions .......................................................................... 5

0.4 The Structure of the Study ............................................................... 5

0.5 Transliteration System ..................................................................... 7

Chapter 1 Naguib Mahfouz: the Author of this Study ............................... 9

1.1. Biographical Details on Naguib Mahfouz(1911-2006) .................... 9

1.2 Publications and Impacts ............................................................... I 0

1.3 Mahfouz-Translations/translators ................................................... 13

1.4 Mahfouz's Works from the Perspective of Writiers and Critics .......................................................................................... 17

1.5 Midaq Alley Summary and Significance ......................................... 21

1.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 23

Chapter 2 Literary Translation between Arabic and English ................. 25

2.1 Arabic Literature in Translation ................................................... 25

2.2 The Problem of Quality in Arabic> English Translations ............. 27

2.3 Arabic Literature& Translation ................................................... .40

2.4Conclusion ..................................................................................... 44

Chapter 3 Overview of Translation Theory ............................................... 46

3.1 Descriptive Translation Studies ................................................... .46

3.2 Culture & Translation .................................................................... 49

3.3 The Cultural Turn ......................................................................... 55

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3.4 Foreignizing or Domesticating .................................................... 56

3.5 Covert& Overt Translation .......................................................... 60

3.6Coclusion ....................................................................................... 63

Chapter 4 Models of Translation Quality Assessment .............................. 65

4.1 Toury's Discovery and Justification Framework ........................... 66

4.2 Newmark's Translation Quality Assessment.. ............................... 75

4.3 Dickins et at. Model ...................................................................... 79

4.4 Reiss' Translation Criticism ............................................ , ............. 84

4.5 House's Translation Quality Assessment Model.. ......................... 86

4.6 Nord's Model of Translation Quality Assessment. ........................ 97

4.7 Extratextual Factors ................................................... 1 00

4.8 Nord's Translation Problems ......................................... 101

4.6.1 Pragmatic Translation Problems .......................................... 1 02

4.6.2 Convention-related( Cultural) Translation Problems ........ 1 03

4.6.3 Linguistic Translation Problems ........................................ 1 04

4.6.4 Text-Specific Translation Problems .................................. 104

4.9 Methodolgy ............................................................ l 06

4.1 OConclusion ................................................................................. 108

Chapter 5 Cultural Translation Problems ............................................... 110

5.1 Definition of Cultural Translation Problems ................................. l11

5.2 Analysis of Examples .................................................................... 116

5.2.1 Religious Reated Examples ................................................... 117

5.2.2 Social Related Examples ....................................................... 131

5.3 Conclus ion ...................................................................................... 136

Chapter 6 Linguistic Translation Problems ............................................ 137

6.1 Analysis of Examples .............................................. " ................... 145

6.1.1 Substantive Revision ........................................................... 145

6.1 .2 Incomplete Revision ............................................................ 161

6.1.3 Negative Revision ............................................................... 168

6.2 Conclusion ................................................................................... 169

Chapter 7 Stylistic Translation Problems ............................................... 171

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7.1 The Significance of Sty lis tics in Translation .................................. I 71


7.2.1 Substantive Revision ............................................................. 177

7.2.2 Minor Revision ................................................................... 179

7.3 Conclusion ................................................................................... 182

Chapter 8 Pragmatic Translation Problems ............................................ 183

8.1 The role of Pragmatics in Translation ........................................... 183


8.2.1 Religious Related Examples .................................................. 188

8.2.2 Social Related examples ....................................................... 193

8.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 195

Chapter 9 Discussion ................................................................................ 196

9.1 Traslation Problems and Findings ................................................. 1 96

9.1.1 Cultural Transaltion Problems .............................................. 196

9.1.2 Linguistic Translation Problems ........................................... 198

i substantive revision .............................................. 199

ii incomplete revision ............................................. 199

iii negative revision ................................................. 199

9.1.3 Stylistic Translation Problems .............................................. 200

i substantive revision ................................................. 201

ii Minor revision ...................................................... 201

9.1.4 Pragmatic Translation Problems ........................................... 201

i Religion Related ..................................................... 202

ii Social Related ........................................................ 203

9.2 Overlapping Translation Problems ................................................ 203

9.2.1 Cultural Linguistic Translation Problems ............................. 203

9.2.2 Cultural Pragmatic Translation Problems ............................ 205

Conclusion ................................................................................................. 209

Limitations of the Study .................................................................... 230

Recommendations ............................................................................... 233

Bibliography ............................................................................................. 235

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Figures

3.1 Holmes/ Toury's Map of Translation Studies ........................................... 47

4.1 Discovery and Justification Procedures for One Pair of Texts ................. 71

4.2 Discovery and Justification Procedures for an Extended Corpus ............ 72

4.3 A Scheme for Analyzing and Comparing Original and Translated Texts ................................................................................................... 95

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Tables

0.1 Library of Congress Transliteration System .............................................. 8

1.1 Booklength works of Naguib Mahfouz .................................................... 12

1.2 Translated Works of Naguib Mahfouz ..................................................... 16

2.1 The Five Honrifics and their Translation ................................................... 32

4.1 Nord's Model for Translation Quality Assessment.. ................................. 99

4.2 Text Analysis and Translation Skopos .................................................... 1 00

4.3 Text Analysis and Translation Skopos (examples) .................................. I 07

5.1 Cultural Translation Problems ................................................................. 116

6.1 Linguistic Translation Problems .............................................................. 144

7.1 Stylistic Translation Problems ................................................................. I 76

8.1 Pragmatic Translation Problems .............................................................. I 87

9.1 Cultural Translation Problems Frequency .............................................. 198

9.2 Linguistic Translation Problems Frequency ............................................ I 99

9.3 Stylistic Translation Problems Frequency .............................................. .201

9.4 Pragmatic Translation Problems .............................................................. 202

9.5 Cultural Linguistic Translation Problems ................................................ 205

9.6 Cultural Pragmatic Translation Problems ................................................ 205

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Abbreviations

This study uses some abbreviations throughout the discussion. Below IS an

explanation of what these abbreviations stand for:

• DTS Descriptive Translation Studies

• SC Source Culture

• SL Source Language

• ST Source Text (the original Arabic Text Ziqaq Al Midaq (1947))

• TC Target Culture

• TL Target Language

• TTl Target Text one (this refers to the first translation by Le Gassick

published in 1966)

• TT2 Target text two (this refers to the second corrected translation by Le

Gassick published in 1975)

Introduction

Literary Translation has always gained interest amongst scholars and

researchers due to translation problems which face the translators whilst rendering or

attempting to convey the intended meaning without distorting the ST. During this

process a considerable amount of loss, omission and modification of the source text

takes place.

Decisions taken in the process of translation can be subjective and can

sometimes fail to reflect the image of the ST. This is mostly due to lack of

knowledge of the source text especially when the translator is a "bi-lingual" and not

a "bi-cultural" To be a "bi-cultural translator" according to Landers (2001 :77) is: "to

perceive in a unique way the signs, symbols and even taboos of both cultures, to

pick up signals even at a subconscious level and to share in the collective

unconscious. "

Cobham (2000) the English language translator of the Egyptian Nobel Prize

winner Naguib Mahfouz's Al- Haraflsh (1977) says that she was concerned about

the quality of some Arabic- English translations which she scrutinised. She says that

she teaches a course on Arabic novels in translation and that even undergraduate

students mock the language of these translations. Cobham's concern is essential to

the aim of this research. It sheds light on the significance of assessing existing

translations which have always passed as STs rather than TTs and without any kind

of investigation into the quality.

This study sets out to examine translation shifts which occurred in TTl and

TT2 in comparison to the ST. It focuses on the pragmatic, linguistic, cultural and

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stylistic shifts which occurred during the process of translation and how they were

dealt with by the translator in both versions of the translation.

Munday discusses the term "translation shifts," used in Catford (1965). These

are defined as "departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from

SL to TL" in Catford (1965: 73). Munday (1998:543) in a paper on "A Computer

Assisted Approach to the Analysis of Translation Shifts" explains that this definition

which is from a linguistic perspective solely has been expanded in other studies done

on "Translation shifts". For instance, Miko (1970) focuses on stylistic rather than

syntactic or semantic changes. Popovic (1970: 85) on the other hand talks about the

significance of the shift concept as a way of bringing to light "the general system of

the translation" along the lines of Toury's later norms concept.

Arabic, the language of the ST, is deeply steeped in Islamic culture. Any

translator who is not fully immersed in this culture could ultimately misread or

misunderstand some of these concepts. An example is the following:

(1973:287 )&-11 Jtij

- Mercy ... Mercy, oh people of the house!

Midaq Alley (1966:319)

The translation of this example is a literal translation which does not reflect an

accurate understanding of the source culture. "People of the house" can refer to any

group within the context of this novel which discusses the characters and their

houses in the Alley. A literal translation here may well cause confusion for the

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reader who is exploring a different culture. "People of the house" actually means

relatives of Prophet Mohammed and is vcry commonly used in Arab Muslim

countries. Failure to realize the cultural and pragmatic dimensions causes a problem

in understanding the phrase by the readership.

0.1 The Aim of the study

The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the development of translation quality

assessment. It aims at establishing a criterion to judge the quality of translations and

possibly prevent translated literary works being accepted without further

investigation of the quality of the translation.

0.2 The Significance of the Corpus of this Study

The corpus of this study is Naguib Mahfouz's Midaq Alley. This text has been

selected because of the significance of the author in Arabic literature as a Nobel

Prize laureate (see chapter one).

Another reason is the status of the source text in the source culture. It was

written in 1947, and it portrays old Cairo and the dark lives of its people. It has

appeared in 30 different editions translated into 15 different languages and is

considered to be the most translated work of Mahfouz. Importantly, Midaq Alley

was the first novel by Mahfouz to be translated into a foreign language.

Midaq Alley was also Trevor Le Gassick's first experience in literary

translation. The novel was translated in 1966; however, another revised version of

the translation was published in 1975 by the same translator. The existence of two

different versions of the same translation is central to this study.

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The reason why another version of this translation was done by the same

translator is given by Allen (2000:891):

Pioneer status in the pre-Nobel phase of Mahfouz's translations into English

belongs to Trevor Le Gassick. While the first version of this translation had

omitted some of the more intrinsically Arabic aspects of the original text,

particularly greetings and comments with an Islamic slant, a second edition in

1975 restored some of this material. Le Gassick's translation captures the

qualities of Mahfouz's novelistic craft at this time ... Even more than 30 years

after its initial appearance, this translation remains one of the most accessible

and representative of Mahfouz's works rendered into English.

Revision of an earlier translation by the same translator is a particularly

interesting phenomenon. This study undertakes a comparison between the source

text Ziqiiq Al Midaq, the first translation Midaq Alley 1966 (TTl) and the second

translation Midaq Alley 1975 (TT2). The study will explore shifts which occurred

from TTl to TT2 in comparison with ST. The examples will be classified in

accordance with the translation problems identified by Nord (1991/2005). The study

will try to shed light on general trends in the findings which are explained within the

broader framework of culture.

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0.3 Research Questions

The research questions are:

1- What translation quality criteria are appropriate for assessing the texts in this

study?

2- How far does the cultural aspect dominate the translation problems in TTl?

3- How useful was the model selected in assessing the translation under

investigation?

4- What types of quality differences are noted in TT2 compared to TTl? What

might be motivating these differences?

0.4 The Structure of the Study

The structure of this study is as follows:

Chapter one discusses the significance of the author of the case study, Naguib

Mahfouz. The chapter includes biographical details on Naguib Mahfouz, his major

publications and impact, translations and translators of his works, the language and style

of Mahfouz's writings, and the significance and a summary of Ziqiiq Al Midaq, the case

study of this research.

Chapter two, provides a literature review relating to problems of literary

translation, and other works on Arabic - English translation as well as the problem of

quality in Arabic -English Translation.

Chapter three is an overview of translation theory. It discusses the Descriptive

Translation Studies (DTS) of Toury (1995). It also tackles the issue of culture and

translation. This subheading includes a number of different opinions on the issue of

culture and its significance in translation proposed by different theorists. The next part

discusses the cultural tum of Bassnett and Lefevere. The issue of Arabic literature and

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translation is discussed by authors such as Faiq (2004). The following parts discuss the

theories such as foreignizing vs. domesticating of Venuti (1995/2008) and covert vs.

overt translation of House (1997). Newmark's (1988) model of translation quality

assessment is discussed as well. The final two parts in chapter three deal with Dickins et

al. et al.'s (2002) model and translation criticism as discussed by Reiss (2000).

Chapter four deals with models of translation quality assessment. Three models,

namely, Toury (1995), House (197711997), and Nord (199112005) are selected and

discussed separately. After discussing each of the models, the strengths and weaknesses

of each model are explained and Nord's (1991/2005) is selected. The last part of the

chapter discusses types of translation problems identified by Nord.

Chapter five defines cultural translation problems and gives the results of the

analysis of the ST and TTs. It lists the cultural shifts which have occurred between TTl

and TT2. Each of the examples is discussed and analysed and a sub-classification is

proposed to highlight trends.

Chapter six discusses linguistic translation problems. These have been sub

classified according to a different criterion. Unlike other types of translation problems,

linguistic translation problems are sub-classified in accordance with trends found in the

examples and the shifts which took place between TTl and TTZ.

Chapter seven is about stylistic translation problems, which are less significant

than other kinds of translation problems. The sub-classification is also distinct. Examples

are cited in tables to highlight the differences, then these examples are analysed according

to shifts from TTl to TT2 as well as to trends.

Chapter eight deals with pragmatic translation problems which are considered to

be the most serious kind of translation problems for they deal with the contrast between

ST and TT and how this contrast can affect the intended message in the ST. However, the

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number of the examples which fall within the pragmatic dimension is modest and in

some cases no shifts have been created in TT2. Each example is analysed to stress the

significance of the mistakes committed relative to this kind of translation problem.

Chapter nine sheds light on the frequency of each kind of translation problems

and the frequency of the sub-classifications proposed in this study to highlight trends.

The Conclusion sums up by answering the research questions posed in the

introduction of the study. It also looks at limitations and makes recommendations for

future research.

O.5Transliteration System

This study includes a number of Arabic words which have been anglicized.

The transliteration system followed in this study is the Library of Congress

Transliteration System, which is as follows:

1. Consonants:

Arabic LC Arabic LC ~

, u:a 4 y B 1. t ..::.. T J,;. ?-w Th E:

,

1! J t Gh ~ Q w F

t Kh " Q .l D d K ~ Dh J L .J R r M j Z W N U" S • H ..;. Sh .J W I.>"'" ~ <.i Y

2. Diphthongs

I 4j Ay .J Aw

3. Vowels

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Arabic LC Arabic LC (short vowels) (long vowels)

i·. A I A u .J 0 I ..; I

Table 0.1 Library of Congress Transliteration System

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Chapter One

Naguib Mahfouz: the Author of the Case Study

1.1 Biographical details on Naguib Mahfouz (1911-2006)

Mahfouz was born on 11 th December 1911 and spent most of his childhood in

poor neighbourhoods of Cairo, which had, at a later stage, a very significant

influence on the setting of most of his works. (Dar EI-Shorouk 2007)

Mahfouz was the youngest child in a family of 13 children; he had eight

brothers and four sisters. All of these were at least ten years older than he was which

made him a lonely child. Though he had a good relationship with his parents, he did

not have strong ties with his siblings and this had a strong influence on his works

and led him to portray brotherhood in a lot of his writings. (Naqash 1998)

His father was a government employee who was interested in politics by

political figures such as Sa'ad ZaglOl and Mustapha Kamel Ataturk. This contributed

to developing Naguib Mahfouz's interest in politics.

Mahfouz obtained his degree in Philosophy in 1934 at Fu'ad I University

(currently known as the University of Cairo) and began his career at the Ministry of

Culture in 1934 as a civil servant till retirement in 1971. He held different positions

till he was appointed as a cinema advisor for the Minister of Culture.

The neighbourhood which formed the backdrop for the childhood of Mahfouz

was Al Gamiilyya by which he left when he was ten, but remained loyal to it,

spending some summer nights with his friends at the Ziqiiq Al Midaq coffee house, a

place which figures in the novel under investigation in this study.

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The neighbourhood where Mahfollz lived his childhood had a big influence on

the portrayal of the old Cairo alleys. It is also the setting of a number of his works,

such as Ziqaq Al Midaq. Mahfouz's description of the city has been compared to the

London of Dickens. (EI Batrik 1989:89)

In a biography of the author, Naqash (1998) Mahfouz says Mahfouz fell in love

with AI Gamalia in AI-Husain, the neighbourhood where he was born and lived a

part of his childhood. Even after moving to the new district of 'Abbasiyya, Mahfouz

went to visit Al Husain as well as AI Gamalyya every day as did his mother and

father. As a matter of fact a close look at Mahfouz's biography by Naqash (1998)

enables one to understand that most of the details mentioned and described in his

novels are but real things in his own life.

1.2 Publications and Impacts

According to Allen (1993) the earliest book by Mahfouz was published in

1932. It was his translation from English of a popular book on ancient Egypt by

James Baikie. Allen (1993 :34) says that Mahfouz developed an interest in the

"intellectual" since he was a student in the thirties. The translation of Ancient Egypt

was republished in 1988.

Table 1.1 shows a list of all the book-length works of Mahfouz. A considerable

number of these works have been translated into different languages; however, some

not all have been rendered in translation.

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Work Year of First Publication

Old Egypt (Translation of a book by James Baikie) ~..lill~ 1932

Whisper of Madness u.Ji;J1 u""'" 1938

Mockery of the Fates ).l!~1 w,.c. 1939

Khufu's Wisdom ..,5..P-~ 1939

Rhadopis of Nubia u":!uJI.J 1943

The Struggle of Thebes ~LljS 1944

Modern Cairo ;;~I;;y\U11 1945

Khan EI-Khalili .),l.W1 '6 1945 _ u

Midaq Alley &JIJUj 1947

The Mirage ylyJl 1948

The Beginning and the End '''It-lJ ..,I.l,l 1950

Cairo Trilogy ~~I 1956-1957 • Palace Walk u:L>~1 l»! • 1956 • Palace of Desire Jy:JI~ • 1957 • Sugar Street ..,fi...ll • 1957

Children ofGebelawi UJ),~ J'JJI 1959

The Thief and the Dogs y~IJ~1 1961

Quail and Autumn ~yJIJUWI 1962

God's World .il14l:. 1962

Zaabalawi "';J~j 1963

The Search J:!J.:.II 1964

The Beggar jb..:J1 1965

Adrift on the Nile ~I J..,5"'YY 1966

The Pub of the Black Cat Jy ... 81..b'i.l1r.)4 1969

Miramar .JL.I.J:!A 1967

A story without a Beginning or an Ending '''It-l 'J.J ..,I.l,l ~ ~\S.:". 1971

The Honeymoon J.-.l1 ~ 1971

Mirrors ylyJl 1972

Love under the Rain ~1.:......:iy:.J1 1973

The Crime ~~I 1973

AI-Karnak .!l.;.fill 1974

Respected Sir 1".fo-...J1 ;; y.:- . 1975

The Harafish ~lyJlt-L. 1977

Love above the Pyramid Plateau I"~I ~ 1.3..,5 y:.J1 1979

The Devil Preaches ~u~1 1979

Love and the Veil y:.J1~ 1980

Arabian Nights and Days ~ull~Yl 1981

Wedding Song ~I (1.;51 1981

One Hour Remains ~I.... lJ.o)1 lJ.o ~"4l1 1982

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The Journey of Ibn Fattouma ..... # u,.1 A.h.J 1983

Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth ~I""WI _ ~ U"-' 1985

The Day the Leader was Killed ~)I J;i.1".J:l 1985

The Hunger (AI-Go'a) t~1 1986

Speaking the Morning and Evening ~WIJc:I.,I....:JI~ 1987

Fountain and Tomb \..jJ)..,.,uy~ 1988

Echoes of an Autobiography ~I~I.~I ~b.~l 1994

Dreams of the Recovery Period A.A1.ii.l1 • jii I"~i 2004

The Seventh Heaven ~L..JI~I 2005

Table 1.1 Booklength works of Naguib Mahfouz

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Mahfouz's works were not restricted to writing novels and short stories.

He contributed to around twenty five film screenplays from the late forties to the

early eighties. In addition, more than thirty Egyptian films were based on

Mahfouz's novels and short stories; nevertheless, he never became interested in

converting any of his novels into a film scenario for the screen. This job was

always undertaken by others.

According to El Batrik (1989) some of Mahfouz's works have been

"dramatized" for the theatre such as Ziqiiq Al Midaq "Midaq Alley" in 1958 in

Cairo, Bidiiya wa Nihiiya "The Beginning and the End" in 1960, AI-Li$ wal

Kiliib "The Thief and the Dogs" in 1962,and Miramiir "Miramar"in 1969. A lot

of Mahfouz's writings were converted into films such as: Al Kiihira Al GadTda

(New Cairo), EI Karnak "Karnak", EI Sha/:liit "The Beggar ", Kasr Al Shawk

"Palace of Yearning", Ziqiiq Al Midaq "Midaq Alley", Tharthara Fawq al Nfl

"A Drift on the Nile ", Al Harafish (Harafish), etc.

AI-Toma (2005) says that the 1988 Nobel Prize which Mahfouz received

represents a turning point in the American reception of Arabic literature. He

explains how the circulation of Mahfouz as a representative of Arabic literature,

resulted in eliminating some of the prejudice held by a number of scholars against

the Arabic language and literature.

1.3 Mahfouz IITranslations/Translators

The AUC Press (The American University in Cairo Press) signed an

agreement with Mahfouz in the mid-1980s to become his primary English

publisher and his worldwide agent. This contributed to a sharp rise in Mahfouz's

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works being translated into world languages. Mahfouz reiterated through his Nobel

Prize speech that the English translations published by the AUC were the reason

other publishers became interested in his works and asked for more translations in

different languages. This contributed to the fame of Mahfouz and eventually to the

Nobel Prize in 1988. His works have appeared in at least five hundred editions in

some forty different languages. (AUC Press 20 I 0)

In addition AI-Toma (2005) signals Le Gassick as one of the pioneering

translators for Mahfouz's works since 1966. He goes further to say that Mahfouz is

an author who fascinated many not only as a writer but also as a political thinker. He

also believes that Mahfouz was granted the Nobel Prize due to his stand towards the

peace process between Egypt and Israel.

Kessler (1990) blames the Arabic language, or as he calls it, "the Romance

language", which is hard to render into English, for being the cause behind the lack

of translations of Arabic, works into English. He says that Mahfouz's simplified

Arabic is an equivalent of Shakespearean language.

One of the pioneer translators who translated a number of works by Mahfouz,

mainly short stories, is Dennis Johnson-Davies. Johnson-Davies has contributed to

translating some short stories such as The Time and the Place and Other Stories

1991. The Journey of Ibn Fattiima, (1992) and Arabian Nights and Days

(199411995).

Johnson-Davies wrote a very significant book entitled Memories in

Translation: A Life between the lines of Arabic Literature whose forward was

written by Naguib Mahfouz. Johnson-Davies says that when he was consulted on the

Nobel Prize Winner of 1988 he suggested Mahfouz alongside others such as Youssef

Idris, Adonis and Tayib Saleh.

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Johnson Davies goes on to say that he never expected Mahfouz to become a

Nobel Prize winner, and adds that a translator who is able to produce a good

translation of any of Mahfouz's works should be one who has mastery of English

and Arabic. Furthermore, he explains how he came to be the first person to translate

Mahfouz by translating Za 'abaliiwi, a short story written in 1963. Johnson-Davies

then goes on to talk about how he translated other works by Mahfouz like Arabian

Nights and Days and Hams Al Junun.

In an obituary of Mahfouz written by Denys Johnson-Davies in the Guardian

31 August 2006, Johnson-Davies says Mahfouz is one of a few authors whose life

changed immensely after he won the Nobel Price. He moved from being locally and

regionally recognized to reaching global recognition and signing a contract with a

prominent American university press. His works appeared in different world

languages and became bestsellers.

Table 1.2 shows a list of the Translations of Mahfouz's works and how these

proliferate from the 1980s onwards:

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Work Year of Publication Translator

Midaq Alley Trevor Le Gassick 1966,1975

God's World 'Akef Abadir& Roger Allen 1973 Mirrors Roger Allen 1977 Miramar Fatma Moussa-Mahmoud 1978, 1985 Children ofGilbawi Philip Stewart 1981 The Thief and the Dogs Mustafa Badawi & Trevor Le Gassick ( 1984) translated.

revised by John Rodenbeck, (1990)

Autumn Quail Roger Allen (1985) translation, revised by John Rodenbeck (1990)

Respected Sir RashId EI-Enany 1986, 1990· Three Egyptian Novels Sa'ad EI-Gabalawi, 'AI-Karnak' 1988

Fountain and Tomb Soad Sobhii with 'Essam Fattouh and James 1988 Kenneson

The Da}' the Leader Was Killed Malak Hashem 1989 One-Act Plays Nehad Selaiha 1989 The Beginning and the End Ramsis Awad 1990 The Beggar Kristen Henry and Narriman AI-Warraki 1990 The Palace Walk William Hutchins and Olive Kenny 1990 Wedding Song Olive Kenny 1990 Children of the Alley Peter Theroux 1990 Palace of Desire William Hutchins with Kenny M. Lome 1991 The Time and the Place and Denys Johnson-Davies 1991 Other Stories The Journey of Ibn Fattuma, Denys Johnson-Davies 1992 Sugar Street William Hutchins with Samaan Angele 1992

Boutros The Harafish Catherine Cobham 1993 Adrift in the Nile, Frances Liardet 1993 Arabian Nights and Days Denys Johnson-Davies 1994, 1995 Echoes of an Autobiography Denys Johnson-Davies 1997 Akhenaten , Dweller in Truth Tagreid Abu- Hassabo 1998 Thebes at War Davies Humphery 2003 Kuru's Wisdon, Raymond Stock 2003 The Dreams Raymond Stock 2004 The Seventh Heaven: Stories of Raymond Stock 2005

the supernatural

Table 1.2 Translated works of Naguib Mahfouz

Some of Mahfouz's translated works have been revised by translators such as

Arabian Night and Days, and Ziqaq Al Midaq as well as Miramar. Other works have

been re-translated by other translators, such as Autumn Quail translated by Allen

(1985) revised by John Rodenbeck (1990).

- 17 -

Due to the number of revised translated works of Mahfouz, it is believed that

the analysis of Midaq Alley could lead to shedding light in future studies on some

other works which have been re-translated for certain reasons, whether revised by

the same translator or by other translators.

1.4 Mahfouz's Works from the Perspective of Writers and Critics

According to Darwish (1988:66-67), many critics have described Mahfouz's

style as Dickensian, one of the common themes between Mahfouz and Dickens is

"Time". Mahfouz read a considerable number of books by Balzac, Tolstoy,

Dostoevsky and Camus when he was doing his degree at university. He was

influenced by their writing styles. This has contributed to Mahfouz's introducing a

new genre into Arabic literature. Mahfouz's writings discussed a lot of themes such

as religion, politics, drug addiction, prostitution, and poverty.

Somekh (1973) classifies the novels of Mahfouz to two kinds. The first is

Historical novels such as A 'bath Al Aqdiir, Kifiih Tfba , and Rabudis. The themes in

most if not all of these novels are "death, fate, social injustice, and patriotic passion"

as Somekh indicates. These novels, says Somekh, are the least original in the works

of Mahfouz. Darwish (1988:66) believes that the style of Mahfouz in the first

historical novels was shaky. In Somekh's (1973:60, 61) view, the Pharaonic novels,

although significant in the "contemporary history of Egypt", were not as good as

Mahfouz's later works. The full list of Pharaonic novels is:

• Whisper of Madness (1938) u»/~

• Mockery of the Fates (1939) j.Jj·YI ~

• Khufu's Wisdom (193 9) ..,i~ ~

- 18 -

• Rhadopis of Nubia (1943) U"d:IJJl.;

• The Struggle of Thebes (1944) ~Cl.iS

The second kind of Mahfouz's novels is the social novels. These novels are

very different in terms of themes and style to the first kind. These novels as opposed

to the historical novels of Mahfouz, portray the layman rather than noble people.

Poor, simple and unsophisticated people are the heroes of this kind of novels. These

novels according to Somekh (1973 :65) are the group which was published between

1945 and 1951. They are:

• Modern Cairo (1945) $.Jj~li.JAli1l

• Khiin 'El-Khalill (1945)~l j~

• Midaq Alley (/947) J.l..ll Jli..J

• The Mirage (/948) y/ydl

• The Beginning and the End (1950) :i.,;~J :i.,;l.J,J.

These five books all share a number of features such as having contemporary

Cairo as their setting and revolving around simple poor people and their philosophy

of life. Four of the five end in a tragic death.

Allen (1993:35) uses the term social realist novels and specifies that these

works were concluded before the Egyptian revolution in 1952. He adds that this kind

has established a new "phase in the development of the Arabic novel". In 1956

Mahfouz wrote Cairo Triology which earned him the State Encouragement Prize for

Literature.

- 19 -

One of the most interesting things Allen says in his article is that Mahfouz has

succeeded in developing and transforming the genre of the Arabic novel.

Mahfouz was a writer of influence; at a certain stage and because he used to

discuss political themes in his writings, some of his novels got him into trouble with

the authorities. He was accused of attacking the political regime in Egypt more than

once and was saved on a lot of occasions by people he either knew or did not know

who read his works from a different perspective and defended them. (Naqash

1998:132)

There are different examples where Mahfouz clashed with the regime such as

Awliid Hiiritinii (1959) which was translated as Children of Ghelbiiwi by Philip

Stewart (1981) and was re-translated as Children of the Alley by Peter Theroux in

(1996). It appeared in a series in Al Ahriim daily newspaper before appearing as a

book. This novel was very controversial when it was first published. It was banned

in Egypt, but in 1967 it finally emerged as a book in Lebanon according to Miisa

(1994).

Mahfouz admits that the characters of 'Awliid /:liiratinii were equivalent to or

can be understood to represent God and the prophets, which created a lot of uproar

about it; he says this was not intentional. He adds that he wrote it in good will and

did not mean any of the misunderstanding which occurred. (Naqash 1998:243)

Another example of novels which were controversial for Mahfouz is Children

of Gelbiiwi or Children of the Alley, which was indirectly the reason behind the

assassination attempt on Mahfouz's life in 1994. Sheikh 'Omar Abdul Ra~man

made a clear death threat to Mahfouz's life which led the state to provide him with

police protection. Despite this, the 82 year- old was attacked in front of his house in

- 20 -

Cairo. His hand was injured causing him a permanent damage which prevented him

from writing for long periods like he did before. Mahfouz passed away on 30 August

2006 after a fall which caused him a head injury. (Naqash 1998)

Another one of Mahfouz's controversial works is Al Karnak (1974) translated

by Sa'ad EI-Gabalawi, as AI-Karnak' in his book Three Egyptian Novels, (1988),

which portrays the different kinds of torture used by the head of the jail in Egyptian

jails at that time. It is considered to aim at President Jamal' Abdul Nassir and to take

sides with his opponents. Mahfouz defends his work by saying that he was only

trying to discuss the issue of torture in Egyptian jails and did not mean to imply any

politics, but was again misunderstood. (Naqash 1998: 133)

Other novels or works include: The Thief and the Dogs, Miramar, and The

Beggar. Mahfouz in Naqash (1998: 249) admits that he intended to discuss the

political issues he implied in these novels and adds that he used to fear for himself

after publishing each ofthese works.

According to Johnson (2006) Mahfouz did not gain much recognition for his

short stories. This, believes Johnson, was due to outstanding novels which he

produced. Mahfouz wrote more than one collection of short stories such as Time and

Place (1992), the last which was The Seventh Heaven (2005).

Mahfouz passed away but his works have stayed alive. They have appeared in

different languages, rendered by different translators. Some have appeared in more

than one version in translation such as Awlad Haratna and Ziqiiq Al Midaq

- 21 -

1.5 Midaq Alley - Summary and Significance

Ziqaq Al Midaq was written by Naguib Mahfouz in 1947. The significance of

this novel is that it is the most translated work by Mahfouz, rendered into 30

different editions in 15 languages.

This novel has attracted the attention of critics and translators due to the fact

that it portrays the real bitter social realism during the late forties in Cairo. Mahfouz

gives a very descriptive narration which takes the reader to the Alley. The characters

of this novel are quite different, which creates a kind of suspense, and there is no

hero or heroine as no main character, is detected; therefore the consequences are

unpredictable. It is probable that Mahfouz intended to keep the neighbourhood as the

main character. Mahfouz takes you from one scene to another, from one theme to

another and from one idea to another in a very skilful shift in scenes and an excellent

combination of good and bad characters.

The interactions of the characters and the detailed description in Mahfouz's

Ziqiiq Al Midaq have contributed to the originality and the significance of the work.

Deeb (1990) believes that this work shows the division between Modem Egypt and

traditional Egypt. This is due to the fact that Ziqiiq Al Midaq is set in an old alley in

old Cairo, while, it shows how people of a better social status have all moved out of

the alley and sheds light on the differences between traditional and modem Cairo.

The very first words of the novel succeed in attracting the reader's attention.

Mahfouz gives an amazing description of the setting and the characters in the novel

which makes one envisage being there watching the events rather than reading about

them.

- 22 -

Miisa (1994:89) says the events took place in 1944- 1945, yet the war is of

little influence on the characters that despaired of the Alley and sought to work in

the British army. Miisa (1994:91) says there is no "formal plot" in Ziqaq Al Midaq.

The descriptions of the alley, says Deeb (1990) are significant. The very

narrow exit to the outside world, the very few houses, the three walls, all of those

show how the alley is quite isolated in its poverty and low social status from the

modern outside world.

Although there is no main character, the reader feels very sympathetic towards

Hamida, a girl whose mother passed away at birth and was breastfed by Mrs. Kirsha.

Hamida, very poor, being brought up by Umm Hamida, feels jealous of the Jewish

girls who wear nice dresses and jewellery and enjoy more freedom than she does.

She would like to get married and have a family but her suitors either do not suit her

such as 'Abbas Hilii or are too old for her like Salim 'Alwan.

Mahfouz paves the way throughout the novel for the downfall of Hamida.

Hamida found herself surrounded by her bad circumstances and not able to fulfil her

dreams until she became a prostitute. Faraj Ibrahim is the pimp who manages to talk

Hamida into becoming a prostitute and have her beauty appreciated as well as

having all the material things she ever dreamed of. As MOsa (1994:96) explains,

Mahfouz was not trying to attribute Hamida's becoming a prostitute to sexual need

but to her "desire to control others". Mahfouz in the novel explains later that

HamIda's weakness as a human being is what made her tum into a prostitute with

Faraj Ibrahim. 'Abbas Hilii, her former fiance comes back and finds out that she

turned into a prostitute. He wants revenge and in a chance meeting with Hamida, she

tells him she was forced by Faraj IbrahIm and was deceived. Abbas attempts to hurt

- 23 -

her whilst she is with British soldiers but she escapes. Meanwhile Abbas is killed by

the British soldiers.

Although Hamida's story is one of many in Ziqiiq Al Midaq, it is the most

interesting. At the end of the novel, Hamida repents and returns to 'Umm Hamida

who takes her back because she has become richer.

After Ziqiiq Al Midaq was first published in 1947, many expressed their

admiration for this work.

Deeb (1990:34) says:

Midaq Alley is a novel depicting the peculiar world of Midaq Alley, and

contrasting it with the world beyond". At the end he adds: "All events

which Midaq Alley witnesses are, according to Mahfouz, bubbles which

subside as the alley practices its virtue of oblivion and indifference.

Mahfouz's influence on Arabic literature and other writers is great. Mehrez

(1994:9) explains that Mahfouz is "the Godfather of the Arabic novel" and that more

than a generation are "heirs" of the valuable achievements he has left behind. His

style of writing brought the Arabic novel into a new phase.

1.6 Conclusion

Chapter one has introduced the author of the case study, Naguib Mahfouz. It

has also attempted to highlight his contribution to Arabic literature.

Mahfouz gained global fame due to the significance of his works and to the

translations into forty world languages which were made by different translators. His

works led to his being awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1988.

- 24 -

The last part of the chapter discussesed the significance of Midaq Alley, which

is due to many reasons. The first is that Ziqaq Al Midaq has been the first work by

Mahfouz to be translated to another language in 1966. The second is that it is the

most translated work by Mahfouz; the third is that it is the first work in translation

by Le Gassick.

Chapter one looked into the significance of the author of the case study,

chapter two sheds light on studies which examine translated texts between Arabic

and English.

- 25 -

Chapter Two

Literary Translation between Arabic and English

Chapter one discussed the author of this study and his contribution to Arabic

literature .This chapter will now discuss theoretical works which have a common

area with this study. The works will be divided thematically. These themes will be

problems of literary translations, then works on Arabic> English translation and

finally the problem of quality assessment in Arabic> English translation.

Some of these works discuss literary works by Mahfouz, the author of the case

study for this research; others discuss translation quality assessment of literary works

from Arabic by different authors.

These will be explained briefly in order to highlight the areas of difference

between them and the study of this research.

2.1 Arabic Literature in Translation

Translation allowed intercultural communication and shifts across different

cultures (Said Faiq 2004:3). Faiq adds that languages change over time in terms of

morphology, syntax and phonology. The relationship between language and culture

in translation studies has led theorists to deal with translation as a primarily cultural

act. He goes further to define translation as a "cultural act and say that involves the

knowledge of a certain culture and transferring this knowledge into another culture ...

As the Arabic language and culture, Faiq is obviously in favour of rendering the

foreign as foreign. This is clear when he says that "Manipulation through translation

- 26-

violates the Arabic originals" and also distorts or affects the views of the target

reader.

It is generally said that Arabic only really witnessed an active movement of

translations after Naguib Mahfouz received the Nobel Prize in 1988. But this is a

subject of some debate. Some writers (e.g. Clark 2000) believe that interest in

translations of Arabic literature has increased significantly after the 1988 Nobel

Prize .C1ark argues that not only has it received more attention but it has become the

subject for more studies than ever in the West.

On the other hand, others believe that the interest is insufficient and that

translations from Arabic into Western languages are linked to the geo-political

differences between the Western world and the Arab world. Some 20 years ago,

Edward Said pointed out:

... of all the major world literature, Arabic remains relatively unknown and

unread in the West for reasons that are unique, and I think remarkable at a

time when taste here [the United States] for the non-Western are more

developed than before, even more compelling, contemporary Arabic

literature is at a particular interesting juncture. Said (1990:372)

Whether or not Mahfouz's award was the prime motivation for the increase in

interest in Arabic literature, it was certainly helped by the systematic

commercialization of Mahfouz's works by his publishers, the Aue Press, as they

explain:

In December 1985, the AUe Press signed a comprehensive publishing

agreement with Naguib Mahfouz, thus becoming his primary English-

- 27 -

language publisher as well as his worldwide agent for all translation rights;

prior to the award of the Nobel prize in 1988 the Press had already published

nine Mahfouz novels in English and licensed numerous editions in other

languages. As Mahfouz wrote after receiving the Nobel Prize, "it was

through the translation of these novels into English ... that other publishers

became aware of them and requested their translation into other foreign

languages, and I believe that these translations were among the foremost

reasons for my being awarded the Nobel prize." There are now some 500

editions in 40 languages of the works of Naguib Mahfouz published or

licensed by the AUC Press. (AUC Press 2010)

The following section sheds light on works and studies which deal with

literary translations from Arabic into English. Some of these studies assess the

quality of the translations, others present translations. However, the criteria which

were used to assess the existing translations are quite different from the one used in

this study. Below is a discussion of the findings and the areas of difference from this

study.

2.2 The Problem of Quality in Arabic> English Translations

In her study "The Significance of Transparency in Translation from Arabic"

Salama Carr (2005) discusses the significance of transparency in translation taking

as a case study Mall; 'amat Al Harafish by Naguib Mahfouz (1977). The novel was

first translated into French as La Chanson des Gueux (1989) by France Douvier

Meyer. The other translation is the English The Harafish (1994) by Catherine

Cobham.

- 28 -

Salama Carr says that just looking at the title makes one know that the English

is a translation rather than an original. She discusses whether the translation should

be transparent as to produce a text which does not "read" like a translation or should

the source text, "shine through" the translation, to use WaIter Benjamin's famous

expression (1969/2004).

A real translation is transparent; it does not cover the original, does not block

its light but allows the pure language, as though reinforced by its own medium,

to shine upon the original all the more fully. This may be achieved, above all,

by a literal rendering of the syntax which proves words rather than sentences to

be the primary element of the translator. (Benjamin 1969/2004:81)

Salama Carr also believes that acceptability (from Toury 1995) IS strongly

linked to Venuti's (1995/2008) "invisibility" concept.

She then analyses a number of examples from the text and compares the

English translation to the French translation to arguing that the English version is

more transparent (in Benjamin's sense of term). Central to this is the English preface

explaining the historical meaning of the word Harafish as 'rabble' or 'riffraff; and

that in the novel it means 'the common people'. However, the French translation

does not have any kind of translator's note. Carr believes that the transliteration of

the title as well as the translator's foreword intentionally made to make it clear to the

reader that this English novel is a translated rather than an original book.

With regards to the transliteration of the title, it is believed in this study that

Salama Carr is justified to stress the transliterated book title. This would ensure that

- 29 -

the cultural dimension of the title is preserved and therefore would establish that the

TT is not read as an ST (See translation quality assessment criteria in Chapter 4)

In the last part of the paper, Salama Carr (2005: 107) looks into linguistic forms

and cultural references. By cultural references she refers to "local dishes, religious

and cultural events as well as seasons of the year". In this part of the study the

French translation proves to be more transparent. This is due to the use of

footnoting, to the visibility of the translator and the transparency of the product

because the source text shows clearly through the translation. On the other hand, the

English text was not 'transparent' in this regards since it attempted to make the

translator invisible through the use of domestication (see domestication vs.

foreignization Chapter 3). Thus, in the example below (Salama Carr (2005: 108),

"naturalisation" and "generalisation" are used in the English translation to render

'antara, a heroic Arabic figure, into a hero. However, the French translation retains

the Arabic metaphor in order to render the significance of the pre-Islamic poet in

Arabic culture. Yet, despite this, the translator draws an analogy with Romeo in a

footnote.

Source Text: yaa 'antara. (p.338) 1

English TT: What a hero! (p.239)

French TT: Antar* ressuscite!

* Guerrier et poete arabe du Vie siecle, Romeo oriental

celt!bre pour ses amours avec Abla. (p.287)

*The French footnote above means' Arab warrior and poet of the 6th century,

an Eastern Romeo famous for his love affair with 'Abla.

I Transcription as found in source

- 30 -

Salama Carr explains as clear in the following example that the visible English

translator and the invisible French translator could not sustain and that the

"intervention" of the translator is obvious. The transparency of the French translator

of the translator-facilitator of the non-transparency of the process". (Salama Carr

2005). This is clear in the example below:

Source Text: Hatta masa katfuh suur al-takiya. (p.6)2

Target Text I: His shoulder brushed the wall of the dervish monastery. (p.2)

Target Text 2: Son epaule vint heurter Ie mur de la tekiyya*.

*Ou dervicherie, lieu d'habitation et de rassemblement des

derviches. (p.l 0)

* Meaning: Or dervishery, the dwelling and assembly place of the dervishes'

This example shows the intervention of the French translator by transliterating

an Arabic term: Mkiyya and providing the reader with an explanation in a footnote.

Salama Carr (2005) concludes that the English is more transparent in terms of

process, while, the French translation appears to be more transparent in terms of

product.

The study of Salama Carr investigated two TTs of the same ST written by

Naguib Mahfouz. It established a comparison between TTl and TT2 against the ST.

All of these are features shared with this study. On the other hand, the investigated

features are quite different, Salama Carr focussing on cultural and linguistic features

only ..

Salama Carr's study is based on the issue of transparency in translation, but she

did not use a clear theoretical framework as a basis for judgments. By contrast, the

- 31 -

current study will be looking at the form of revision of a text using a more rigorous

model of quality assessment. Furthermore, although Salama Carr's study is located

under product oriented DTS, and is considered useful for this study, it is brief and

could be taken further by analyzing more examples and providing more subtle

findings.

Shehab (2004) carried out an empirical study on the "Translatability of Terms

of Address in Ziqiiq Al Midaq into English". This paper aims at investigating the

problem of 'terms of address; (social honorifics) used in Mahfouz's novel and how

they were rendered in translation by twenty M.A. students of translation. Shehab

compares these translations to the renditions of Le Gassick in (1975).

He (2004:317) says there are two types of terms of address, relational and

absolute. "Absolute terms are "forms reserved for authorized speakers and

authorized recipients" So, in absolute usages, the addressee earns the right to

receive one title of address over another." This means that "a term of address is

issued in light of real present qualities assigned to the addressee (at the time of

speaking)"

Shehab gives an illustrative example of absolute terms of address.The word in

Arabic ...J~ (doctor) is absolutely used to mean that the addressee either has a PhD

or is a medical doctor.

On the other hand, Shehab explains that

Relational terms of address are not used to mark the real present

qualities ascribed to the addressee; but rather, they are used merely

for social purposes. More importantly, relational terms of address

2 Transcription is as found in the source document.

- 32-

have drifted from their denotational signification and acquired a new

connotational signification, which is initiated for social purposes.

An example on the difference between relational and absolute terms of

address is the following:

The term ~t:i....iin Arabic means a teacher, or a professor. Students use it to

address their teachers and this use is absolute. On the other hand, when waiters or

salesmen address customers using this term as a sign of respect, its use would be

relational.

Shehab argues that the "relational terms of address" are much more difficult to

render in translation than the "absolute ones". This is due to the fact that the

relational terms of address have acquired new social indications and dimensions

from (1947) to present. During the study Shehab uses five social honorifics which

are thought of as difficult in translation or pose difficulty to whoever wants to render

them into English. These are taken from Ziqiiq Al Midaq (1947).

Arabic Terms of Address Modal Translation Le Gassick's Translation (1975)

~ Boss Mr.Kirsha

ju..1 Past Master Reverend sir

u...JI Craftsman Middle-class

... .ilil Gentleman He must wear a

~I.,.,. Reverend Lord Mr.Hussainy

Table 2.1 The Five Honorifics and their Translations

Shehab (2004) compares the students and the translator's choices and criticizes

Le Gassick's renditions. Le Gassick was not aware of (or sensitive enough to) the

- 33 -

pragmatic function and impact of the terms of address. This caused the problematic

translations he presented. Shehab (2004) concludes his study stressing the need for

translators to distinguish between relational terms of address and absolute ones. He

also emphasizes that the absolute are denotational, and do not change over time but

the relational may acquire new connotational meanings.

An example from Shehab's study alongside its analysis is cited to illustrate

this. The term rl...... is used in a straightforward by a speaker to address an owner of a

cafe house (called Kirsha) in order to show the "respect and superiority of the

addressee". Shehab (2004) explains that "The term rl...... in Egyptian Arabic is usually

used to address a foreman, a driver, a work supervisor, a chief of workers, etc". The

term ~u......1 on the other hand, "can be used in Arabic to address a person who is

superior to the speaker". "Therefore, using either term would, "conventionally

imply the superiority of the addressee and the relative inferiority of the speaker".

Furthermore, they are both used "to show respect and/or politeness toward the

addressee".

The term rl...... occurs a considerable number of times throughout the novel.

Shehab (2004:321) explains that Le Gassick adopts three "strategies" in translating

the title into English and he renders the term "cafe owner", an explicative phrase,

into Mr, a word which can be used to address any person regardless of his status or

job. The inconsistency for the same term of address in Le Gassick's translation

motivates the current study to investigate the context the term is used in. Shehab

believes that rendering the term differently the same context could be due to stylistic

reasons.

Le Gassick, by using the word, miiallim rl...... resorts to the second strategy

which means that he rendered it into a formal and conventional title of address (Mr.

- 34-

Kirsha). This way, Le Gassick "does not retlect the intimate relationship that holds

between the speaker and addressee" .Using the term "Mr." plus a proper name

"marks a formal and distant relationship in English and barely indicates a personal

relation holding between the speaker and the addressee." Shehab (2004:321)

Shehab's study compares the translations of selected honorifics (terms of

address) between the ST, the revised Midaq Alley (1975) and the translations of the

students. The study investigates the translations of the honorifics against theoretical

considerations. It concludes by providing the reader with the percentage of students

who rendered the terms of address inappropriately. At the end of his study Shehab

presents a representative translation sample which aims to alert translators to the fact

that "relational terms of address underwent drastic changes in terms of their

semantic import" in Midaq Alley (1975).

The translation of other Arabic cultural markers into English is a common

subject of study. For instance, Aldhibyan(2008) investigates six different Arabic

contemporary novels by well-known authors translated into English. 3

Aldhibyan looks into the strategies which led the translators to render the

cultural Arabic markers into English. He also looks into how faithful the translations

3 These novels are:

- Mawsim 'AI Hijra 'i/a AI Shamiil (1967) by Tayeb Salih translated into The Season of Migration to the North by Denys Johnson Davies

- Sittat 'Ay'yiim (1961) translated into Six days by Bassam Frangieh and Scott Mcgee

- 'AI Ba/:lth 'an Wiilid Masfid (1978) by Jabra I. Jabra, translated into In Search ofWalid Masoud by Roger Allen and Adnan Haydar.

- Taqiisfm AI Layl wa-I- Nahar (1989) by Abdurrahman Muniftranslated into Variations on Night and Day by Peter Theroux.

- Rihlat Ghandi 'al-Saghlr (1989) by Elias Khoury translated into the Journey of Little Ghandi by Paula Haydar

- Fawr,ia al-/:Iawiis (1997) by Ahalam Mostaghanmi translated into Chaos of the Senses by Baria Ahmar.

- 35 -

were to the source texts and the influence of efTects of foreignization or

domestication. He looks greater in depth into the cultural markers (of Newmark

1988) as he analyzes the examples from the six difTerent novels.

Aldhibyan(2008:99) defines cultural markers as "a set of characteristics,

concepts and elements specific to a given culture." Aldhibyanuses Newmark's

classification of cultural markers.

Newmark (1988:31) defines cultural markers more precisely as all labels which

cover "specific objects" and "which can be defined as words and combinations of

words denoting objects and concepts, characteristics of the way of life, the culture,

the social and historical development of one nation ad alien to another."

Newmark (1988:95) divides these cultural markers into:

I-Ecology (Flora, Fauna, plains, hills, etc)

2-Material Culture (Artefacts) these include:

A- Food

B-Clothes

C-Houses and towns

0-Transport

3-Social culture (work and leisure)

4-0rganisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts

A-Political and administrative

B-Religious

C-Artistic

5-Gestures and habits

Aldhibyan(2008: v) explains that cultural markers are "deeply rooted" in their

cultures, and that "their power of signification and referential value stem from their

intrinsic position" in their original cultures. In most cases, they fail to have

- 36-

equivalents in, other target languages and cultures. This IS the reason they are

considered problematic for translators in many cases.

Aldhibyan(2008) divides his analysis into five parts. Part one discussing

proverbs, folkloric terms and names, and part two relations and modes of address.

Part three looks into animals, plants, food and clothes; while part four is on medicine

and magic, and finally part five is on reI igious terms and expressions.

Two examples Aldhibyan(2008: I 04) uses to illustrate are cited for clarification:

Example I:

ST: AI-qittah laha sab' arwaIJ4

TT: The cat has nine lives

Example 2:

ST: 'Asfiir bi-I-yad khayr min 'ashra 'ala al-shajarah

TT: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush

Aldhibyan explains in the first example the meaning of the literal translation of

ST is: "The cat has seven souls", while the literal translation of example two is: "a

bird in the hand is worth ten on the tree". Moreover, example one uses the word

"souls" for "lives" and example two uses the phrase "on the tree" for "in the bush"

In both examples the shift lies in the use of numbers and in the word selection

between ST and TT. However, he does not underestimate the difference and explains

it could relate to cultural, religious, folkloric, or even mythical significance.

4 Transcription as found in source

- 37 -

Aldhibyan discusses appropriate translation procedures. Proverbs are fixed

forms and therefore should be rendered functionally. However for the examples

quoted he suggests a literal rendering in order to retain the cultural dimension

intended in the ST proverbs, and to enrich the knowledge of the TT reader of

different uses of cultural items.

The study of Aldhibyan (2008) shares some features with this study in that

both studies are descriptive, evaluative and comparative. Both studies are concerned

with the rendering of cultural markers from Arabic into English. However, the areas

of difference between the two studies lie in the theoretical framework used.

Aldhibyan uses Newmark's cultural markers and divides the examples accordingly.

The current study uses a different theoretical framework and sorts the examples

accordingly. Aldhibyan looks in his study at cultural markers solely, while the

current study attempts a more comprehensive investigation of the translations.

Linguistic and cultural issues in literary translation are studied by Albakry

(2004), focusing on the translation process. The case study is a short story entitled: A

Night in Casablanca by the late author Mohammed Zifzaf. The reconstruction of the

translation of Zifzaf conducted by Albakry includes two sets of issues, linguistic and

cultural. Linguistic issues cover the narrative style of the translation. Albakry (2004)

believes that the translator failed in rendering the narrative style of Zifzaf who tends

to be rather experimental. Albakry (2004) also says that this kind of literary style

attempted by Zifziif requires paying particular attention to certain linguistic issues

such as semantic prosody, syntax and punctuation and the problem of rendering

grammatical gender.

LEEDS UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

- 38 -

The translation method chosen was to highlight the connotation by the use of

italics, as in the words 'naked childhood' in the following example, which is

translated quite literally:

- Always, he sits there in the same place smoking, drinking, and trying to

remember many things that might take him back to the naked childhood.

The other aspect Albakry speaks of is "allusions (cf. Leppihalme 1997)". He

says that Zifzaf used a lot of Islamic allusions which are foreign to the English

reader; however, they have to be rendered in a way which preserves the original

culture (Arabic). He adds that such allusions should be dealt with by giving the

closest approximation to the source language, or even by glossing them and using

footnotes to illustrate their meanings and references.

An example is quoted for clarification:

- How many strange things the human body carries without our being aware of

them! There are two angels for example, one on the right shoulder recording

the good deeds and the other on the left recording the bad deeds. The human

body may also be inhabited by devils, and in this body there is also a spirit

whose essence we cannot know since it is from a command of the Lord.

The example shows the obvious allusions in the reference to demons

"possessing" the human body. Albakry explains that this belief is shared amongst a

number of cultures. However, the Islamic allusion of the two angels as well as the

spirit quite clearly refers to the Islamic culture and the reader (ST) should be aware

- 39 -

of what they stand for. The following Qur'anic verse explains the Islamic allusions

for it. "When the twin keepers [angels] receive him, the one seated on his right, the

one on his left, each word he utters shall be noted down by a vigilant guardian"

(Surah 50, verse 17) And "They ask you about the spirit, say: "The spirit is from a

command of my Lord and I have only given you [people] a small amount of the

knowledge" (Surah 17 verse 85); (Qu'ran (trans) Dawood 2000).These allusions are

familiar for the Arab audience but not for a non-Arab audience. Therefore, glossing

or explanatory footnoting is required in such examples to ensure the meaning is

understood and the Islamic allusions are explained.

In his analysis Albakry (2004) favours foreignization to domestication of the

translated text in order to preserve the cultural aspects in the target text. (cf. Venuti

1995/2008, see our chapter 3)

Albakry (2004) explains that, dealing with allusions can be challenging. The

translator needs to be aware of the "linguistic difficulties" in dealing with the Arabic

language as well as references and allusions of it as a foreign language and culture.

He adds that the text of this story A Night in Casablanca is "interspersed with

diverse references: Qur'anic, historical and cultural" which should be considered in

the process of translation.

In his study Albakry (2004) does not present a clear-cut method for solving

difficulties posed by differences in cultural concepts. The present study believes the

view that cultural concepts should be rendered by giving the closest approximation

(Nida's formal equivalence) (Nida 1964) in a culture which knows very little about

Islam and has no equivalents for most Islamic cultural concepts, is insufficient.

Moreover, Albakry chooses to present the examples under investigation without any

- 40 -

reference to the source text. The analysis of the examples is far from being

comparative, and therefore does not provide any sort of insight into the source

culture. Finally, although Albakry divides the areas of investigation according to

linguistic difficulties and cultural difticulties and sub-divides them in a reasonable

manner, the discussion and illustrative examples for each sub-division are

insufficient.

Arabic literature has been insufficiently translated into Western languages. The

next section discusses Arabic literature and translation.

2.3 Arabic Literature and Translation

Translation allowed intercultural communication and shifts across different

cultures, (Faiq 2004:3). Faiq adds that languages change twice in terms of

morphology, syntax and phonology, but cultures stay the same. This study believes

that this is true. The development of societies has little influence on the identity of

these societies, which is culture in this case.

The relationship between language and culture in translation studies has led

theorists to deal with translation as a primarily cultural act. Faiq goes further to

define translation as a "cultural act and that it is the knowledge in a certain culture

and transferring this knowledge into another culture" Faiq (2004:3). In the case of

Arabic language and culture, Faiq is obviously in favour of rendering the foreign as

foreign. This is clear when he says that "Manipulation through translation violates

the Arabic originals" and also distorts or affects the views of the target reader. Faiq

is referring to negative manipulation which could include domesticating the text in

translation.

- 41 -

Arabic language, culture and literature have been marginalized for a long time,

(Faiq 2004). Faiq adds that most translators of Arabic shift their texts into what he

calls the mainstream of European languages and cultures of world culture and

literature, Faiq(2004:4). An example is Burton's translation of the Arabian Nights,

(Farewell 1963/1990: 366) as cited in (Carbonnel: 1966)

The great charm of Burton's translation, viewed as literature, lies in the veil of

romance and exoticism he cast over the entire work. He tried hard to retain the

flavour of oriental quaintness and naivete of the medieval Arab by writing as

the Arab would have written in English.

This shifting involves Westernizing Arabic texts so that they become uniform

with cultures around the world.

It is believed that Faiq (2004) speaks from a broad perspective about what has

taken place in translating Arabic literature. The translators, he says, are being

dragged to what is expected by the TT readership in order for their books to be

published and circulated. This affects the image of the Arabic language, identity and

culture in other parts of the world where culture is dissimilar. An example is the use

of the words jatwa, or jihad which, Faiq explains, are unfortunately pretext images

to different concepts related to Muslims for many Westerns such as terrorism,

violence and fundamentalism, however, this is not necessarily the case of all

translations which take place from Arabic into English, but it is probably true of

most cases especially when it comes to works of literature.

In the case study of this research, the findings stress Faiq's view point in the

sense that the translator sometimes feels tempted to produce a safe rendering which

- 42-

would be familiar to target readers, rather than attempt an interpretation of an

unfamiliar expression or use footnoting.

The example below shows how the translator tended to domesticate his

translation after attempting a I iteral translation in TT I :

(1973: 5) ,-,.wI ,-,t!j

"Oh Master, Oh helper", "Oh provider, Oh generous one". "May the ending

be sweet". "All things are at His command."


This sentence is omitted in the translation revision of 1975


The example above shows that the translator has introduced a literal translation

for a whole sentence which is probably not familiar for the target readership, yet he

decides to domesticate the translation in TT2 and completely omits it. This supports

the point introduced by Faiq of that translators are "dragged into" the expectations of

the readership.

Leeuwen (2004: 14) explains that "translating Arabic literature is a politicized

activity which touches historical, political and cultural relations but go broader to

include the cultural identification and self-representation"

This study attempts modestly to add to Leeuwen's explanation, given that the

activity of translating Arabic literature could directly touch upon religious

representation as well. A translator should probably be aware of the religious aspect

of the Arabic culture in terms of concepts, expressions, idioms and linguistic items.

- 43 -

On the other hand Faiq (2004: 12) adds that the literature or novels which are

translated will not be read in the society which created them but in another receiving

society and will be used in accordance with that society's needs. He stresses that

translations are not supposed to give all the cultural features of the source culture,

but introduce some cultural images to the target culture and society. He also says that

"the relationship between the Arab World and Europe has added to the two systems

of representations but they were elements of different kinds, adapted to what the

other possessed that could accommodate one's needs.

Leeuwen goes further to say that what used to be an unfamiliar concept in one

culture sometimes becomes a familiar cultural commodity, due to the fact that the

receptors of "cultural commodities" have become acquainted with concepts of

different cultures.

This means that a concept in Arab culture such as Burka the face veil used by

some Muslim women, was for a long time restricted to Islamic culture but due to a

number of factors it became familiar for the West and for people of the English

culture . The word Burka can be found nowadays in the western media. So it is a

concept, "a cultural commodity", which became familiar for the target culture and

language.

Leeuwen criticizes the unified way of rendering texts into a Western culture

which causes a restriction on the dissemination of different cultures. The current

study believes that this domestication in translation is due to reasons beyond

globalization and is probably a result of the modest number of translators who are

sufficiently qualified to render the cultural dimension.

- 44 -

Leeuwen (2004:24) says there are a small number of westernized intellectuals

in the Arab World associated with Modern Arabic literature. This means that few

native speakers, who would be able to render the cultural elements, are eligible to do

translations.

He adds that translators are accused of not giving a balanced image of Arabs

and their culture, and that they tend to "feed the prejudices of the Europeans" by

fitting their translated works into what is appropriate in the target culture.

Unfortunately as a result of Arabic literature being marginalized through

"Oriental ism" (of Edward Said) texts are translated "only to be appropriated by the

dominant culture" (Leeuwen 2004:25)

Leeuwen and Faiq above discuss the relationship of Arabic and English m

terms of cultural commodities in translation, which is the essence of the case study

in this dissertation. Leeuwen generalises when he says that cultural commodities are

mutually received between the two cultures (Arab and Western) and that a kind of

familiarity has emerged. This might be true when we speak of translation from

English into Arabic but not the other way round. The west is still relatively

unknowledgeable about cultural concepts in Arabic culture and language. This is due

to the Westernization of translation mentioned above and because the translators are

mostly adapting their works into the target (European and American) cultures in

order to get their works published.

2.4 Conclusion

Chapter two has looked at different issues including Arabic literature in

translation, including whether the movement of translating Arabic literature

increased after 1988 (the Nobel Prize win for Naguib Mahfouz) or not. Studies

- 45 -

which investigate existing translations of works in Arabic Literature into English

have looked at different features. For instance Salama Carr (2005) looks into the

transparency in translation for Mahfouz's Al I;ariifish. On the other hand Shehab

investigates the terms of address rendered in the translation of Ziqiiq Al Midaq.

Aldhibyan (2008) applies the "cultural marker" classification of Newmark (1988) to

his case study. He looks at the translation of different cultural elements such as

religious-related concepts and, folkloric terms and names, magic, dress, food and

other cultural elements. Albakry (2004) looks into the translation of linguistic and

cultural features into English. He also studies the literary style of the ST author and

how this style was approached in the TT under investigation.

The last part of the chapter sheds light on Arabic literature and translation from

the perspective of Faiq, among others. It looks at the relation between culture and

translation with regards to Arabic literature.

- 46 -

Chapter Three

Overview of Translation Theory

Chapter two tackled works which relate to the current study. This chapter, on

the other hand will move on to translation theory, and its development. It will define

the key concepts in translation theory in order to provide a broader field in which to

contextualize this study.

Terminology differs between scholars but they are essentially speaking about

similar phenomenon.

3.1 Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)

Prior defining and discussing the key concepts in translation, it is important to

explain that this study is located within the framework of Descriptive Translation

Studies (DTS), in the sense that it provides an analysis of a ST -TT pair, but also

within Applied Translation Studies, since it evaluates the quality of the published

TIs. Holmes's map of translation studies (Toury 1995:10, see Figure 3.1) classifies

translation studies into two branches, pure and applied. Holmes (1988b/2004)

explains that pure areas of research aim at:

(I) The description of the phenomena of translation (Descriptive

translation theory)

(2) The establishment of general principles to explain and predict

such phenomena (translation theory)

- 47 -

Translation Studies

'Pure'

~ "'heoretical Descriptive

General Partial ~

Product Process Function Oriented Oriented Oriented

Medium Area Rank Text-Type Titre Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted

Applied

T,m'~""iOO Training Aids Criticism

Problem Restricted

Figure 3.1 Holmes's Map of Translation Studies. Toury (1995:10)

Descriptive translation studies in the view point of Holmes are the focus of

process, product and function. Munday (2008) explains that by product oriented

DTS as that which analyzes existing translations. This can either be on a "single pair

of ST and TT or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST, which is the

case of this study. On the other hand function oriented refers to the function of the

translation "in the recipient socio-cultural situation" therefore it focuses on contexts

rather than texts. (Holmes 1988b/2004)

Process oriented descriptive translation studies refer mainly to "psychology of

translation" or what happens "in the mind of the translator". The theoretical part on

the other hand, Holmes divides them into general and partial. General has to do with

writings that seek to create a generalization for any type of translation to suit

translation as a whole. Partial, according to Holmes in Munday (2008: I 0) are limited

to the "parameters" shown in figure (see figure 3.1)

- 48 -

Applied translation studies, in Holmes's scheme, focuses on translator training

(curriculum design, as well teaching and testing methods), translation aids

(dictionaries, grammars as well as information technology) and translation criticism

(quality assessment), of particular importance for us

A very crucial point for the current research is discussed by Toury. He says

that there is nothing wrong with regarding the position of the ST and its function

alongside the position and function of the TT in terms of considerations which

originated in the target culture or the culture which hosts them. Toury goes further

to stress that the position of the translation and its function are mostly taken equal

to that of the original in own culture and setting. Therefore according to Toury

many translations especially of fiction are regarded or seen as good as the source

text, nevertheless when some texts are translated into different languages, they

undergo a lot of editing.

This thesis believes in this regards that this is not quite accurate, for the status

of some translations does not attain to the status of the original, and therefore the

relationship to the source text is of less importance to the reader of the TT.

I believe this is the core reason why some of the translations of Arabic

literature, particularly Mahfouz's works, passed and were considered to be as good

as the originals without any further inspection of the quality. Moreover, if a

translated text is regarded as an original composition it generally enjoys more

authority with the readership. However; it can jeopardize or sacrifice some elements

intended by the original author or meant to exist for the readership for a reason. This

is very true in terms of cultural terms and concepts.

- 49 -

The current study is partly DTS product-oriented, because it undertakes a

comparative study between ST and TTl, TT2 but also partly centered on translation

criticism for it seeks to evaluate a published translation of Midaq Alley.

3.2 Culture & Translation

The cultural distance between the Midaq Alley ST and TT is a major problem for the

translator. Due to its significance and influence on the process of translation culture

has been tackled by a range of translation theorists. From the tradition of skopos

theory, Vermeer (1987a:28) defines culture as a relation between the individual and

the collective:

The entire setting of norms and conventions an individual as a member of his

society must know in order to be 'like everybody' - or to be able to be different

from everybody.

A similar definition, from within DTS, is given by Toury (2003:402):

A structured repertoire of options which (a) organizes social interaction and (b)

lends each move within a social group whatever significance it is regarded to

have.

Importantly, Toury (1995:26) speaks of translations as "cultural facts" in the sense

that once a text is translated then it is feature of the target culture. For this reason

there is a general tendency towards domestication and so many translations of fiction

"pass as genuine" especially when they are assessed solely from TTs.

While Toury is centred in the role of the TT in the target culture, our interest is

in the way that source culture elements have been rendered in the IT and the image

this gives of the source culture. Thus, this study is interested in assessing the TT in

- 50-

relation to its ST. A particular focus is on the way the source culture of 1940s Egypt

is rendered in the translation into I 960s English. Language and culture are closely

related. In her seminal work Translation Studies, Susan Bassnett adopts the Sapir-

Whorf hypothesis that language depends largely on its being deeply steeped in

culture. They go further to say that this culture has at its heart the structure of its

specific language. Although such linguistic determinism is rejected by other

language theorists such as Pinker (1994), this study believes that what Sapir and

Whorf propose is true at least with regards to Arabic Culture. This is most visible in

the large number of religious references which are reflected in the use of language.

When it comes to translation, the translator cannot be free to treat a text out

apart from its cultural context nor to remove it of its cultural content.

Indeed, introducing one culture to another through the means of language should be

accurate and faithful to the original or source culture as is possible. The translator

has a complex task in his/her relation to both the ST author and culture and the TT

reader and culture. The significance of rendering the cultural dimension is illustrated

in the following example:

-What a strong man he must have been! He says he spent a hundred thousand

pounds on his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have given me

ten thousand? (1966:32)

- 51 -

- What a powerful man he must have been! He says he has spent a hundred

thousand 0 his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have been

too mean to give me ten thousand? (1992 :28, 29)

In this example, the source text mentions clearly ~j o~\or what Le Gassick

renders as "our lady Zainab". For any regular reader of the target text, there is barely

any indication that Lady Zainab is the granddaughter of Prophet Mohammed who is

believed to have visited Egypt after the battle of Karbala' and died there. She was

buried in Cairo, and a mosque was built on her tomb. The shrine has a great

significance for Egyptians and is considered the second most important and most

visited shrine after AI-Hussain's, Zainab's brother.

Full equivalence between ST and TT is deemed to be impossible by some (e.g

Jakobson 1993). because parallelism between the source language and target

language can never be achieved. However, examination of ST and TT according to

structure and individuality would lead to an improvement in translation method and

would also minimise the inadequacies during the process. Bassnett (1988) follows

Anne Cluysennar's work on literary stylistics, noting that word order and sentences

are small units within a system of language, which is in turn embodied within a

larger system of the human culture. This sometimes leads the translator to focus on

certain linguistic aspects at the expense of other potentially more significant cultural

factors.

Bassnett (2002) stresses that in case the translator of the literary text translates

sentences solely in isolation of their cultural context then he will end up with a

translated version which lacks the dimension of the literary text. The meaning of a

literary text extends beyond its literal meaning.

- 52 -

Bassnett's recommendation is for the translator to change in the source text in

order to make the translated text conform to the idiomatic language of the target

culture. Moreover, she explains that the translator should look at sections rather than

at words or sentences or even paragraphs. The literary translator can easily fall in the

trap of dividing into smaller units to make things easier, but this can result in losing

the whole. Making sense in rendering the overall meaning is of more priority to the

translator than selecting an equivalent word or expression. For Bassnett, each

sentence and structure in a literary work performs a function for the whole work.

Comprehending these functions and then seeking an equivalent function in the target

language system can then help the translator achieve a more acceptable translation.

Indeed, one can also add in this regard that the whole should involve the cultural

framework within which the source text is located.

Nevertheless; Schaeffner (in Snell Hornby 1995) speaks of what she calls the

"hybrid text", defined as one which results from a translation process. It shows that

some features from the source cultures enter into the target cultures. These features

may seem strange, unusual or even out of place for the receiving culture, but they

may be rendered intentionally by the translator to deliver the strangeness of the

source text culture.

Jacobson (1993) explains that a "hybrid text" is not only one which conveys

the strangeness in terms of cultural terms but also in terms of the textual features like

the vocabulary, syntax as well as style. She also says that once a text is accepted into

the target culture it stops being a hybrid. She also argues that some cultures are more

adaptive when it comes to hybrid texts than others, because they want to enrich their

own culture with foreign elements. Schaeffner explains further by saying that culture

is not supposed to be understood in the narrower sense of that it is man's intellectual

- 53 -

development, it should be viewed in the broader sense of man's anthropological

aspect of socially conditioned sides of a certain cultural society. The difficulty for

the translator lies in deciding which cultural norms take priority and which do not.

Hybrid texts are those which are a compromise between the source culture oriented

translations and target culture oriented translations. They simply conform to the

general conventions of the target language, but render some strange or alien features

from the source language. This kind results from an intercultural negotiation

between the source culture and the target culture through translation. Schaffner also

says a number of writers have assured that a hybrid text would make it clear to the

target reader that it is a translation and so would protect the writer from being

misinterpreted.

Another crucial concept is discussed by Snell Hornby (2006) she says that the

extent to which we can judge the "text's translatability" depends largely on the

extent of this source text being steeped in its own specific culture in addition to the

distance that exists between the source text and the target audience in terms of place

and time. Literary texts are far less easily translated than texts dealing with modem

Sciences.

For Vermeer (1986), the translator does not only need to be bilingual in order

to carry out the translation process but bicultural as well.

This will not only result in a better translation into the target language but also

a better reading and understanding of the source text. Vermeer claims that the lack of

biculturalism often results in a literal trivial production particularly when the original

author uses some expressions or terms that are deeply steeped in his own culture. It

forms a major problem when the translator does not read the meaning which lies

beyond the lexical meanings of these terms and expressions.

- 54 -

So, language is very much a part of culture and translation depends on cultural

orientation rather than purely linguistic transfer (Reiss and Vermeer 1984, Vermeer

1986, Dickins 2002). 8). for the functionalists, translation is an act of

communication and not a process of trans-coding, oriented towards the function of

the target text which is an integral part of the world and not a specimen of language

in isolation.

According to Snell Hornby, a translator of literary texts faces many problems;

one of these main problems is to decide how the creative features of the source text

can be rendered into the target language without breaching the rules of linguistic

acceptability in the target language. Snell Hornby (1995) goes further to distinguish

two complementary concepts, Dimension and perspective in their relation to the text.

Dimension on the one hand refers to the linguistic orientation, syntactic structures in

addition to stylistic devices. She goes further to say that it constitutes a problem in

translation when what is called multidimensionality in the linguistic expression is

involved in the translation process. This does not only include syntax, semantics and

pragmatics, it also involves the shifting focus in the use of metaphors as well as that

in any word play. Perspective, according to Snell Hornby, on the other hand means

the viewpoint of the original author speaker or even the reader when it comes to

culture, attitude, time and place. This of course can shift in the process of translation.

The translator's mission therefore is not an easy one. It involves combining

dimension with perspective to produce an acceptable translation.

'Acceptable' has many meanings. For Toury, it is 'target-culture oriented',

whereas 'adequate' is 'source-culture oriented' (C.f. Hermans 1999). Of course, such

concepts are inherently subjective and dependent on socio-historical norms. For the

current research into a culturally very specific text, "acceptable" is taken to mean

- 55 -

not adapting the cultural code but introducing the exotic element in an interesting

and appealing way to the reader.

3.3 The Cultural Turn

Culture became central in translation studies with the so-called "Cultural turn"

(Bassnett and Lefevere 1990). It refers to the phenomenon of considering and

moving beyond the linguistic aspect and the relation between Translation studies and

cultural studies. Bassnett and Lefevere (1990:8) justifiably state that culture is the

most important unit in translation. It is more significant than words or texts.

Bassnett & Lefevere (1990) importantly state that translation is a "rewriting of

the original". This way the translation can reflect certain ideologies and introduce

new concepts, genres, or even devices to the target language and culture. Bassnett &

Lefevere (1990:7) argue that issues which are related to beliefs of a certain culture

are supposed to be literally translated, yet they give a "leeway" for translators who

deal with literary texts and which include a little on beliefs of a culture.

Nevertheless, this "leeway" does not necessarily mean omission or ignoring the

significance of rendering these parts to the source culture as well as to the target

culture. Lefevere (1992:8) gives the example of Edward Fitzgerald, the translator or

the rewriter who rendered the Persian poet Omar AI Khayyam. Fitzgerald saw the

Persian culture "inferior" to the Western culture and felt it was necessary to

domesticate the translation to suit the target Western audience.

Lefevere (1992:9) pursues the idea of translation as rewriting as follows:

- 56 -

Translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting and ... it is

potentially the most influential because it is able to project the image of an

author and/or those works beyond the boundaries of their culture of origin.

Lefevere (1992) explains that there are crucial factors which govern the way

the target audience receives, and thus accepts or rejects, a literary text: power,

manipulation, ideology and institution.

3.4 Foreignizing or Domesticating:

A crucial pair of translation strategies is explained by the American theorist

Lawrence Venuti (1995/2008). Venuti was influenced by the work of Antoine

Berman (1984) who, in his work on the translation of German literature, speaks of

the concept of naturalization, which is what Venuti (1995/2008) has called

domestication. Domestication, explains Venuti, is the replacement of the features of

the source language which are unknown or strange for the target culture with others

that they are familiar with. This, says Venuti, broadens the gap between both

cultures and creates a kind of disjunction between them. Venuti is very much in

favour of the foreignization process.

Venuti (1995/2008) explains that the more fluent the translation is the more

invisible the translator is and the more visible the writer of the original and

transparent the meaning of the source text becomes. The concept of Foreignization

therefore usefully contributes to broadening the knowledge of the reader to know

more about different cultures. This in my opinion creates a kind of excitement in

exploring some strange and unfamiliar concepts for the target reader.

- 57 -

The abovementioned example on the elimination of the Islamic slant of Le

Gassick is what Venuti (1995/2008) would call domestication and while the

retention or restoration of this Islamic Slant would be an example of Foreignization.

Venuti in his book speaks of Foreignization, that is: translating a foreign text while

excluding most target cultural elements in it; this means keeping the text as foreign

as it is using the violent action of translation by which the readership is moved

violently to the source language culture. In other words it is the preferred method

which Schleiermacher (1813/1992) speaks of:leaving the author in peace and

moving the reader towards the author. This is the concept of Foreignization. It is

"estranging" the Target Text to the reader by moving him/her towards the original

writer.

This process involves the resistance of the Source Text to any dominance of

the Target Language in terms of culture. Foreignization is the visibility of the

translator where a translation reads as a translation rather than an original or a fluent

text, and approach which the present researcher favours it is useful to provide an

illustrative example of both Foreignization and domestication in the two translations

of the case study of the current research

Dissimilar languages in terms of structure and culture, Arabic and English.

Fluent or domesticated translations do not contain the foreignness of the original.

They became a part of another culture because they were adapted into what is

familiar for the reader. It is predictable and does not have any new or strange

(foreign) elements contributing to the source culture.

To use the words of Schleiermacher (181311992),. domestication is the act of

reducing of the foreign text to the cultural values which receive it "by bringing the

author back home. " This is the type of translation favoured by Nida (1964, 2003)

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for its use of "the naturalness of expression". He says that a good translator would be

able to rid his translation of all linguistic and cultural differences so that the reader

can see clearly the original message.

Nida and Ward (1984: 14) say that a translation should be produced in

relevance to the target culture. It should render the features of the source culture into

those which are familiar for the target reader's culture. The point which Nida

stresses in this regard is that the translator who naturalizes his work should be able

to produce "in the ultimate receptors a response similar to that of the original

receptors. "

Nida was involved in Bible translation, where the aim was to provoke an

eqauivalent response to the religious text even between disparate languages and

cultures. However, the belief of the current study is that this creates a block between

different languages and cultures where each keeps itself enclosed in the box of its

culture. I believe that the best way of communication between them is introducing

them to what is in the others' culture by Foreignizing the translation.

This study agrees with Venuti's argument, as works of art should be rendered

the way they are. Applying the concept of Foreignization in this regard would lead to

achieving a translated text which is more faithful to the culture and language of the

original text.

Venuti says that unfortunately, some literary translators listen to their ears

during the process of translation. However; this leads to a translation which is

adapted to the target language and culture.

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The translator allows his subjective view of the text to interfere with producing

the target text at the expense of loyalty to the source text. it creates a domesticated

text which is not as loyal to the source language and culture.

Writing on the translation of Arabic, the domesticating method is termed

'familiarization' by Carbonell (2004:26). He defines familiarizing a translation as

that which reduces the foreign elements in a way that the target text becomes a part

of the target culture. He adds that Acceptability is often decided by the reader of the

translation in addition to the coherent sense of the text. Carbonell sets a triangle

which includes the author, the reader and the translator and insists that the reader

response is an essential part in the process of translation. The translator in this regard

selects the linguistic items in transferring from the author to the reader.

Carbonell goes further to say that cultural concepts or customs can be restricted

to a certain culture, and thus are clarified, explained or even preserved. Carbonell

also says that translation is a space where linguistic systems and social ones

intermix, and meet and this is the exact reason why translation has enjoyed attention

by cultural studies.

This study agrees with Carbonell in that some concepts or customs cannot be

transferred to another language or culture easily. These concepts or customs which

are restricted to one culture are sometimes called culture bound. In such a case some

translators choose to omit these terms, others to translate them literally both

solutions occurred in the case study of this research.

Dickins (forthcoming) details the boundaries between foreignization and

domestication. He explains that the "boundaries" between foreignization and

culture- neutral and between culture-neutral and domestication are" fuzzy". He goes

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further to say that it is sometimes difficult to decide whether an element in

translation can be defined as foreignizing or culture-neutral or culture -neutral or

even domestication. Dickins defines culture-neutral as that which is neither

foreignized nor domesticated.

3.5 Covert & Overt Translation

House (1977/\997:66) discusses a different set of binary concepts, which are

nevertheless related. She speaks of two kinds of translation: "Overt Translation" and

"Covert translation". "Overt" translation is the kind of translation in which the

addressees of the translation are not being directly addressed, for instance in literary

texts where the text was originally directed to a different audience. There are two

types of "Overt" translation: overt historically linked such as a political speech or a

sermon and the other kind is timeless source texts like works of art. House asserts

that both kinds possess a kind of cultural specificity due to that the writer is a

product of his own time and culture.

According to House overt translation is not meant to be a second original. It is

deeply steeped and tied to the source language and culture. An "Overt" translation

renders the source text as intact as possible taking the necessary measures to transfer

it into the target language. This, according to House, proves to be extremely difficult

in the case of socio-cultural contexts which require major changes in order to

topicalize it into the target culture. Further difficulties would be the relationship

between preserving the original and altering it. "Overt translation" bears close

resemblance to the Foreignization proposed by Venuti. Both concepts consider the

literary text to be deeply steeped in the source culture and that it is important to

retain the cultural flavour. Literary works are steeped in their own culture and

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dragging them out of it by domesticating them into the target culture would in the

present researcher's view steal their identity and flavour. Literary texts are often

retranslated, such as the case study of this research Ziqaq Al Midaq or the Thief and

the Dogs and many others. The reason is probably domesticating the translated texts

to the extent that they become one with the target culture and a modified translation

is called for by people from the source culture and language .This, for instance, took

place after the translation of Ziqaq Al Midaq (Midaq Alley) (1966) when critics

criticized the translation presented by Le Gassick claiming he had eliminated the

Islamic Slant expressions in the ST from the TTL This means that he had

domesticated the text and eliminated the foreign in the Target culture and language.

The criticism Le Gassick received, urged him into attempting another translation in

(1975).

House (1977/1997:69) recommends abstaining from finding equivalents for

culture-specific, geographical, temporal or social texts. For her, it is essential to

provide the readership of the target culture with explanatory notes depending on the

audience in the target culture and language. She goes further to say that, although

source texts have already been addressed to a specific source community and culture,

some overt translations have established their own worth or status in the source text

community as well as in other communities like AI-Tayib Saleh's: Season of

Migration to the North.

This is an important point. Culture-specific terms and concepts do not have

equivalents unless they are adaptations into the target culture which results in them

having different connotations or even denotations in the target culture. For example,

the word Bayt Sha 'ar ~ ~ in Arabic culture is "the house of Bedouins which

can be folded and moved from one place to another in the desert seeking water and

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food. It is made of wool manually by Bedouins themselves". Usually, a translator

would seek an equivalent in the English language like the word "tent". However, this

would mean that the cultural element has been erased or ignored by this adaptation.

The other kind of translation of which House speaks is "Covert translation",

defined by House (\ 97711997: 69), as a "A covert translation is a translation which

enjoys the status of an original source text in the target culture" .It is equally as

important as the original and is not addressed to the source text audience nor tied to

the source text. Examples are a tourist brochure or a product manual, which serves

as an original rather than a translation in the TT culture. A translator would resort to

covert translation when it is important to maintain the function of the source text

equivalent in the translated text. to achieve this, the translator has to take cultural

presuppositions into consideration. He has to adapt the cultural setting into that of

the target language in order to meet the target audience expectations and needs,

among which are Nida's "naturalness of expression" (see 2.5)

The translation process is often complicated by the crucial inter-cultural

differences. Major differences usually emerge from the translations between

languages of different origins such as the two languages involved in this research,

Arabic and English. To overcome this, House (1977/1997:71) says that the translator

must always use a "cultural filter" by viewing his translation through the glasses of

the target culture audience.

House's model was designed for evaluating existing translations and will be

discussed in detail in chapter three. (See 3.1). Importantly, she identified the human

factor as critical in translation: the translator whose personal knowledge, decisions

and interpretations of the original can lead to producing a good translation. This is a

critical point in translation quality assessment. Translation is not a private matter. It

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involves three parties; the author, the reader and the text. What, therefore, is the role

of the translator? Stolze (1992), says that a good translator is the one who identifies

himself with the text he is working on. Bush (1997) details the task of the literary

translator as a reader, researcher and a writer in a network of social and cultural

practices.

Such discussions recognize the significance of culture in translation. They all

focus on how the translator should be knowledgeable culturally or involved with the

text to be able to undertake the process of transferring ideas and culture through the

medium of language.

3.6 Conclusion

This chapter has discussed some key concepts in translation theory which

relate in a way or another to culture and explained how significant culture is to

translation. The first part of the chapter discussed briefly Descriptive Translation

studies and how this study is placed within the framework of DTS and, because of

its focus on quality assessment, within Applied Translation Studies. The chapter

then discusses the crucial issue of culture and translation. It tackles the definition of

culture by different theorists and how significant culture is to the process of

translation and to literature in particular. The chapter has also detailed how theorists

have discussed the specificity of the Arabic culture and literature in translation.

Different translation methods for cultural items have been discussed, notably

Foreignization and domestication and how these relate to other viewpoints

introduced by different theorists. House's overt and covert translation are discussed

and the relationship of these two to the issue of the previous section is highlighted.

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In the next chapter, different models of translation quality, including House's,

are assessed in an attempt to provide a detailed criterion against which a comparative

evaluative study may be conducted.

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Chapter Four

Models for Translation Quality Assessment

Chapter three discussed key concepts in translation theory which are related to

culture. The main point it discussed is the issue of culture in translation from the

view point of many theorists. It also highlighted Arabic literature and translation,

and tackled Newmark's model for translation quality assessment. A brief discussion

of Reiss's translation Criticism was introduced towards the end of the chapter.

This chapter, on the other hand, discusses a number of models for translation

quality assessment, namely Toury (1995), Newmark (1988), Dickins et.al (2002),

Reiss (2000), House (1977/1997) , as well as Nord (1991/2005). Their weaknesses

and strengths and the reasons of choosing one over the other will be explained

throughout the chapter. The last part of the chapter will apply Nord's models on the

case study of this research.

Mossop (2001: 150) argues that translation quality assessment:

"should not be a lengthy process in which a complex system criterion is used.

Errors may be divided into types but it is important to avoid a system in which one is

frequently wasting time wandering whether a particular mistake is type X or type Y."

Mossop's discussion stresses the need for a simple yet effective translation

quality assessment criterion. This will be the foundation to seek the most appropriate

translation quality assessment amongst the three selected models.

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4.1 Toury's Discovery & Justification Framework

Descriptive translation studies can be divided according to Toury (1995), to

three elements which govern the process of translating function, product and process

are (see Descriptive Translation Studies 3.1). Toury (1995 :26) explains that all

translations as Toury views them: "facts of the cultures which host them, with the

concomitant assumption that whatever their function and identity, these are

constituted within that same culture and reflect its own constellation."

What Toury states here is that once the ST has been translated or has become

a TT it becomes a fact of the target culture implies that this TT has a slight

connection if any exists with the source culture and the ST. By contrast, the

present study adopts the position that a TT is a reflection of the ST and although it

has to conform to the language structure of the TL yet it has to transfer the cultural

background in order to create a translated text and not an original.

A very crucial point for the current research is discussed by Toury. He says

that there is nothing wrong with regarding the position of the ST and its function

alongside the position and function of the TT in terms of considerations which

originated in the target culture or the culture which hosts them. Toury goes further

to stress that the position of the translation and its function are mostly taken equal

to that of the original in own culture and setting. Therefore according to Toury

many translations especially of fiction are regarded or seen as good as the source

text, nevertheless when some texts are translated into different languages, they

undergo a lot of editing.

Toury (1995 :26-27) goes on to stress that a translation is a unique work

which does not follow "the systemic space" of the original text. It also does not

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"bear on the source culture again". The translated text, he explains, a good

translation would bear an influence on the target audience. Toury goes further to

say that the translation now has the function of the source language and culture

governed by the regulations of the target language and culture. Gaps in translations,

explains Toury, make translators resort to precise translation.

According to Toury (1995:27), translations are not likely to occupy the same

position as that which the original text did in the source culture.

This thesis believes that this may prove true in some instances such as the

translations of the bible which sought to generate a similar effect. (Nida 1964).

Toury (1995:28) explains that although translations are supposed to take into

considerations the "needs of the target culture" yet they will have to deviate from

the "sanctioned patterns" and the translation often ends up "distinct" from the

"non-translational patterns". This, according to Toury, is preferable in some cases

"to complete normality" in terms of all levels at the same time. Toury justifies that

these deviations do not necessarily "disturb persons in the culture". This means that

they, to an extent, conform to the expectations of the target audience.

Toury looks at the cultural dimension but has been criticized for seeming to

overlook the ST's position in its own socio-cultural context.

By Systemic position Toury (1995:30) means the position of the translation in

process. This position is what governed its production decisions. This, Toury

explains, can be realized by assessing the status of the TT in the process of

translation and how it represents the ST.

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Toury explains that this is considered as an "explanatory hypothesis" rather

than a fact. The positions of these translations in the target cultures can change

over time because they are dependent on social and historical preferences.

This is true in the case of the translations of Arabic literature. Translations of

certain literary works acquired positive or negative response and this changed over

the span of time.

An example on the change of the position of translation over time is the

preferences for 'beautiful but unfaithful' translations in 17_181h century France (The

famous 'Belles Infidels '). Another example is the shift in translation of the Russian

classics from the 'purple prose' of Constance Garnett in the late 19th century to the

more formally accurate and closer translation of Pevear and Volokhonsky in the

I 990s/2000s.

An instance from Arabic into English translation is, according to Allen (2000)

the translation of Midaq Alley by Le Gassick was highly criticised when it first

emerged in 1966 for eliminating the Islamic slant words. Although this criticism was

not built upon any scientific research, Le Gassick published a modified translation of

the same novel in (1975), which acquired recognition as one of the best translations

of Mahfouz's works via book reviews. An instance is a book review by Proyect

(2003) who praises the 1992 book as one of the greatest by Mahfouz disregarding

the fact that it is a translation. Also, Sisken (1989) says about a (1981) edition of the

translated Midaq Alley that it is probably the best known novel by Mahfouz. These

book reviews, of course, were based on subjective views and no research or

comparison between ST and TT to assess the quality of the translation took place

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which is a common practice In translations (C.f. Venuti 2008). However, they,

among others, managed to promote the translation as an original.

One such instance is a translation which created a better response in the target

culture than it did in its original culture. It is the "Season of Migration to the

North" a postcolonial Sudanese novel by Tayeb Saleh it appeared in Arabic in

1966 and was translated into English by Denys Johnson-Davies in 1969. As a

matter of fact this translation gained more fame or attracted attention to the original

work. This was clear in book reviews which were done on the translation such as

what Harss (2007) says:

A first reading of Tayeb Salih's Season of Migration to the North can be a

bewildering experience. The episodic manner in which the story is laid out

means that important information about the characters and their past is left

out, thus giving the reader a sense of being lost in a strange country where

he has lost his bearings. In fact, the novel should probably be read in light

of the ever-shifting political and cultural landscape of Sudan since 1899,

the year in which the British took control.

The status of the target text as a "translational replacement" would be

determined during the process of comparing it to what it is supposed to have

replaced and in relation to what exists in the source text. All of this should be done

through highlighting problems arising from presenting or rendering certain parts of

the source text in a certain way. These problems, if we may call them, certainly

came into being through the process of transfer between both texts. Toury explains

further here that what he is trying to highlight if there could be "shifts" or

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"misrepresentations of some notions". These can form an additional object of study

according to Toury, by considering the way they were rendered, justified,

appropriate or interesting. After these segments have been established, the

relationship with the translation could be referred to as the concept of translation

"underlying the text as a whole". Here, according to Toury, comes the role of

Translation Equivalence. This emerges due to studying the relationship between

the source text and the target text. These concepts, insists Toury, should not

undergo any kind of control because they follow exhaustive discovery procedures.

Toury continues by saying that after establishing the concept of translation for

a target text, it is possible to commence "speculation of models and norms of

source text and target text as well as systems which called for individual

replacement of segments as well as the relationship between them"

Toury's model (Figure 4.1) uses what he calls 'Discovery procedures' and

'Justification procedures'.

However Toury believes that Justification procedures are nothing but a

reflection of the discovery procedures. Justification procedures do not occur unless

after exhausting the discovery procedures as mentioned above.

In the discussion above, Toury explains that a detailed analysis of the TT is

conducted which then allows greater explanation of what kind of translation it is.

Disco ery

Proc ures

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1- Target text presented/ regarded as a translation:

- Acceptability, deviations from acceptability ...

Justification

Procedures

-Probably: first tentative explanations to individual textual- linguistic phenomena, based on the

assumption that the text is indeed a translation.

2- Establishment of a corresponding source text and mapping target text (or parts of it,

or phenomena occurring in it) on source text (or etc ... )

- Determination of text status as an appropriate source text.

Establishment of pairs of "solution + problem" as units of

immediate comparison.

- Establishment of target-source relationships for individual coupled pairs.

3- Formulation of first level generalisations

-Primary vs. Secondary relationships for the text as a whole

-Preferred invariant(s) and translation units

- IReconstructed) process oftranslation

Figure 4.1 Discovery and Justification Procedures for one pair of texts.

Toury (1995:38)

Furthermore Toury (1995 :39) suggests extending the corpus as shows in the following

diagram:

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I-Extending the corpus

2-Going through 2 for every additional text

3-Striving for higher-level generalization+ explanation for a certain translator, school

or translators , period, culture ... , depending on the principle(s) underlying the extended

corpus.

Figure 4.2 Discovery and Justification Procedures for an Extended

Corpus, Toury (1995:39)

Toury explains that the Figure 4.2 above would be required to follow in case

the culturally interdependencies of function, process or product are sought to be

exposed not for this one translation only.

The whole point of doing DTS Toury-style is to enable replication of the study

and comparison with previous and future studies. In that way, the case study of the

current research becomes integrated into a wider corpus and allows more

generalizations to be made.

Toury adds here that any aim at providing a justified illustration would

involve extending the corpus and that this has to happen in accordance with certain

principle, translator, school of translators ,period ,text type, text linguistic

phenomenon or any other which could be justified. Toury also encourages the use

of any previous or other studies to even extend this corpus further.

Toury set out to create a 'scientific' foundation for empirical studies. Toury's

model has strengths which should be highlighted focuses on several major aspects

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such as the comparison between the source text and the assumed translation when

conducting an assessment. The other point, which was stressed earlier by Newmark

(1988), is Justification. Toury stresses the need for justifying the choice made by

the translator rather than criticizing each and every aspect. This shows that Toury

tries to put himself in the position of the translator before making judgments on the

output. He also tries to justify the use of this or that equivalent, the addition,

omission or even modification of a certain part of the source text into the target

language / culture. Newmark (1988) discusses the same idea of justifying the

choice of the translator before attempting to criticize it. It is believed here that this

would minimize the subjectivity of the person who is undertaking the translation

quality assessment but not eliminate it completely. The difference between Toury

(1995) and Newmark (1988) is that the former tended to be descriptive non -

perspective in his model while the latter is very prescriptive.

Nevertheless, it has to be clarified in this regards that Toury is not in the

business of quality assessment. What he does is to follow a non-prescriptive study,

he describes patterns that give insights into the process but he doesn't make

judgements.

It has also been found that the main weak point which exists in Toury (1995)

model is the selection and analysis of the source text- target text segments - ad hoc.

More weakness points about Toury's analysis model is that it is not very systematic

in some parts; such as in the second point in the following:

1- Need to establish what kind of translation the TT is (indeed if it is a

translation)

2- Look at the ST -TT segments in order to try to infer the process

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3- Make generalizations and feed these units what we know from other

studies.

The points above show that Toury's model is far too descriptive to apply to

this study. Toury's analysis model has shed light on good points and established a

big step towards other descriptive translation studies, yet it has some shortcomings

which cannot be overlooked in this respect. The first point is that Toury insists on

ignoring the significance of the ST in its own language and culture and prefers to

view the translated text in the target language and culture. This contradicts with

what has been discussed in (3.2) on the significance of culture in translation. The

second point is looking at segments in the relationship between ST and TT. This

means selecting parts to investigate rather than analyzing the whole. This study

believes that a selective kind of assessment would probably be insufficient in

assessing the quality ofthe TT as compared to the ST.

As for the third weakness point above on Toury's model of Making

generalizations and feeding units from other studies Munday (2008: 111) explains

"that Toury attempted to generalize in "reconstructing the process of translation for

ST- TT pair".

Toury lays very solid foundations for descriptive studies but the weak part of

his DTS approach is the second stage, that of ST -TT analysis. There is a need for a

solid and rigorous model of analysis of ST-TT shifts. And this model may be

supplied by other models such as Newmark, House, Nord etc.

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4.2 Newmark's Translation Quality Assessment

Newmark has contributed to the field of translation theories and although a lot

of his views are seen as prescriptive or outdated, yet some other concepts have been

relied on to develop further studies in the field of translation studies such as his

semantic and communicative translation (1981).

The model of translation quality assessment introduced by Newmark is

discussed here to contextualize this study in the broader field of translation studies

and translation theory.

Newmark gives details on how to assess a translation according to its type in a

constructive manner. He says that translation criticism should be an academic

discipline. He recommends it to be a part of any professional translation course,

literature, or even comparative literature. This, according to Newmark, is due to that

it improves the competence of the translator.

Holmes in the descriptive translation studies map as explained by Toury (1995)

includes translation criticism under applied descriptive translation studies. This

indicates that what Newmark suggested in 1988 with regards to the significance of

translation criticism, is realised to an extent.

However; Criticism here does not mean criticizing the translation. It rather

means understanding and trying to know why the translator has undertaken a certain

procedure over the other and what his intention in doing so was. Newmark

recommends to whoever is criticising to know and distinguish between the

incompetent translator and the translator whose taste is too academic or too

idiomatic for the critic through the translations he/she undertakes.

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Newmark states that all translations are under-translations. Newmark believes

that no translation can equal the ST. The critic has always to look for what he calls

de-culturalized or transferred to the target language culture. This takes place when

the text is transferred into the target culture without any reference to the source

culture. Nevertheless, Newmark (1988) made many statements in his book without

much empirical proof.

What Newmark is introducing here is a way of criticizing the work of the

translator rather than pre-judging the whole translation as good or not up to the level.

It is believed here that Newmark's point is justifiable, However; this might not be

applicable unless the decisions of the translator are minor misreading or

mistranslations and do not offend the source culture.

The question a critic would want to pose is addressed by Newmark. How the

translator solved particular problems such as the title, structure, paraphrasing,

metaphors, cultural words, ambiguity, etc. The accuracy the translator should look at

is oftwo levels, the referential level and the pragmatic level of accuracy.

For Newmark the change of form for the sake of content (meaning) ST is quite

acceptable, and "the accommodation of meaning" is the most important element. By

"accommodation of meaning" Newmark means rendering the meaning of the ST into

the TT or accommodating the meaning of the ST into the TT.

He goes further to recommend that a critic should avoid criticizing the

translator for ignoring translation principles which were not even established when

the translation took place. The things to look at are the quality and the semantic

deficit. This links to the socio-cultural and historical context of the translation,

something which Toury centered on as well.

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The critic should also decide whether the semantic deficit is inevitable or is

the result of the translator's deticiencies.

It is believed in this study that inevitable semantic deficit takes place when the

ST expression or concept does not have a corresponding equivalent in the TL and

TC. Loss in translation here is inevitable although it can be made up by Para-textual

explication such as footnoting or paraphrasing.

On the other hand Newmark says the deficit can be the result of the translator's

deficiencies, or incompetence. This needs to be identified by the critic in order to

judge the translation objectively.

For Newmark, the next step for the critic is look at the translation in isolation

of the original text. This translation should read as natural, agreeable, objective,

informative or even persuasive according to the type of the original text. This

corresponds to Nida's natural translation. Venuti chose to call "natural translation"

"domestication" (see Foreignization or domestication 3.4) .The translator should

also be able to transfer the original into the target language capturing the idiolect of

the source text whether it is cliched, natural or innovative.

Newmark explicitly explains the translation of a novel and its importance

before launching the criticism the critic must be aware of the importance of this

novel in the source culture, the influence of it on the new milieu, and if it was worth

translating. He also states that these questions must be addressed and answered in

the preface of the translated novel.

Newmark's explanation is thought to be very prescriptive with regards to this

point.

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Newmark's argument of communicative vs. semantic translation is quite focal

in his model. Newmark defines them as follows:

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close

as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation

attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the

second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.

Nemark (1981 :39)

Newmark identifies two approaches for assessing a translation, the first of

which is the functional and the second is analytical. The first approach is usually

unreliable. It is an overall assessment of the work. It looks at ideas and details which

went missing in the translation, and attempting to discover where the translator went

short. As mentioned above this is an unreliable method due to its subjectivity. As for

the analytical approach, it tends to be more detailed but subjective. A text is looked

at in sections so a bad translation would surface easier than a good one.

Newmark's model is consulted here to highlight the fact that the model is quite

prescriptive than descriptive. It gives guidelines but is not really a reliable tool to

assess an existing translation. However, Newmark make some useful contributions

such as the significance of the novel and its value in the source culture. On the

specifics of analysis, his recommendation is to read the translated work in isolation

from the ST and to make an assessment that is both analytical and functional. This

paves the way for discussing House (1977/1997) and Nord (199112005).

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4.3 Dickins et aI's Model

Dickins et al. (2002:22) explain, in a book on translation from Arabic, that

translation is not a mere matter between languages; it is rather a matter of transfer

between cultures. They also discuss what they refer to as "Cultural Transposition".

This term means that the translator avoids literal translation when he transfers from

one culture into another.

Literal translation is when the words and sentence structure of the ST are

rendered as closely as possible into the TT. This kind of translation is required in

certain genres and in certain situations such as translation of holy books such as the

Bible or the Qur'an. It should, however, be avoided in other genres.

Furthermore, Cultural transposition consists of not adapting the source text

into the target culture and changing the features of the source text in order to make it

familiar with the target reader's culture. This process involves getting rid of any

foreignism stemming from the source culture and naturalizing the text.

What Dickins et.al speak of is more or less the Foreignization suggested by

Venuti (1995/2008), (see 3.4) where the translation process involves rendering the

foreign into foreign without manipulating the cultural features and converting them

in favour of the target culture. The difference here is that Dickins et.al explain are

degrees or levels for this Cultural Transposition is beneficial in deciding the level of

Foreignization the translator chooses to commit to.

These degrees of Cultural Transposition range from Exoticism to Cultural

Transplantation.

• Exoticism

• Calque

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• Cultural Transplantation

• Cultural Borrowing

• Communicative Translation

Exoticism is rendering all foreign features of the text including grammatical

and cultural features with minor changes into the Target language. This results in a

foreign text. The result is featured then with Exoticism, where it is marked with

most of its source cultural foreignness. This can actually attract the target reader

because he can be exposed to a strangeness which source readers may overlook

because they are familiar with the source culture. However, exoticism is

intentionally used in translation in some cases in order to achieve the objective of

attracting the reader to something he is not familiar with. Dickins (2002:30) cites

examples of Exoticism in Arabic and how they have been translated into English ..

e.g.:

- Standard Arabic:

- Colloquial Arabic (Egyptian):

- Literal Translation: Peace be upon you

Calque, from Vinay & Darbelnet (1958), is another degree of Cultural

Transposition. It involves rendering the source text respecting the grammatical and

syntactic features of the target language but is not idiomatically familiar in the target

reader's culture. This lack of Idiomaticity says Dickins can be grammatical or even

lexical. Dickins speaks of a good calque and a bad calque. The good one would

- 81 -

preserve the grammatical structure of the target language and the source language

feature. On the other hand a bad calque would copy the feature of the source

language in a way that leads to the ungrammaticality and unacceptability of the

translation into the target language. Dickins adds that some calques have become

standard equivalents in the target language. An example on calque is the following:

- What is past has died

The highest level of Cultural Transposition is what Dickins et al. call Cultural

Transplantation. According to Hervey (1995:23) this degree of cultural transposition

is barely considered a translation. They are more like adaptations, where texts are

"reinvented "in the TL. An example is the cultural transplantation of the musical

Man of the Mancha which is based on Don Quixote and Lou's Stein's Salsa.

However, Hervey explains that it is not necessary a negative degree of Cultural

Transposition since it succeeded in creating very successful texts. This means

deleting a word in the source language and replacing it with another word from the

target language. This according to the author cannot be called translation; it is rather

adapting a feature from the source language to another equivalent feature which is

familiar for the target language reader. This of course leads to a completely different

result yet the aim of using this feature would have been maintained in the target

language. This corresponds to functional equivalence or equivalent response, which

involves adapting the TT to suit the communicative background of the TT reader.

Dickins et al. add that a cultural transplantation is more likely to be found in

large scale translations. However, an example of cultural transplantation is the

following:

- 82 -

The story of "~ J ~" which is a love story between Qais ,~ a poet, and

Layla ~, his lover. According to Dickins et al. et al. "u-4l J ~" have been rendered

in (St. John 1999:30) as "Romeo and Juliet". This corresponds to Vinay and

Darbelnet adaptation.

The last degree of Cultural transposition is Cultural Borrowing. This process

involves introducing a source language term preserving its foreignness to the target

language. It is merely transliterating a source language term without any sort of

adaptation or explanation such as transliterating the word intifada.

Cultural borrowing, adds Dickins, introduces a lot of "exotic elements" into

the TT. These may become familiar for the TC by time. Dickins also suggests that a

translator should add a paratext which explicates the exotic terms in the form of a

glossary with all the "exotic terms" at the end of the translated work or by the use of

footnoting in order to clarify these terms for is the reader.

It is believed in this study that cultural borrowing contributes to bridging the

gaps between different cultures. However, in a literary work, a glossary can be

impractical for the reader. In case the reader needs to refer constantly to a glossary to

understand it is an understanding guided and potentially manipulated by

translator/editor for there is a fine balance between different types of reading.

Dickins et al. (2002:33) cites several examples on cultural borrowing. Thus:

The word 4..h."s according to Dickins et al. et al. has to be rendered into futa,

when used in Iraqi Arabic. This is due to the fact, that Iraqi Arabic futa refers to a

"sarong like garment which is worn by a woman". Dickins et al. et al. adds that such

a transliteration should be "signalled "by using italics.

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A transliteration suggested by Dickins et al. for the abovementioned example is

justified. For instance the Arabic Egyptian Juta, refers to a hand towel, while a

Levantine Juta refers to a child nappy. However, a paraphrasing such as an

explicative gloss might be useful for the reader.

A Communicative translation according is one which renders "the content and

language" of the ST in a familiar framework for the readership. It presents the ST in

an "acceptable and comprehensible" way in the TT. Newmark (1988b:45-47)

It aims at introducing a reader oriented translation where the reader is not

estranged from the text or no "exotic" is introduced. This kind of translation

contradicts with what has been discussed in this study so far. Since the Semantic vs.

communicative argument introduced by Newmark (1981), many detailed degrees or

levels of translation under different names have surfaced (see 3.4, 3.5).

Communicative translation is more appropriate for literary contexts where a

literal translation should be avoided according to Dickins et al. et al. (2002:35). An

example on this kind of translation is the following:

No entry

No smoking

However, when there is no "cultural correspondent" for the SL, the translator

might face some translation problems. In the following example Dickins gives three

English translations for an Arabic phrase. He renders the phrase into literal

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translation, communicative translation and a suggested translation by himself under

"balanced translation":

- Literal: That which has passed has died

- Balanced5 : What's past is gone

- Communicative: Let bygones be bygones (or) what's done is done

Dickins et al. et al. notes that when the translator does not seek introducing the

TT more "cliched" than the ST, then a communicative translation such as the

example above would better be avoided.

Dickins et al. has gone further than Venuti (1995/2008) (see 3.4) in detailing

the levels of cultural translation which could be quite beneficial for the translation

quality assessment in deciding the level of Foreignization the translator chooses to

commit to.

4.4 Reiss' Translation Criticism

At the beginning of chapter four, the current study is located under DTS and

could be placed under product oriented translation studies where comparative studies

and translation assessments are undertaken as well as under translation criticism

where existent translations are evaluated. Therefore, this study consults Reiss' well-

known model for translation criticism.

5 The tenn balanced was used by the author Dickins et.al (no clear definition was found in source), but it was used with literal and communicative, therefore it is assumed to be acceptable translation suggested by author.

- 85 -

Reiss (! 971 12000) says that criticism of 1 iterary translations has declined

drastically despite the advent of the commercialization of literary works. Reiss adds

that when most translation critics review translations, they do not judge them at all,

and when they do they just pass comments like "Excellent translation", "fluent

translation ", "it reads like an original etc". Venuti explained the same. She claims

that this kind of judgement is not sufficient for assessing the translations. The

elements looked at in such cases would be the style, content and sometimes the

aesthetic element. No consultation of the original takes place in this case. She

stresses that whenever translation criticism takes place, it should always be done

after consultation with the original text; otherwise the judgement would be very

subjective and poor. A critic of translations should always try to justify the choice of

the translator.

Reiss's model aims for what she calls "objective criticism of translation" (Reiss

2000). This means that the critic must always be explicit on the positive and

negative parts of the translation and must provide examples on each case, stating

what led the translator to commit that error. The process of comparing the translated

version with the original text would offer the translator different options of

equivalents to choose from. Whereas many literary critics, assessing a novel or other

literary work, may judge the TT in isolation, in translation studies proper quality

assessment should never be based on the ground of its form in the target language

and must involve a ST -TT comparison. If the critic assumes that the work in the

target language is simply light fiction while it is in the original language a work of

cultural value, then it would be obvious that the translator failed to integrate the

elements of the text in terms of style and structure. The defects of the translation in

such case would come to the surface after looking at the original work. One of the

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main characteristics of the translator is that he should be talented of writing fluently

in his own language. In such situations, artificial expressions in translations can be

spotted even without referring to the original.

Very significant distinctions of genre and how they can affect the translation

strategy adopted by the translator are made by Reiss in her model. This is clear in the

case study of this research where the genre (literary) involves for instance

Foreignizing or domesticating the translation. In other words it involves introducing

the foreign elements to the target reader or eliminating any foreign to ensure the

reader is as familiar with the text as possible.

The critic must make sure that the translator was successful in rendering the

lexical components of the source text like the idiomatic expressions, names,

expressions, and proverbs. The translator's competence can be judged in this regard

according to his ability to deal with technical problems and special idioms and

rendering them successfully. As for the idiomatic expressions it is essential that the

translator renders them into other idioms of similar semantic value in the target

language. However, in cases where this is unachievable he should resort to a kind of

structural adaptation.

4.5 House's Translation Quality Assessment Model

A key model which is designed to establish a translation quality assessment for

different types of text is House's (1977/1997). In Chapter 3, we looked at House's

terms 'overt' and 'covert' translation and how these resembled Venuti's

'foreignization' and 'domestication'. We now look at the detailed criteria by which

House assesses the quality of such translations.

- 87 -

The potential advantages for the present study are the fact that it encompasses

linguistic, pragmatics, stylistics as well as the situational differences and

peculiarities between the source text and the target text. Furthermore, it covers the

theory of register, and discourse analysis. The basic notion of House's model is

functional equivalence. House links the idea to what she refers to as overt and

covert translation to the model. (See Overt and covert translation 3.5).

House explains that Covert and overt translation (as explained in chapter 3) are

strategies which enable the reader to "touch upon" the function of the original or the

source text in terms of language and culture, or what House (1997) prefers to call

"lingua-culture" in the target language. House says that to achieve a functional

equivalence, a "Cultural Filter" must be introduced and used (for definition of

Cultural Filter see 3.5) This will enable changes using a number of "pragmatic

parameters" in order to maintain three aspects of meaning:

1- The Semantic aspect of meaning as the name shows deals with denotation

or the relationship of reference. "It deals with the relationship of linguistic

units to their referents" House (1977/1997: 30) comments on this aspect as

being the most obvious and the one which surfaces before any other aspect

in translation assessment. Therefore in case of 'translation treatment' or

assessment we would find the semantic aspect dealt with before the other

two aspects.

2- The pragmatic aspect of meaning.

House (1977/1997:30) discusses the different definitions of pragmatics

introduced by different authors such as StaHmer (1974:380) who defines

pragmatics as "study of purposes for which sentences are used of real world

conditions under which a sentence may be appropriately used as an utterance" he

- 88 -

argues that it relates to the "correlation between linguistic units and users of these

units in a given communicative situation"

On the other hand Leech (1983 :34) detines pragmatics as:

Pragmatics is about meaning in speech situations as it is manifest in

social acts outside sentences, and about the making of meaning as a

dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between

speaker and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social,

linguistic) and the meaning potential of an utterance.

House elaborates on this issue by saying that translation is all about the

theory of speech acts developed by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) the pragmatic

meaning is "referred to" here as the iIIocutionary force that a certain "utterance"

has. This means the "particular use of an expression on a specific occasion" .The

iIIocutionary force can be predicted from "grammatical features like word order,

mood of verb, stress or intonation". An essential type of translation would be when

one aims at achieving the pragmatic equivalence if necessary at the expense of the

semantic equivalence. An example on such a case is the following example:

.~'Jly~),,~), ...

(287:1973)

- Mercy ... Mercy, oh people of the house! (1966:319)


In the example above, the semantic meaning is rendered at the expense of the

pragmatic meaning, which resulted into an awkward translation. The problem with

the translations of this example lies in ignoring the pragmatic dimension in the

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words ~,Jj and rendering literally into "people of the house". The semantic

rendering did not include any reference to that ~,Jj refers to relatives of Prophet

Mohammed. The pragmatic meaning in this example has a priority over the semantic

meaning and thus both translations are inaccurate.

3- the textual aspect of meaning

The third aspect of meaning introduced by House (199711977) is the textual.

House approaches what she means by the textual aspect of meaning by defining the

meaning of text. This aspect deals with the text and its components as well as the

relations of co-text in the "process of text- constitution"

House (1997:31) asserts that this aspect of meaning has been ignored again

on translation assessment and that this aspect in particular is the one which

connects "successive sentences" in the target language while at the same time

preserving the semantic meaning in the original especially in overt translation.

House's model is based on register analysis (Hallidayan approach) and thus

conceives of a functional use of language as a social semiotic (i.e. language choice in

context has meaning attached to it. This is the reason one meaning is chosen over

another in order to achieve certain communication goals.

Register is "a contextual category correlating groupings of linguistic features

with recurrent situational features" Gregory and Carroll (1978:4). However, House

(1997: 1 05) says that by using Register alone as a category of assessment, an

inaccurate outcome might result. Two texts can share the same register or linguistic

features yet belong to different text type. She goes on to say that a deeper level must

be sought in order to decide the register of a certain text, and here arises the need for

a "super-ordinate" category to register which is genre. According to Halliday (1978)

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genre can be defined as one which refers to "discourse types" and that as mentioned

above a super-ordinate category to register. Halliday also said according to House

(1997/1977) that genre is when language projects a higher level "semiotic

structure" .

Importantly, "Genres such as e.g. the academic paper or the market report, are

conceived as cultural discourse types featuring different configurations of lexical

and grammatical units characterized as registers, with different register choices

realizing different genres." (House ibid: 105-6). This means that in order to

achieve a successful genre, the appropriate register and the right tenor have to be

used. House gives a very interesting example on this instance to clarify the

meaning. In case a publisher publishes a translated children's book which no child

can understand then it is a failure in achieving the right genre due to the wrong

register used.

In her later, revised model of translation quality assessment, House (1997: 107)

links genre to the individual textual function (it exemplifies genre) and to register (it

realizes genre). House's model has four categories: function of the individual text,

genre, register and language or text.

House importantly differentiates between the function of text and the function

of language. She says that the function of text is the actual application of the

"particular context of situation" in which a register operates. The function of a

source text can be established through the characterization of its textual profile. This

means that the text should undergo a linguistic and pragmatic analysis. House

generally defines context as simply what goes with the text, or what is beyond the

actual text.

- 91 -

Context of situation was first adopted by the anthropologist Malinowski to

deal with difficulties of translating texts which belong to cultures completely

ditl'erent from the western one by retaining the surrounding environment of this text.

He believed that this wider cultural background must be considered when rendering

the meaning. Malinowski adopted different approaches in translation. He attempted

free and "intelligible" translation, which renders a modest part of the language or the

culture. He attempted literal translation which "mimicked the original" yet was

"unintelligible to the English reader". His main method was translation alongside

commentary. The commentary provided placed the text in its "living environment".

This is the way the word co-text emerged. It is a combination of what proceeds and

precedes the particular sentence. Malinowski was interested in the situation in which

the text has emerged while he was doing a study on the people of an island in the

Pacific; they spoke a language called "Kiriwinian". Malinowski spoke the language

easily and quickly, but he encountered the problem of rendering the ideas in this

culture to English speakers "intelligibly". That's how "context of situation"

emerged. Halliday (1997:5- 6).

The famous linguist lR. Firth, later developed Malinowski's "context of

situation". He built a linguistic framework to explain the "context of situation". This

framework includes the participants in the situation (speakers of the language), the

action of the participants (verbal or non-verbal action), other relevant features of the

situation (what is going on, the events, objects), as well as the effects of the verbal

action (changes brought about through what the participants say in a certain

situation). (Halliday 1997:8)

Linked to the context of situation, but on a higher level, is "the context of

culture". Halliday (1997:46) explains this relation as follows:

- 92 -

Any actual context of situation, the particular configuration of field,

tenor, and mode that has brought a text into being is not just a random

jumble of features, but a totality- a package, so to speak, of things that

typically go together in the culture. People do these things on these

occasions and attach these meanings and values to them; this is what

a culture is.

Halliday also explains that both the context of situation and the context of

culture make up "the non - verbal environment of the text" and determine this text.

House's basic idea of her model is that the "context of situation" and text are

separate yet linked and that "the context of situation" in which the text unfolds is

encapsulated in the text through a systematic relationship between the social

environment and the functional organization of language.

House here stresses that each text is immersed in its own context of situation,

and then each text should undergo a detailed analysis so that one would be able to

decide its textual function. She also says that if the functional equivalence between

the source text and the target text exists then the source text should be analysed

extensively. After that the target text is analysed the source text to decide if an

equivalent textual function is realized in translation. This means "that each

individual text is referred to a particular situation".

She adopts the Hallidayan Field, Mode and Tenor and introduces them in her

model as well: Field according to Halliday is 'what is being written about, tenor is

who is communicating and to whom and mode is the form of communication.

Field according to Halliday refers to the idea of topic or "the field of activity"

House here differentiates "three degrees of generality, specificity, or even granularity

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in lexical items according to rubrics of specialized, general or popular". The current

study believes that lexical items used in literature, especially are different to an

extent from those attempted in other fields of study although sometimes they can

include lexical items from other tie Ids such as (medicine, law, military, etc).

Tenor, on the other hand, is "the nature of participants, the addresser, the

addressee, as well as the relationship between them all in terms of social power and

social distance". It also involves the "degree of emotional charge" in the relationship

between the addresser and the addressee.

Introducing the participant relationship, House divides this feature into social

role relationship and social attitude. House starts with the social relationship which

she defines as the relationship between the addresser and the addressee. She says this

relationship can be symmetrical. This emerges when there is a kind of equality

between the addresser and the addressee. On the other hand this relationship can be

asymmetrical which exists when there is a kind of authority in the relationship

between the addresser and the addressee like being a teacher.

Mode, the third category discussed by House (1997:109), involves two

features. It involves the two parts of discourse medium and participation whether

they happen to be 'simple' or 'complex'. House says that Medium refers to the

channel as spoken or written. By simple she means written to be read and by

complex she means written to be spoken as if not written.

Halliday developed the "context of situation" further, to include three main

textual features, which would help the text "cohere" with the context of situation.

These are, field (what is happening), tenor (who are the participants), and mode (the

role the language is playing, spoken, written or both).

- 94-

As for 'participation' as explained by House, it can also be either 'simple or

complex'. House explains that when one person produces a text, then this is a

monologue, and therefore is simple participation. On the other hand, when the text

contains features of a dialogue then the participation is complex rather than simple.

House here mentions overt monologue and says that involves indirect participation

such as using the imperative or the interrogative or even the declarative.

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Individual text function

i

Genre

Register (Generic Purpose)

i t T Tenor

Mode Field Participant relationship

Author's provenance and stance Medium Subject Matter and (simple/complex) social action Social role relationship

Participation Social attitude

(simple/complex)

1 Languagel Text

Figure 4.3 A Scheme for Analyzing and Comparing Original and

Translation Texts. (House 1997:108)

House (1997) relates the notion of overt translation and second level function

to the model. House says that these notions can be related to the model at four

different levels, function, genre, register and language or text. House asserts that a

translation has to be equivalent at the levels of register, language/text and genre,

while it is still possible to achieve a functional equivalence when we deal with the

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fourth level which is function. This functional equivalence is usually realized when

the function of the source text in its own world (frame) is clearly expressed in the

translated text. House says that achieving this Icvel would sound at its best when it

the second level functional equivalence is realized .This level is usually realized

when the language/text as well as the register equivalence are realized. This would

enable the target audience to appreciate the original textual function of the text yet at

a distance, (House 1997: 112).

In overt translation what the translator attempts to do is quite obvious. The

outcomes of his/her work are usually tangible for the target readership. After all, the

target audience would be able in an overt translation to touch upon the culture and

function of the source text in terms of culture. They gain access to the original text

via the translation and come to appreciate the original work and culture.

Furthermore, they have the chance to "evaluate" the original work in the target

language.

In the case of literary works, House (1997: 113) calls them "timeless, or space

transcending human and aesthetic interest". Normally speaking, according to House

a literary work has its special frame of reference. Therefore, whenever a textual

interpretation of a certain literary work needs to be done it should be both time -

bound and culture - bound. This means that they have to be done with consideration

to the ST time (setting) and culture and also according to the TT time and culture.

These cannot be ignored while producing a translation of a certain work.

To sum up, House's model is a descriptive-explanatory model, which sets out

to be as objective as possible regarding translation quality assessment, despite the

difficulties entailed (House 1997: 118). House tests her model against some texts to

explore its applicability on translations and how effective it can prove in use.

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However, the outcome was not quite comprehensive. The "mismatches" in overt

covert translations did not give a comprehensive image to the quality of the

translation. While House's model is useful, certainly for understanding the function

of a text and its translation and being reducing subjectivity, we feel that a more

finely-grained model more suited to translation, and to quality judgments, is

required. Hence Nord's model is discussed in the following section.

Williams, writing specifically on translation quality assessment, explains that

House believes the significance of meaning has been ignored when assessing

translations despite the need for "achieving connectivity between successive

sentences in another language "while conveying the "semantic meaning" which is

found in the original particularly in "covert translation".

4.6 Nord's Model of text analysis

The model of text analysis allows the investigation of a translation in a

comprehensive manner. Nord's model is designed to suit all types of texts as well as

all "translation situations". This model is a functional model which means that it is

set to understand the function of the ST and using the appropriate strategies to render

this function and purpose of the translation" into the TT.

The model discusses the relationship between what Nord calls intra-textual

factors and extra-textual factors. Even though Nord (2005:183) stresses that the

model is not designed for "error analysis" of small "segments" within the text, it

does actually allow the analysis of micro-level textual features, as explained in the

following discussion. She believes that the whole text should be evaluated in terms

of function and effect.

- 98 -

On the other hand, Nord discusses under intra-textual factors,

• Subject matter (theme),

• Content (lexical items, it can also include connotation and cohesion),

presuppositions( this includes real world factors of the communicative

situation presumed to be known by the participants),

• Text composition (microstructure, Macrostructure),

• Non verbal elements (illustrations, italics, etc),

• Lexis (dialect, register, specific terminology),

• Sentence structure,

• Supra-segmental features (stress, rhythm as well as "stylistic punctuation")

• Interdependence of intra-textual factors.

Nord (199112005) uses a model that is a more detailed taxonomy, certainly, but

which does not link so clearly the linguistic choice with the communicative goal.

Nord (2005:174.175) identifies four kinds of translation problems, all of which

will form the basis of the model applied in this study.

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Intra-textual Subject Pre- Text-

Non- Stylistic text elements

Content verbal Matter Supposition Composition

elements Sentence Supraseg Extra-textual Lexis

Structure m. Factors

personal e.g.

eg e.g. e.g. e.g. simple e.g.

eg favourite chronologica gesticulatio e.g. personal sentences habitual Sender

perspective. subject.

knowledge I order if n of deixis of quality of

commentary. of political oplllion

special afTiliation

sender IS a Mediterrane idiosyncrasies uneducated voice, field child an. Sendcr sender pitch

e.g. e.g. topical e.g. e g. indirect

e.g. "prettificatio

subject. exaggerated e.g. gradual Misleading e.g. speech to rhythmical

Intention n" or political

pre-sup for increase of photograph connotative mark calls for

blurring of scandals prestige suspense s words mental

democracy content reasons reservation

e.g. taklllg e.g. e.g ... as you e.g. e.g. e.g. "baby the reference

all know footnotes illustrations e.g. direct

talk Recipient recipient's to the forms of

e.g. perfectly with adequate imperatives intonation

vIew of recipient's well ..

,. explanations for children

address "

things own life

e.g e.g e.g.

e.g. high e.g. not too

special knowledge e.g. order of diagram e.g. e.g. simple

pitched complicated instead of Newspaper structures Medium subject III of topical questions III voice in

III spoken specialize events in blank form

long language: ion spoken microphon

texts statistics on acronyms texts djournal newspaper

TV. etalk

e.g e g. culture-information

ego e.g local specific e.g. arms, e.g. elements of regional dialect in lexis, culture-

Place from the specific deixis in conventions seals, grammar and intonation, " Americanisms"

parish subjects this country of emblems in English or Spanish, etc.

council composition

e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g.

e.g. news of season- temporal composition symbols e.g. temporal markers in lex is hexamet Time the day specific deixis (" last of classical such as and sentence structure

subjects night") drama swastikas er verse

e.g. e.g.

e.g. season's e.g. aposiopesi V

biographical e.g. sad e.g. baptismal s because Motive

details in greetings knowledge e.g. protocol

face formula of solemn

obituary for of rituals

emotional tone

Christmas upset

e.g. e.g. no e.g. no e.g. impersonal e.g.

ego no personal personal separation of

e.g. e. g. term i nology singing

Text- personal illustrations subject in presupp. In ingredients in scientific Constructi intonatio

function comments in sales and in operating texts in in open

instructions ons n news text Instruction contract instructions legal liturgy

documents

Table 4.1 Nord's Model for Translation Quality Assessment6

6 Abbreviations in the table such as presupp refers to presuppositions.

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Source Text Translation Problems TTl & Procedures

Extra-textual Factors Sender Intention Recipient Medium Place. Time Motive Text-function Intra- textual Factors Subject matter Content Pre-suppositions Text- composition Non- verbal elements Lexis Sentence Structure Supra-segmental factors

Effect Effect

Table 4.2 Text Analysis and Translation Skopos (Nord 2005)

A brief idea on each of the extra-textual and intra-textual factors is made to

illustrate their significance for this research before applying the model on the case

study translations.

4.7 The Extra-textual Factors

The extra-textual factors discussed in Nord (1991/2005) are:

- Sender,

- Sender's intention,

- Recipient,

- Text -function,

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- Medium

- Time of Communication,

- Motive for Communication,

- Place of Communication,

- Interdependence of extra-textual factors.

Relating intra-textual factors to extra-textual factors encompasses most aspects

including some of the features covered by House (1997). The situational factors such

as the sender, the sender's intention, the recipient and the text function were

discussed by House (1997/1977) but not in detai I. In Nord (2005/1991) there is more

than just the situational factors. In addition to the above she discusses medium, time

of communication, motive for communication, place of communication, as well as

interdependence of extra-textual factors under the extra-textual factors.

4.8Nord's Translation Problems

This study discusses the four types of translation problems in Nord

(2005/1991). These problems might have faced the translator and urged him to make

a choice or translate in a certain way the problems will be applied on the whole

translated text. A comparison will take place between TTl and TT2 in order to

identify changes which occurred in TT2. An example on such examples and the

changes which occurred between TTl and TT2 is the following:

Oh Master, Oh helper", "Oh provider, Oh generous one". "May the ending be

sweet", "All things are at his command".

- 102 -


Zero translation


In TT2 (1975) this whole sentence disappeared; it does not exist at all. It has

been found that this translation problem goes under what Nord (2005/1991) calls

cultural problems, which arise from the differences in culture whether that is habits,

expectations, conventions or norms. The words which were used by Mahfouz in the

novel are Islamic Slant words which are restricted to the Arabic culture. They do not

have to be used by a person of religion but by anyone in the culture regardless of his

religion. The translator chose to literally translate these expressions, intended by

the author in TTl, but then decided to omit them in the TT2.

Allen (2000:891), as mentioned previously, says the reason behind correcting

the translation (1966) was the lack of "Islam ic Slant" words.

4.8.1 Pragmatic Translation Problems

The first is pragmatic translation problems. Nord explains that these kinds of

translation problems arise when the "transfer situation" with contrast to the ST vs.

IT medium and ST vs. TT recipients, motive for ST production vs. motive for TT

translation, or even ST function vs. TT function. Nord goes on to say that these

kinds of problems exist in all kinds of translations and therefore, they can be

"generalized" regardless of language or culture.

An example which is discussed in (chapter 8) on pragmatic translation

problems is the following:

- 103 -

ZiqiiqAI Midaq (1973:24)

I am willing to go on a diet and just have an onion for breakfast.

Midaq Alley(J966:25)

The pragmatic dimension in this example is missing which has created a

pragmatic translation problem. The saying in the ST refers to fasting (a religious

ritual for Muslims). However; the translator rendered the saying literally which has

resulted into a pragmatic problem.

4.8.2 Convention- Related (Cultural) Translation Problems

The second kind of translation problems is convention-related translation

problems or cultural translation problems. These result from differences in culture

such as certain verbal habits, expectations, norms and traditions or conventions

which are either verbal or other behaviour. They are embodied by: "genre

conventions, general style conventions, measuring conventions, formal conventions

of marking certain elements in a text" Nord (2005: 175). Nord says that these kinds

of problems exist in all translations yet they depend on the cultures involved.

An example on such kinds of translation problems is the following:

Ziqiiq Al Midaq (20:1973)

Thanks be to God for making me richer than most people


- 104 -

4.8.3 Linguistic Translation Problems

The third kind is linguistic translation problems; these exist as a result to the

differences between two languages specifically in "lex is" and sentence structure .The

nature of these problems makes them existent in each kind of translation. Nord

explains that these kinds of translation problems arc related to an extent to "text

function, register and audience orientation, etc" Nord (2005: 175, 176). These

correspond to features covered by House's model (1977/1997), however Nord

elaborates on the way they are used.

4.8.4 Text-Specific Translation Problems

The fourth and last kind is text-specific translation problems. Nord explains

that these cannot be generalized due to the fact that they are specific to each text. An

example can be the translation of a figure of speech, or even "individual word

creations"

For definition of style and significance of stylistics in translation, see 7.1 the

role of style in translation.

However, this study classifies the text-specific translation problems as stylistic

translation problems. This classification came in accordance with the examples

which showed shifts from TTl to TT2. These examples showed stylistic shifts to a

considerable number of examples and therefore these examples will be discussed in

a separate chapter.

An example on stylistic translation problems is the following:

(1973 : 27)

- 105 -

- You're the best in the world yourselt~ I don't think! (1966:29)

- You're the best in the world yourself, aren't you? (1992:26)

The ST has a very clear sense of sarcasm which has not been rendered in TTl.

The phrase "!,+",.laS ~" which means they are as good as nothing and which is used

sarcastically to say "you are as worthless as them", and has been rendered in TTl

into "I don't think". The direct way of introducing a hidden sarcasm used in TTl

probably distorts the way the meaning is presented. However, TT2 restores the

sarcasm used in ST "aren't you?" Although the translation of the example in TTl

and TT2 were not very accurate to the ST, the style of TTl affected the meaning.

Modifying the style in TT2 presented the message in a better manner when

compared to ST.

All the kinds of translation problems discussed by Nord (2005) above are

relevant to this study. They all interrelate in one way or another to contribute to a

sound and comprehensive method of assessing the translation quality. Despite that, it

is anticipated that there might be more instances on some translation problems than

on others.

Nord (2005/1991) applies her model in testing both the extra-textual and the

intra-textual factors on the source text and the target text.

The samples Nord selects for applying her model are in German, English

Spanish and Dutch. They also belong to different genres. Although only two of these

text samples are literary texts. However, Nord explains that the model is designed to

suit all text types (Nord 2005: 191 )

- 106 -

4.9 Methodology

This model is applied on the two translations under investigation for Midaq

Alley. The table is filled in, applying the required information for each of the intra-

textual factors and extra-textual factors.

After comparing TTl and TT2 against ST, the following table cites the extra-

textual factors and the intra-textual factors for the case study of this research.

Source Text Translation TTl TT2 Problems & Procedures

Extra-textual Factors Sender Naguib Mahfouz Transliteration of Naguib Mahfouz Naguib Mahfouz

names (mediated by (mediated by Trevor Trevor Le Le Gassick) Gassick)

Intention Fiction and entertainment Structures and style Rendering a work Rendering a work of were suitable for of cultural value cultural value into a fiction into a different different culture

culture

Recipient People of all classes in Introducing English speaking English speaking the source culture, different cultural people who are people who are into laymen, elements which do into fiction and fiction and into sophisticated ... etc not existent in the into different different cultures (Arabic speaking people) target culture cultures.

(language)

Medium Novel None known No change in No change in layout layout (novel) (novel)

Place. The National Library, Transliteration of AI Khayat AVC Press Cairo-Cairo-Egypt names of places, Publishing House, Egypt

recreating the image Beirut- Leban:m for those places.

Time 1947 Difference In 1966 1975 Setting

Motive Disseminating his works N/A Transferring a Amending a lot of and identifying people different culture mistakes and with the dark side of the and literature to translation problems alleys of old Cairo the English which were largely

speaking audience criticized after the publication of the first translation

Text- To entertain and to Difference in To entertain and To entertain and to function inform structures and to inform inform

literary style.

Intra- textual Factors Subject The dark side of Zuqaq AI The subject matter The dark side of The dark side of matter Midaq in old Cairo. is a source culture Midaq Alley and Midaq Alley and the

feature the different different characters characters living living there

Content

Presuppositio ns

Textcompositi on Nonverbal elements

Lexis

Sentence Structure

Very detailed Descriptive images of the setting and the people living in the place, which carries the reader to the Zuqaq as he reads

The author presumes a shared cultural background with the audience or the readership, therefore he attempted his novel without exerting any effort in getting it through Division into chapters. (fiction layout)

The cover of the book had a symbolic drawing for an alley. it portraits an old neighbourhood in Cairo.

Simplified standard Arabic which can get through to every class in the community

- 107 -

Difficulty in recreating those images and realizing what Mahfouz was able to do in the target language/culture. No elaboration on cultural bound terms and concepts. The TT readers may not have been familiar with the ST setting and culture. N/A

N/A

Adapting this lexis to fit in the Target culture convention

Either short sentences or Literal translation long descriptive ones. has resulted in long

structures In both translations ..

there. Describing the images of people and the details of the Alley In a rhetoric language.

The translator assumes the target reader to have background knowledge of the work he has translated. Same division into chapters. (fiction layout) The cover of the book has a picture different from the Source text book yet has the same theme. The cover of the first translation features a lady, a man, as well as some soldiers. It is believed here that the picture focuses on HamIda's story as the main character with Faraj, the pimp, and the British soldiers. There has been a lot of lexical problems in TTl (see linguistic translation problems chapter 4) Long sentences and repeated expressions: e.g.: " Oh master, Oh helper, Oh Provider, Oh, generous one, May the ending be sweet !"

Describing the images of people and the details of the Alley in a rhetoric language

The translator assumes the target reader to have background knowledge of the work he has translated.

Same division into chapters. (fiction layout) The second translation has a different cover from the first. It is note-worthy that different publishing houses used different covers for the same content regarding this second TT. The cover of the second translation is an image for different people. It IS believed here that the cover focuses on all characters of the alley rather than certain ones.

Fewer instances of linguistic translation problems than TTl.

Some sentences were deleted like the example cited in the first translation, but most of the structures were kept. Repetition of certain structures and over- use of long sentences.

Table 4.3 Text Analysis and Translation Skopos (Examples)

- 108 -

The features examined include, as the table above shows that Nord has set to

analyse the intra-textual factors and the extra-textual factors. The intra-textual

factors' analysis does not provide much information about the quality of the

translations. Applying the subject matter for instance sheds light on the dark side of

Midaq Alley, while content dealt with the descriptive images of the setting where the

people who live . On the other hand, pre-suppositions involved the translator

assuming a good knowledge on the side of the target reader of the source culture,

which is not entirely true. Text-composition told us that the layout of the ST and

TTl as well as TT2 is a fiction layout (chapters).the non-verbal elements highlighted

the front cover image used in ST, TTl and TT2 and how they are different in

portraying the novel. The lexis used in ST is simplified standard Arabic which can

be understood by laymen. The language used in TTl and TT2 is the American

English dialect. However, there are a considerable number with regards to the

linguistic translation problems.

Applying the intra-textual and extra-textual factors on the case study does not

provide much reliable judgment on the quality of the translation. Therefore, the

current study finds that applying Nord's translation problems (See 4.9) provides a

more reliable judgment on how the translator dealt with the different problems in

TTl and TT2.

4.10 Conclusion

This chapter discusses selected models of translation quality assessment,

Newmark (1988) , Dickins et al (2002), Reiss (2000) Toury (1995), House

(1977/1997) and Nord (1991, 2005). Each of these models focuses on different

features.

- 109 -

It examined Toury's weaknesses, looked in detail at House's, which is good

for register and functional equivalence but requires a more detailed too!. This is

provided by Nord, who links intra-and extra-textual features. These tell us a lot but

we are most interested in her four kids of problems because these are most revealing

of the quality of the text. Thus, these will be applied to the analysis ofMidaq Alley.

- 110 -

Chapter Five

Cultural Translation Problems

Chapter four discussed selected models of translation quality assessment,

namely Toury's (1995), House's (197711997) and Nord's (1991/2005). Each of these

models has its strengths and its weaknesses. Nord's model was selected to apply on

the case study of this research.

As pointed out earlier, Nord (2005) identifies four kinds of problems in

translation. These are: pragmatic, cultural, linguistic, and text-specific translation

problems. In this research, the changes which occurred to TTl in TT2 will be

classified according to Nord's translation problems. By categorizing the shifts

attempted by Le Gassick, the intention is to find the most frequent kind of problems

he faced while translating Midaq Alley.

Translation problems identified by Nord (2005/1991) (see 4.3) will be applied

to the examples found in TTl and TT2 in comparison with ST. These examples are

classified and later sub-classified in accordance with these translation problems.

These kinds will be displayed in separate tables for each kind with sub

classifications for each translation problem. Following each table, there will be an

analysis for each example and criticism or justification for the translator's selection

or mistake, and its impact on the target readership.

- III -

5.1 Definition of Convention- related (Cultural) Translation Problems:

Convention related translation problems or cultural translation problems are

those which arise from the difference between two cultures in terms of habits,

norms, traditions, as well as conventions. It is believed that this kind is one of the

most common translation problems and are likely to be found in most if not all

translations. (Nord 199112005: 175)

Cultural translation problems according to the findings in this study have been

sub-classified into: cultural translation problems related to religious background and

cultural translation problems related to social background. It is possible that the

translator could not have been aware of these, at least in the cited examples, which

show that in certain cases the translator has modified TTl to clarify in TT2.

However; in other examples, he was possibly not aware of the gravity of his

misunderstanding or unawareness of how important and essential it was to render the

intended meaning by Mahfouz. Most of the examples under investigation are related

to the first sub-classification that is cultural translation problems related to religious

background. (See culture and translation 3.2)

The Egyptian society is a majority Muslim society, where the use of a large

number of expressions, phrases or even terms related to Islam in one way or another

is a feature of the Arabic language. The translator has probably disregarded or was

unaware of that, which has resulted in many cultural translation problems related to

the religious background of the source language. He resorted to either omitting some

parts or to literal translation of other parts. In either case, the intended cultural

dimension was missing.

- 112 -

The examples will be dealt with one by one. Further explanation will be made

to comment on the changes which occurred in TT 1 and TT2 or those which have

never occurred.

Type of Cultural Translation Problem

5.1.1 Religious background

5.1.2 Social background


5.104 Religious background

5.1.5 background

5.1.5 background

5.1.6 background

5.1.7 background

5.1.8 background

Religious

Religious

Social

Social

Social

- 113 -

Source Text Target Text I Target Text 2

. ~ Y YJ Y " "Oh Master, Oh Zero Translation r\illl ~ .~fi Y Jlj.J Y helper", "Oh provider,

( 1992:2) " .0Y'~ ~...;-. ~ .Y.J Y Oh generous one".

(5:1973)

, ~...;-. ~ .J:!iU ,01 II

... ..,-...,. Y~"';-' ~ J;.\

(10:1973)

WI.:. ~Y'-:I LJ\S"

~ LJ.o r~ .u.,i; '1\ ~ .)!~Ji~~LJJ..l L...,t. ~

(II: 1973)

..,;l:.C.\ ... .llI..l&~1 .~ lJ'IUllcp

(20: 1973)

LJ:!..ll1 u........; c:;:IJ)1

~y!> ~.J J ,~ Y .ylc. .",ull ~Y'\ J ~

r::l..J1 J o~1

(22: 1973)

UiS 4j ~U II

.} ~ .lo.ihl J ,4J..~1 .;a.. '1 ~I....l ~Y'" LJ\S..

".410

(1973 :12)

.::.iJ ~~ ,I)..:..i:i II

"~I

( 1973:5) ~I~J"

~.)c. ~ o..>l'-"'.)! ~".LJI~J~I~ 15

"May the ending be sweet". "All things are at his command". (1966:2)

"Yes, everything has changed. Yes, indeed everything has changed my girl." (1966: 8)

"He had taken care that not a single day should pass without doing some good deed. " ( 1966:9)

"Yes, everything has changed. Yes, indeed everything has changed my lady." (1992: 7)

"He had taken care that, not a single day should pass without doing some good deed or receiving in his home some abused or unfortunate person." (1992:8)

Thanks be to Thanks be to God for making me God for making me richer than most people independent (1992: 18) ( 1966:20)

Why my dear, marriage is one half of religion. "Our lord in his wisdom made it lawful and it was observed by the prophet, peace and blessings be upon him!" (1966:23)

"I have bought him a nice shroud and put it away in a safe place

. until the inevitable time comes." (1966:11,12)

The time for evening conversation has come.

J1966:21 "They went with

him up into a room on the roof of Radwan Hussainy's (1966: 14)

house."

The wife of Mawardy, the wood merchant, had run off with her servant and fate had struck down her father. (1966:19)

Why my dear, marriage is one half of religion. " our lord in his wisdom made it lawful and it was prescribed by prophet, peace and blessings be upon him (1992:20)

"I have bought him a nice shroud as a precaution, and put it in a safe place until the inevitable time comes." (1992:\0)

The time for the evening get-together has come. (1992:1,2)

"They went with him up to a wooden hut built on the roof of Radwan Hussainy's house." (1992: 12) The wife of Marawrdy, the wood merchant, had run off with her servant and her father had informed the police. (1992:16,17)

5.1.9 background

5.1.1 background

5.1.11 background

5.1.12 background

5.1.13 background

5.1.14 background

Religious

Religious

Social

Social

Religious

Religious


5.1.16 Social background

5.1. 17 Religious background

- 114 -

~~I.l5 J

J -..Lo J W. ji! y.-JI J\::. J ~ J <\..i\...6ii ,,;.lJ)

.j~1 C.l5 ~) ~ u-ll ~~ .L..:i.:..t.i ~ ..,.;WI 68~

, jJJi... c» j L;.o ~ Y .~I ~ ..,,! ~i <\..ii Jji.:

Jio.+.! J&.i , <.....ili ".:.1.... ~j !~u'1I.~

(1973:30)

~I

(1973:34) :I~l.. yt..:J1 Jill

,.j~I,4....:,.fi ;;Jfl ,Jots ~ (36 ~) !y..,...fill

: ~ jl.o J~L..:i J

JLijll I~ .jjJ:)J ~ ..;y .lil lh y l»- 4-P-ls ~I ~) !~IJ ..;~ L;.o I......:o j

(86

(1973:142)

.' LW..W<...i..IS. *". -~I ~ J ;;yJl4tll1

;;j..r.J1

(1973:241 )

r+-' J Wy '-It..:. uts Jl;J1 ~ Wl.:J1

(1973:210)

~I~J r..,.JI~.)~<\..i1 .)I~)I~

.,ll ~.).. ..,! U":!.,..JI ~.li..!I.,..:oI}11

(1973:269)

He woke up in the early afternoon, performed the ritual washing and said his prayers. Then he put on his gown and cloak and returned to his office, where he found his second cup of coffee waiting for him. ( 1966:76) What a strong man he must have been! He says he spent a hundred thousand pounds on his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have given me ten thousand? ( 1966:32)

You must keep active to earn a decent living. (1966:37) His young friend said scornfully: uncle Kamil, Kirsha's coffee house, smoking a narguileh! (1966:39)

Abbas wondered whether she despised it, as her brother Hussain did. (1966:97)

Punishment for abusing the Quran is harsh you know (1966:163)

How can you speak to us like that, we are your proud sons (1966:272)

He was still very young, good looking and extremely attractive. (1966:240) Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for the holy land (1966:30 I)

He woke up in the early afternoon, performed the ritual washing and said his prayers. Then he put on his gown and cloak and returned to his office, where he found a second cup of tea waiting for him. (1992:68) What a powerful man he must have been! He says he has spent a hundred thousand 0 his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have been too mean to give me ten thousand? (1992:28,29)

For a decent living, you need a nice

Jluick hand! (1992:3n His young friend said scornfully: uncle Kamil, Kirsha's cafe, smoking a water pipe, playing cards! (1992:35) Abbas wondered whether she despised it, as her brother Hussain did. They really had sucked from one breast then! (1992:87) Punishment for violating the Quran is harsh you know (1992: 146)

How can you speak to us like that, we are your devoted sons (1992:242)

He was young, bright and good looking (1992:214)

Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for Suez on his way to the holy land. (1992:269)

5.1.18 background

Religious

- 115 -

t"'1)1 0.J~ ~ ~ J . I "1 > lY'~yI>JCy..u J~

0.fo.. lP ~I CWI .fi... I~I ~I o~ L. 0.J~

~ ~ ol..:iJ y.)oJl 'OJ~ 'O) Y"-i J~ ..!l.J.li..li ,.Jill

:.l;-JJ o~ 0\ .)1 U"w\ yA~ <\.;~L....'-f.lLi..\J...,.u\....o..JI 4-LUi! ;U1.lc. 01~ .lvi'll .U"1..il1 ~t.:. ~ ~ '1 fo ) .u\ 0)~ rAljiJ ~ 0\ .l;-) Y.l. JS.WlI yYI .l;>.\ ) yI> .ufo! y.W .I~

0l .;.;-.\ ~J '~JYI .u~\ ~l; 01 0-- ~)J j.lc.\ ..ill rAljiJ ,yjiJ~ ':;~I

(>+.!.J yl..,- ~ 0J~ .ul 0-- .o......ii <\.; ..ill u......J L.; J)I .;&lJ 'rLUi) J~ ~jc lP ~ .)W ..ill 0! 'O.:It... l; o~ wL..;..\ w! .u\J 'rLUiYI .)1 0i...AJYI '4i:!l 4..:i1~ ~I

'1~ 4..:i.l1) ~ olIJ ,~I~! '1! I..,;i.lll o~ .JJA\ ~ 4..:ilj 1....\ ,yLi.JIJ ylJ1li..!

~I ~ ~I .~jaJl )J .~'11 ~)IJ ¥~)I ~~~~\...,:.;\ ol.JJ w.l;-J J\ ,~\ 4\:ie .-J.\.j..\ ol~ ~u,.\ ~ w..».ljYJ ,i:b. wfoY ~I ..,! ~ 01£ ~J ,i:b. L.;.J ,tJA.l ~I ..,!J ~

• • • -"- . \1 .\~ u:iA ~.'-'~~

Ufo ,..!llA. 0cjJU y.W\ 0-< I~ ~\j !~~)IJ .,wI ~\J~\~4,;.......

!.JJy.JIJ (1973:272,273)

Zero translation ( 1966:304)

He drew his hand happily on his broad chest, feeling, In so expressing himself much the same contentment as a singer lost in the rhythm of a melody and elated with the power of his art. He continued with firm conviction:"Some consider that such tragedies afflicting apparently blameless people are signs of a revengeful justice, the wisdom of which is beyond the understanding of most people. So you will hear them say, that if the bereaved father, for example, thought deeply, he would realize his loss was a just punishment for some sin either he or his forebears committed. Yet, surely God is the most just and merciful than to treat the innocent as the guilty. Yet you hear these people justify their opinion by God's Qur'anic description of himself as the 'mighty and revengeful'. But I tell you, gentlemen, that Almighty God has no need for revenge and only adopted this attribute to advise man to practice it. God has already stated that the affairs of this life should be settled only on the basis of reward and punishment. Dear and Almighty God's own attributes are wisdom and mercy."

"If I saw in the loss of my children a punishment or penalty I merit, then I would agree with that philosophy and be censured. But I would


- 116 -

4.........,!ijjUi .J

;; ->---:i£. ..::"L............;.I fo 1

.J~~Id.......:l3

...-11 ,ow..,1 ~.J..r'-\ Jjl ~.J..>-fjS ~lS. .J . t....:.. )1

L)~.u....s.,.!i~ ~ oWS.l .J L....lc. ~i .J

J¥~~

(1973:272)

The assembled company began debating Radwan Hussainy's views, each voicing a new opinion but Radwan had not been inviting argument.

( 1966:304)

still be depressed and dissatisfied and no doubt protest that an innocent child died for a weak man's SinS.

And is that forgiveness and mercy? And where is the tragedy in what reveals wisdom, goodness and joy?" ( 1992:272)

Radwan Hussainy's opinions drew objections both based on the literal text and the scholastic interpretations of Islam. Some present insisted that what seemed revenge was in fact mercy Many other men were both more eloquent and erudite than Radwan but he hadn't really been inviting argument( 1992:273)

Table 5.1 Cultural Translation Problems

5.2 Analysis of Examples

All examples in the table above are analysed to discuss the shifts which took place

from TTl to TT2. The sub-classification of each kind is also explained to clarify the

shift and whether it was required or not.

Dickins (forthcoming) presents a very interesting argument. He classifies the cultural

translation problems into what he calls: non-Iexicalised translation procedures and

ungrammatical. He defines non-Iexicalised as words which cannot be found in a

dictionary. An example on such procedure is the word .JL.y. which has no

equivalent, according to Dickins. Ungrammatical, on the other hand, is when a

- 117 -

certain structure in the ST rendered into the TT, and the outcome does not conform

to the grammatical rules of the TT. An instance would be the following example:

~~ ~~ the translation would be "he beat me two beatings" which is quite

ungrammatical in English. Dickins uses nonce-words for non-Iexicalised words and

nonce-formations for ungrammatical forms.

5.2.1 Religious Related Examples

Example 5.1.1 as shown in the table is:

(1973:5)

"Oh Master, Oh helper", "Oh provider, Oh generous one". "May the ending

be sweet". "All things are at his command". (1966:2)

Zero translation. (1992:2)

This example is entirely cultural related to religious background of the

Egyptian community. Interestingly, this very example was rendered literally by the

translator in the first edition, but was omitted from the context after the translation

was revised. As mentioned earlier in this study, Allen (2000:891) says:

Pioneer status in the pre-Nobel phase of Mahfouz's translations into English

belongs to Trevor Le Gassick ... while the first version of this translation had

omitted some of the more intrinsically Arabic aspect of the original text,

particularly greetings and comments with an Islamic slant, a second edition in

1975 restored some of this material. Le Gassick's translation captures the

qualities of Mahfouz's novelistic craft at this time ... Even more than 30 years

- 118 -

after its initial appearance, this translation remains one of the most accessible

and representative of Mahfouz's works rendered into English.

The reason which made Le Gassick reconsider his first version of translation

was the criticism he received for not translating or rendering the religious or Islamic

slant words or expressions. This example proves that this was not necessarily the

case. Nevertheless, this study wiII explore if there is a trend in the translation which

can meet what was cited above by Allen (2000).

The second translation was produced by Le Gassick. Therefore, it seems highly

probable in this study that Mahfouz had a say in omitting or deleting this very

statement as it is entirely related to religion and specific to the source target

readership.

Example 5.1.2 includes a religious cultural element as well:

(1947/1973: 1 1)

"He had taken care that not a single day should pass without doing some good

deed. " (1966:9)

"He had taken care that not a single day should pass without doing some good

deed or receiving in his home some abused or unfortunate person." (1992:8)

In this example Mahfouz has used part of the holy Qur'an; (AI-lsra'29) and

merged it into the description of a person. The translator has opted for a translation

which would render the content rather than the fonn.

Following is AI-Isra' Surat, verse 29 and its translation:

- 119 -

Sahih International:

"And do not make your hand [as] chained to your neck or extend it completely

and [thereby] become blamed and insolvent."

Le Gassick has given the meaning, or function in TTl, yet has rendered the

literal translation in TT2. This rendition has restored the cultural element related to

religious background. In fact Le Gassick has added an explicatory sentence which

better clarifies the meaning to the target readership:

... or receiving in his home some abused or unfortunate person.

Example 5.1.3 is:

(20: 1973)

Thanks be to God for making me richer than most people (1966:20)

Thanks be to God for making me independent (1992: 18)

In this example Le Gassick tries to clarify the meaning behind the word:

"~\..iC.I" In TT2, this word literally means made me rich. TTl included "made me

richer than most people". This misunderstanding in the cultural elements is related to

the religious background and has resulted in a totally different meaning. The person

speaking is trying to say that God has made him not in need to ask for other people's

help. TTl was indicating that this person was well off or richer than others which is

not what was meant. In TT2 Le Gassick changed his translation to "independent" as

shown above which is closer to what was intended by Mahfouz.

- 120 -

Example 5.1.4 is another instance of a cultural religious translation problem

(1973:22)

Why my dear, marriage is one half of religion. "Our lord in his wisdom made

it lawful and it was observed by the prophet. peace and blessings be upon

him!" (1966:23)

Why my dear, marriage is one half of religion. " our lord in his wisdom made

it lawful and it was prescribed by prophet, peace and blessings be upon him

(1992:20)

The example above shows that the translator mistranslates the word: "~ JAI"

into "observed". This example again deals with a religious background or a religious

fact. The translator sometimes failed to grasp the nuance of the intended word which

has resulted in him using the word "observed" in TTl but changed it to "prescribed"

in the TT2. Close as it sounds TT2 does not accurately describe what Mahfouz was

saying. Mahfouz' s use of the word: "~ .JAI" intended for this matter was a command

by God and the prophet.

Example 5.1.5 revolves around another religious aspect, the shroud. The

translator has been successful in rendering the intended meaning, but has chosen to

omit the translation of the word: "~~\"in TTl which means as a precaution.

However, he has managed to restore it in the TT2. This shows as follows:

(1973:12)

- 121 -

"I have bought him a nice shroud and put it away in a safe place until the

inevitable time comes. " (1966: 11,12)

"I have bought him a nice shroud as a precaution, and put it in a safe place

until the inevitable time comes." (1992: I 0)

It is believed in this study that the significance of the omitted parts or the

missing meaning is the main important part which the ST author is trying to convey.

The word "~'-:!h'''was intentionally used in one way or another to say "may God

forbid for the time being" or "hopefully, after a long life". Le Gassick has chosen to

omit the word believing that it is a word of little significance. The omission could

have been done unintentionally by the translator. A suggested rendering for "a nice

shroud" would be a spare shroud.

As for the cultural translation problems related to social background, they were

not many in the examples under investigation. However, not rendering them resulted

in confusing or unclear equivalents.

(1973 :68) )~ ol......hl.!

- He woke up in the early afternoon, performed the ritual washing and said his

prayers. Then he put on his gown and cloak and returned to his office, where

he found his second cup of coffee waiting for him. (1966:76)

- He woke up in the early afternoon, performed the ritual washing and said his

prayers. Then he put on his gown and cloak and returned to his office, where

he found a second cup of tea waiting for him. (1992:68)

- 122 -

This example includes both a cultural shift alongside a linguistic shift. The

cultural translation problem here is translating the word "l..;.,jii" into "performed the

ritual washing". The Islamic "ritual washing" has an English equivalent "ablutions".

It would be more accurate to use it due to the fact that "ablutions" is quite specific to

the Islamic culture, while "the ritual washing" can be rather generic. Le Gassick did

not do any changes on the translation from TTl to TT2. The linguistic shift in this

example is the use of the word "coffee" as a translation for '\ .. 1....!i.ll" which means tea.

However this misreading could be justified due to the fact that both coffee and tea

share a semantic field, and the translator has probably made this mistake

unintentionally. Nevertheless, TT2 included a correction of the translation and "tea"

was used as a translation. This example is related to social and religious background

information. The first part of the example which has been mis-rendered is obviously

relevant to religious background and the last part is related to social.

The next example:

-What a strong man he must have been! He says he spent a hundred thousand

pounds on his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have given me

ten thousand? (1966:32)



too mean to give me ten thousand? (1992:28, 29)

In the above example, the source text mentions clearly ~j o~1 or what Le

Gassick renders as our lady Zainab. For any regular reader of the target text, there is

- 123 -

barely any indication that Lady Zainab is the granddaughter of Prophet Mohammed,

who is believed to have visited Egypt, after the battle of Karbala' and died there. She

was buried in Cairo, and a mosque was built on her tomb. The shrine has a great

significance for Egyptians and is considered the second most important and most

visited shrine after AI-Hussain's, Zainab's brother.

Le Gassick was either unaware of the importance of this cultural aspect in the

Egyptian community or chose to ignore its relevance to the novel. This point was not

revised in TT2. [t is necessary to give a brief explanation on who, Zainab is for the

source culture, in order to avoid creating confusion for the target readership.

In the following example, TT2 is revised and the revision is justified. In the

source text, Hamlda was clearly saying that uncle Kamil has spent ten thousand

pounds for the love of Zainab, and then she adds: !r;~ ~ ~, which means what

Le Gasssick renders in TT2: "Do you think he would have been too mean to give me

ten thousand?"

TTL

The issue of her wondering if he would have been mean or not was missing in

Another example which mentions the holy Qur'an is the following:

(1973:142)

Punishment for abusing the Quran is harsh you know (1966: 163)

Punishment for violating the Quran is harsh you know (1992: 146)

This example can be classified as a linguistic translation problem; however, it

has a very obvious cultural element which has been mistranslated.

- 124 -

The linguistic translation problem is the translation of "4-,Uj" into "abusing" and

"violating" in TT2. Using the word "abuse" in this context indicates a major sin. The

meaning intended in the ST is more or less" not abiding by" therefore the equivalent

used in TT2 is closer to the intended meaning than TTL This kind of linguistic

translation problem is classified as a substantive revision, for TT2 is more accurate

than TTL

As for the cultural translation problem, it is a problem of part and whole. The

translator renders the word "~UlI", which is the first verse in the holy Qur'an and

which is used as a blessing for starting a marriage contract, to Qur'an is inaccurate.

Alternatively, it could have been transliterated or paraphrased to acquaint the reader

of it. It sounds quite impossible to read the whole Qur'an to start the marriage

contract. The cultural translation problem was not revised in TT2 but remained the

same in both translations. This kind of problem is classified as a religious

background problem as it relates to Islam.

The following example uses a word relevant to the Islamic culture:

(1973:241)

How can you speak to us like that, we are your proud sons (1966:272)

How can you speak to us like that, we are your devoted sons (1992:242)

This example is another case of a cultural translation problem. The word o.)y,ll

has been misread in TTL This word means "devoted". TTl renders it as "proud"

which is not accurate. However, TT2 modifies the word into "devoted" which is the

right equivalent to use. This translation problem appears to be a linguistic translation

problem; however, it has a cultural dimension. The word o..Jy,\1 is related to the

- 125 -

Islamic background. It is mentioned in the holy Qur'an in verses which call sons and

daughters to be kind to their parents. The word has since become commonly used as

an influence of the Islamic background. This translation problem is a cultural

translation problem related to religious background.

The next example:

4....,.liJ1 ~1.J';I.)1 oU;!y, ~ U";!yJl.)1 ~)1 ~ rj;!11 ~ .)~ -..il ~1 rJc. J

(1973:269)

Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for the holy land

(1966:301)

Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for Suez on his way

to the holy land. (1992:269)

The shift in this example took place on a linguistic level. The phrase 0\...:..)1 ~

has been omitted. This word is an Islamic word which means "God willing". It

has been omitted from both TTl and TT2. Such phrases reflect the SC and

should be rendered to prevent the TT to appear like an ST as explained

previously.

Another phrase which has been omitted from TTl is 0":I."..J1 .)1. This phrase

explains that Hussainy was heading to Suez on his way to the holy lands. The

translator might have omitted it thinking it was not significant. However, a lot of

the detailed expressions used in the ST by Mahfouz are intended and should be

rendered in IT. Nevertheless, TT2 restores this phrase to become "would leave

for Suez on his way to the holy lands". This example is considered a cultural

translation problem related to religious background.

- 126 -

The next example:

"i J ~ .. 1';11 ~)I ~w)1 ~I \ .~:. ~I "0' ·_11 .ulj L..i ,,-,t:ia.ll ,-,I .~IL ';II tJ.i.l11 .~ ...r yJ ."'-:!t"' J - . ~ _. ...>:t.)"-' . J. Y'. , -

(1973:272,273)

- Zero translation (1966:304)

- He drew his hand happily on his broad chest, feeling, in so expressing

himself much the same contentment as a singer lost in the rhythm of a melody

and elated with the power of his art. He continued with firm conviction:"Some

consider that such tragedies afflicting apparently blameless people are signs of a

revengeful justice, the wisdom of which is beyond the understanding of most

people. So you will hear them say, that if the bereaved father, for example,

thought deeply, he would realize his loss was a just punishment for some sin

either he or his forebears committed. Yet, surely God is the most just and

merciful than to treat the innocent as the guilty. Yet you hear these people justify

their opinion by God's Qur'anic description of himself as the 'mighty and

- 127 -

revengeful'. But I tell you, gentlemen, that Almighty God has no need for

revenge and only adopted this attribute to advise man to practice it. God has

already stated that the affairs of this life should be settled only on the basis of

reward and punishment. Dear and Almighty God's own attributes are wisdom

and mercy."

- If I saw in the loss of my children a punishment or penalty I merit, then I would

agree with that philosophy and be censured. But I would still be depressed and

dissatisfied and no doubt protest that an innocent child died for a weak man's

sins. And is that forgiveness and mercy? And where is the tragedy in what

reveals wisdom, goodness and joy? (1992:272)

The translation problem in this example is clearly cultural. The whole part

(nearly a page) has been omitted from TTl. This part discusses a large number of

cultural elements and religious expressions, which Le Gassick chose to omit in

TTl but then restores them in TT2 in a literal manner. In most of the translated

parts in TT2 the literal translation has proved to be successful. However, the

omission of this large part from TTl cannot be justified for it carries a lot of

significant cultural elements which contribute to understanding the SC. This

translation problem is considered cultural related to religious background.

The next example:

(1973:272)

The assembled company began debating Radwan Hussainy's views, each voicing a

new opinion but Radwan had not been inviting argument. (1966:304)

- 128 -

Radwan Hussainy's opinions drew objections both based on the literal text and the

scholastic interpretations of Islam. Some present insisted that what seemed revenge

was in fact mercy Many other men were both more eloquent and erudite than

Radwan but he hadn't really been inviting argument(1992:273)

The phrase ~ ~I .!.L..:i9 has been omitted in TTl. This phrase means

"some of them restricted themselves to the instructions of the holy text". This

phrase is related to Islamic culture. The word ~I refers to the holy Qur'an. TT2

renders this part as "the literal text", which is soulless and can refer to any text.

Therefore the cultural element has been ignored in this word.

"The scholastic interpretations of Islam" this part has been added to TT2 as

to make up for the loss which occurred in TTl. The addition restores the cultural

dimension of the "text" as relating to Islam. However, the word Islam is too

generic. The text and the interpretations should all refer to the Quran which

would have reflected better the ST.

The word J:,l which means "to explain" has been omitted from TTl. It is

also related to the Islamic culture, as to explaining Islamic verses. This word has

been rendered inaccurately in TT2. Moreover, the word "insisted" has been

inserted into TT2 without having any corresponding equivalent in ST.

On the other hand the words L.k. fol J ~.J~ .u... .s..,sl have also been

omitted fromTTl. The omitted phrase is significantly used in the ST. It refers to

the fact that the people Radwan is debating with are more religiously educated

than he is. TT2 restores the translation of this phrase into "were both more

eloquent and erudite". Although TT2 is a good translation, these people are

- 129 -

eloquent and erudite in religious terms; adding "in Islam or religiously" would

have rendered this cultural element.

This example has cultural translation problems which relate to religious

background.

The next example is again an instance of an omission for the last part of the

sentence in TTl which was retained in TT2. The revision for this example is

considered substantive.

(1973 :86)~

- Abbas wondered whether she despised it, as her brother Hussain did. (1966:97)

- Abbas wondered whether she despised it, as her brother Hussain did. They

really had suckled from one breast then! (1992:87)

The source text includes the following part,

This was not translated in TT I, it was completely omitted. However, it was

rendered and added to the first part in TT2: "They really had suckled from one breast

then!" The significance of this part is that the source text author wishes here to

emphasize that both HamTda and ~ussain suckled from the same woman although

they are not relatives. In Islam, if two babies suckle from the same woman for five

times till they are satisfied, they are considered as siblings, and they cannot get

married to each other. This is what happened to Hamida and ~ussain. The translation

of this part was important to the text, to emphasize the reason these two cannot have

any kind of relationship other than brotherhood.

- 130 -

It is probable that Le Gassick tried to domesticate the translation and omit parts

which are not familiar for the target readership. Ilowever, he most of the times

rendered them and translated them literally. Nevertheless, in some of his literal

rendition, more explication was required to familiarize the target readership with

some source culture bound terms or concepts.

This study does not overlook the fact that Arabic literature was not translated

on a wide scale in the sixties and seventies and that the perception that Arabic

literature is highly immersed in local culture was one of the reasons why not many

works were rendered into other languages at that time. This justifies many of the

selections Le Gassick made to domesticate his TTl.

5.2.2 Social Related Examples

The following examples are found to include cultural translation problems

which relate to the social use of language. The examples are analysed to clarify the

social cultural dimension which is missing in either TTl or both TTl and TT2.

Example 5.1.6 includes an expression used by the source language speakers

and it is again specific to the Egyptian society. The translator, unaware of what it

refers to, resorted to a literal translation which resulted, in my view, in an unclear

equivalent.

(1973:10)

"Yes, everything has changed. Yes, indeed everything has changed my girl."

(1966: 8)

- 131 -

"Yes, everything has changed. Yes, indeed everything has changed my lady."

(1992: 7)

As clearly shown in this example, the word"~" is translated by Le Gassick as

my girl in TTl and my lady in TT2. Going back to the context, the speaker was

referring to the world. He was complaining to it about the big change which had

happened to all things around him. This way of complaining to the world is quite

specific to the Egyptian society, as mentioned earlier, and Le Gassick failed to

render the socio-cultural dimension in this regard. This type of Cultural translation

problem is found to relate to social background.

Example 5.1.7 uses an inaccurate term In TT I which the translator has

modified to a more accurate term in TT2. This is a case of using a generic term or

word in place of a more specific one.

" . .11 ..:.Ii 6. 1.1 '-~~ " ..r- J j:. • ,.,.--.

(1973:5)

"The time for evening conversation has come." (1966:2)

"The time for the evening get-together has come." (1992: 1 ,2)

Le Gassick has translated the word " ~I" to "evening conversation" which is

not quite what is intended. The Arabic term refers to a habit in Middle Eastern

Societies, which is evening time gathering over a drink while chatting or enjoying

their time. It is more than just an evening conversation. In TT2 Le Gassick has

modified the translation to be "a get-together" which is more accurate than the first.

This example can be sub-classified to go under social related cultural translation

problems.

- 132 -

As for the example 6.1.7:

".\ . ~\<...::..uJ-L. .. , 1- ~ii II~\ ~ " .U ~.J - '" c..- 1.5""'"' _. ~ <S'. _..J J

( 1973 : 15) 6.....,

"They went with him up into a room on the roof of Radwan Hussainy's

house." (1966: 14)

"They went with him up to a wooden hut built on the roof of Radwan

Hussainy's house." (1992:12)

Interestingly, as shown above, this is another case where Le Gassick decided to

interfere with a good selection of equivalent he had made in TTl; the word "ii~" as

found in the source text means "room". Le Gassick managed to translate it

accurately in TTl but again decided to change it into a "hut" in TT2. The word "hut"

in Arabic is "tfi" which refers to a small temporary dwelling of simple construction

such as a shed. The wooden room as Mahfouz puts it is only one room of very

simple construction built on the roof of the house for storage purposes, for men to

receive their peers for the evening get-together, in order to avoid disturbing the

family, or other different purposes. Therefore, hut, is not meant in the source

language text. It would have been better if Le Gassick did not change his first choice

which was closer to the intended meaning. This is again a cultural element in the

Egyptian society.

Another instance where the translator was required to explain more, to avoid

confusing the reader is in the concept of having a room on the roof which is

unfamiliar for the Western reader, therefore the translator attempts in TTl and TT2

to render the function or the concept of the source text term. This means that TT2

- 133 -

fails to grasp the meaning because it does not indicate the use of the room in the

gathering custom.

The following example is another instance of a culture- bound term which is

specific to the Egyptian society. Le Gassick probably fails to see the cultural

dimension and resorts to a literal translation.

( 1973 :18)

The wife of Mawardy, the wood merchant, had run off with her servant and

fate had struck down her father. (1966: 19)


her father had informed the police. (1992: 16,17)

A grave misunderstanding by Le Gassick is obvious in this example. Two

misunderstanding occurred in the translation of this example. One was modified in

the second translation, but the other was not. The first mistranslation was the last

part of the sentence: "~' lA~1 ~ J". This part means that her father had informed

the police, which is exactly what Le Gassick said, in TT2. In TTl he misunderstood

the meaning and said: "fate had struck down her father." The word "~'''means

police station but it is very specific to the Egyptian dialect. This has probably caused

the translator to misunderstand the whole sentence.

On the other hand, Le Gassick has repeated a grave mistake in both

translations. He had translated the word "~.fi" which means daughter into "wife".

The source word is again specific to the dialect. A bicultural translator would have

been aware of what is meant by the author. It is thought that the translator was not

fully cognizant of the specific source culture. It is true that in the sixties very little

- 134 -

Arabic literature was translated and Le Gassick was one of the first to do so. It must

be said in this regards that Mahfouz's works are deeply immersed in the local culture

of Egypt and to be translated they need a lot of effort by a non-native speaker or

someone from a different culture like the case of Le Gassick.

It is believed that this example is an instance of nonce-words as explained in

5.2 by Dickins (forthcoming), where a word does not exist in a dictionary and is

bound to the local dialect of Egypt. The cultural dimension was rendered neither in

TTl nor in TT2.

Next is an example where the author Naguib Mahfouz chooses to use an

expression commonly used in the Egyptian community.

(1973:34)

- You must keep active to earn a decent living. (1966:37)

- For a decent living, you need a nice quick hand! (1992:33)

The meaning of this expression is that one needs to be active as opposed to

being lazy. TTl, as shown above, has maintained the meaning of the source text. On

the other hand, TT2 has used the expression "a nice quick hand" which has a bad

connotation in Arab Culture. It usually refers to pick pockets. Therefore, although

TTl attempted a functional equivalent, it was closer to the intended meaning than

TT2, which distorted the meaning.

This next example shows how different techniques in translation are taken or

changed in the two versions of the translation.

- 135 -

(1973 :36)

- His young friend said scornfully: uncle Kamil, Kirsha's coffee house,

smoking a narguileh! (1966:39)

-His young friend said scornfully: uncle Kamil, Kirsha's cafe, smoking a water

pipe, playing cards! (1992:35)

The source text has a word list of things and places which ends with the

word ;~.fill which has been omitted in TTl then rendered in TT2 into "playing

cards". After research for what this word refers to, it turned out to be a place in

Cairo where the guys used to spend time at to smoke Shisha and play cards.

The next example includes a commonly used word in the Arab society:

(1973:210)

He was still very young, good looking and extremely attractive. (1966:240)

He was young, bright and good looking (1992:214)

In the above example the Arabic adjective J,WI ~ is mistranslated in TTl

and TT2. This adjective means "has a sense of humor", which is found neither in

TTl nor in TT2. It is obvious in TTl and TT2 that there is a cultural translation

problem. The collocation which means literally: "he has a light shadow" has

been rendered in TTl into "extremely attractive" while it has been translated in

TT2 into "bright". Neither of the used adjectives in TTl and TT2 relates to the

- 136 -

meaning of the collocation used. This is a cultural translation problem which

relates to the social background.

5.3Conclusion

The examples listed in table 5.1 above related to either lack of religious

background information or lack of social background information. It is obvious that

the examples related to religious background information dominated the examples

found. Le Gassick has probably failed to grasp the essence of Arab Culture in terms

of religious background information. As mentioned before the Arabic culture is quite

immersed in the Islamic culture, failing to realize this would ultimately result in

cultural translation problems.

While TTl omits most of the Islamic culture specifics, for it probably aims

at domesticating the translation to the target audience, TT2 attempted to render some

of the missing elements. It succeeds in some parts but fail in others.

On the other hand, social related cultural translation problems include a

considerable number of examples which were revised insufficiently. These examples

needed more revision in order to capture the missing social dimension.

In one of the examples, the revision is reverse. This means that a correct

translation in TTl is rendered wrongly in TT2.

A modest number of examples, however, underwent sufficient revision which

restores the missing socio-cultural dimension in the translation problems.

- 137 -

Chapter Six

Linguistic Translation Problems

Chapter five tackled cultural translation problems. The examples found were

analysed to clarify the mistakes which occurred in TTl, TT2 or both. Cultural

translation problems were classified according to the examples into religious

background and social background. It has been found that the religious background

instances dominated the number of examples found. More examples associated with

religious background information occurred during the analysis of shifts between TTl

and TT2 in comparison with ST.

Chapter six, on the other hand, discusses linguistic translation problems which

are very significant to this study. The translator makes quite a few shifts, either by

misunderstanding some words or by selecting better and more accurate equivalents

in the TT2. These are classified into the following sub-categories:

Shifts which occurred to linguistic translation problems in TTl are mainly the

result of misunderstanding the meaning or connotation of the lexical item, or not

choosing the accurate or the best equivalent. In most of these cases, the translator is

successful in creating the shifts, while in few cases he chooses to create shifts which

were not very accurate or necessary.

The linguistic translation problems are sub-classified into three sub

classifications according to the shifts which occurred to them. The first is examples

which underwent a substantive revision of TTl to TT2. The second is examples

which underwent a revision, but this revision is insufficient in solving all the

- 138 -

problems in the translation of the example in TT I. The third kind is examples which

underwent a negative revision.

Type of Linguistic Source Text Target Text 1 Target Text 2 Translation Problem 6.1.1 Substantive y .. :.uill ~I II "Light the stove, "Put out the oven Jaada" revision 6~1I.·~ Jaada"( 1966:2) (1992:2) 6.1.2Incomplete ..:;"ii US j) II "If we have been "If we have been revision II . ...:...1 )WI ,,~)Lbll JI."....i suffering of dark suffering of dark

6~1I nights" (1966:2) blackouts"( 1992:2) 6.1.3 Substantive .,j1.S 4J.;. .... ,ljc, J II "A workman is setting "He is setting up a revision ......,s. -., Y .)c. J,.~ ~ up a second hand second-hand radio."

".IA.,;I.l;>-!..;=~tYi. loudspeaker on a ( 1992:3) 7~1I wall."

(1966:4) 6.1.4 incomplete J,..I.S r-c ~ " II "Uncle Kamel "Uncle Kamel followed revision " . J,..,....ltS followed swaying like swaying like a

12~ a camel." (1966: II) palanquin." (1992 :9) 6.1.5Negative revision ..} ..fo... JJ;. " II Sankar, the waiter, Sankar, the waiter, was as

" ...:...4J..l..l1 ~ .u.1...!U was as busy as ever, busy as ever, bringing ..} "':"'1.S.)1..Jy ..r<Y- bringing orders and orders and putting the ".":;fo.all putting money into the money tokens into the till

14 ~ till. (1966:13) (1992:11) 6.1.6 Substantive u.- jA.i ~4. " II "Another group of "Another group of men revision ~I wl.;!l ~I , - men arrived, all arrived, all peers of the

15~II.Ufi associates of Kirsha." cafe owner." (1992: 12) (1966:14)

6.1.7 Substantive &1.,r..Jo! J;iS.ll1 Dr. Booshy had Dr. Booshy had interfered revision "U.i:.y..i..}.~.~ interfered with a little with a little girl in the

~ .~~ J,;...) ~y.4 girl in the shelter in shelter in the last air raid 18 the last air raid and and some upright citizen

someone had struck had struck him for it. him for it. (1966: 19) (1992:16)

6.1.8 Substantive ~...:.........:...s......l" Mrs. Afify made no Mrs. Afify while Hamlda, revision Wj\S " -~ ~ l4!.) reply while Hamida , her tenant's daughter,

.11. ..} .~I wb..l her tenant's daughter, who had just come into

.)c. • .".All ~ -~I who had just come the room, placed a tray • ...:...:il Up. u.-.l""':;" (jI."oJ1 into the room placed a with coffee on the table 19~ raqwe on the table and and left again. (1992: 17)

went back from where she had come. (1966: 19)

6.1.9 Substantive " ~..I.I .,l... May God sweeten May God sweeten your revision .J,.1.Sl1 ~1"JItI ~ u-li your whole life and whole life and delight

23~ delight your heart with your heart with a perfect a successful marriage. marriage. (1992:21) (1966:21 )

6.1.10 Substantive ~~lo..::..s.:....." Umm Hamida laughed Umm HamId a let out a revision 4.) Uj.) ~ ~ in her reverberating raucous throaty laugh,

Llw...bl Wolbjl J ~jA and upsetting manner increasing in confidence, 'I" ~I ~I ~w ~I and she increased in that the deal she was 24 ~ .1A.lic ~ confidence that the about to make would be

deal she was about to lucrative indeed. make would be a (1992:22)

6.1.11 revision

6.1.12 revision

6.1.13 revision

6.1.14 revision

6.1.15 revision

6.1.16 revision

6.1.17 revision

- 139 -

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

• .lA ~J~i J

4-i!jl".. wli.U , y..rJI

63 ~ .• IJilL!

]A j'i I A..l;ti. WitS

IY'4e .~ .) 1~.l.;Io. i..,..:;j ~,~I¥ .~I

. ~I)ill .) i'~ 4lA J

• ..,....::.,JWI~~.~ l..)A 0tS .yL....c.'j1 ~ 'j IY' ).H.ils , i y\ j.o ':i~ .:;..1 .li ~ Ji j,*- .u ~ 101 ~.JWI ... jJIJC

.~ .) U-lu.:. I J

1'1 .jyj...)c. ~y:J 01 .jiill . J.l.,J.. t IJ.ijI 0y .~ 115~

'-iy.~ ~IJ)I J

~I Wa.! J JiI~1 ~..,..ll 121 w...... . .lAWI

0-" .) Wl.:...:i ~ 133 w...... ... y<>t:WI

Substantive J .~ 1'1 ~..l! Jal l1-!J yhJ c..¥ '::"fi~ .:;.. W.i .)c. 1..J:l Jli)1 .I..)AI </' lA J ~I .~ .4£ ~.; 'j O.lAlj

133w......

lucrative one. ( 1966:25) This second war had so far been even more nourishing for his business and now he was prosperous. ( 1966:70) When matters came to head, they rebelled against his advice and even refused to enrol in the trade school, lest it be a snare for them. They had gone into law and medicine, and now, one was a judge, the other a barrister and the third was a doctor at Qasr AI Ainy hospital. ( 196:70)

This second war had so far been even more lucrative for his business and now he was very prosperous. (1992:63)

When matters came to head, they rebelled against his advice and even refused to enrol in the trade school, lest it be a snare for them. They had gone into law and medicine, and now, one was a judge, the other an attorney, and the third a doctor at Qasr AI Aini Hospital (1992:63)

His meetings with How his meetings in Hamida m Azhar Azhar street had changed street opened a new life for Abbas! He was in way of life for Abbas. love. A new fire burned Gay and confident, he within him, desire melting was like a tippler safe his nerves and in a familiar bar. intoxicating his brain. He (1966: 116) felt gay and confident like

Throughout the interval, she had made frequent visits to the matchmaker.

J)966:1321 She recalled reading somewhere that marriage often made a worn out lute play sweetly and it often revitalized an exhausted body. (1966:138)

a carefree troubadour knight - or perhaps a tippler safe in a familiar bar.J.1992: \O~ Throughout the interval, she had made frequent visits to the marriage broker. (1992: 119)

Why marriage could certainly regenerate a faded figure, revitalize a listless body. (1992: 125)

You will of course It does cause me a lot of warn me of trouble. (1992: 136) consequences. (1966: 151 ) Umm Hamid a was astonished at this and recalled how all Midaq Alley was at one time wild for a bit of this food. So

Umm HamId a was astonished at this and recalled how all Midaq Alley was at one time wild for a bit of this food. So Alwan's wife was too

Alwan's wife was too puritanical, was she, and fine, was she, and didn't approve of it? didn't approve of it? (1992: 1361

6.1.18 reVISIOn

6.1.19 revision

6.1.20 revision

6.1.21 revision

6.1.22 revision

6.1.23 revision

6.1.24

- 140-

(1966: 152) Substantive J J;..)I '4-J 1..cJl! Alwan's face fell and Alwan's face fell and he

J\.5 J ~ ~J ~I f""'4 ~ "..its J .~ :o.J~ o~""bJ1 ~~".

135~

Substantive d\:j .Ai ~ ,J J

wW ~I "l:ij uc. ~I ~ J ~I ,ljc ~~ o\:i3 - 1..;. \h.J1 ........h... J c:-:< J .J .

~I.....hl J ~.J"'I U:!'-~ • .)~ w~1 .lS J .'-/\....:JI o\:i3\.j1 J ..... ~.J:' ~..s)..l:J1 ~ J • .,.:ill ~ UA.l O.lWI ~ l.. w~ y..>

~ . Jt,... ... I J~ 4-:!k 156

Substantive '+.1~ ~ ~ 1"1 ~ ~l:! J '+fl6; 1"1 Y-......i,j

158 ~ YI+i:J.b...

Substantive ;'~I W-.l1S l.. J

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

u~1 ~ '+.1":':"':; ~ ~":;"I J 4-¥1y,

~..;W ,.;~ y...;..c. J ~.J'il .,lc. ;'~~I ~ .~I .,lc. u.-J)

160 ~ wi "..il 1"1

.Jti ~ J 4J ~l:i I",,;ll ",.,ill u,.c t..,. ~ ~I~I~I.~ J ...... 1.) ~ t..,. .... :a; J

I"\:i:ij'il J .:;wI 'Jc. '" JY

.)~ 4-:!k .)":;"1 J !! ,.,...:u ,J ~w..'J4 ~ .lil ~ ,J..! u.o ~ L.c. ;,» ~ w1~L..:i

J..;...:i $J ,J If,il * .4,L.o1 ~ ~Y UiIS .:.aY UllS l..

~AwIJ~wl~ 160 ~ .J:I.;.l:..l1 ~ 4J

~ ufi..ll t..,. 4i J

J ~ u.il:ii ~I ..,.loU wi w.J.l ~I ujl\t. .W"'"I ~ ..:wc.1 L..S: ~j.s 161~

J

he turned red with rage, as though speaking the name of a bitter enemy he shouted: Abbas Hilu! (1966:154) From that evening on, he came regularly to Midaq Alley. He would come in the late afternoon; sit smoking a narguilah and sipping tea. His sudden appearance and his air of respectable tidiness caused much surprise in the coffee house, but eventually their astonishment diminished as they grew accustomed to him. (1966: 179) Or would he overtake her to let her see him? Perhaps he would walk by her side and ask her to become his fiance (1966: 181) She scarcely managed to reach her room before she hurled her cloak on the floor and flung herself tn an armchair. (1966: 182)

Or had he deliberately ignored her today, to teach her a lesson or torture her? Now she definitely knew one thing, that she wanted him to follow her and to approach her in the street. (1966: 183)

She felt restless, and wrapped herself in her cloak and went out not even bothering to check her appearance in the small cracked mirror. (1966:184) She relaxed and fixed

turned red with rage. As though speaking the name of some vile insect he shouted, Abbas Hilu! (1992: 138)

From that evening on, he came regularly to Midaq Alley. He would come in the late afternoon; sit smoking a water pipe and sipping tea. His sudden appearance and his air of respectful tidiness caused much astonishment in the cafe, but eventually they grew accustomed to him. (1992:160)

Or would he overtake her to let her see him? Perhaps he would walk by her side and begin talking to her (1992: 162)

She scarcely managed to reach her room before she hurled her cloak on the floor and flung herself in an armchair seething with rage. (1992: 163)

Or had he deliberately ignored her today. to teach her a lesson or to torture her. Was he playing cat and mouse? She felt an urge to hurl a water pitcher down at his head. Her confusion and rage were extreme but now she definitely knew one thing- that she wanted him to follow her in the street. (1992: 163)

She felt restless and wrapped herself in her cloak and went out not even bothering to check her appearance as she had the day before.

J.1992:164) She made no ol?i.ection

revision

6.1.25 revision

6.1.26 revision

6.1.27 revision

6.1.28 revision

6.1.29 revision

6.1.30 revision

6.1.31 revision

Substantive

Negative

Incomplete

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

- 141 -

185 \h ~ j>;>. ~ .)

w,.;U:. 4-P.>.! W; 4¥.) ..4i ~ .ii).us.! J ,~Iy.11 !lAilli wi

186~

Y.J!l.1.

~ JWI~I ~ ~ ul .JJl'1

~ .4J J:!Y. wl..:..i:i 187

Ii.\ • ~ ..,. .i.\

~t.-.ll wi ~ ~i ~I Y ~ yi....L.. J ~~ .;b:i t.l..\,il .} ~t.-.ll wi ,.jJj,!jc.

J \,i1.1...!i l'1 .;b:i l' .i.\

~l' ~i <.jb. 0"il

214~.U.~1

~fi.l:il~IJ ,i.l.oAl. lA~ ..foWl i.l; J"-:!I..a.,o~~w~ i.J.o .l,!j.J1 .)c. ~ I.LI"·~ \... L..:iAl'1 ~. -- ~ ~I J ~.)U;.I ~ ~I.l,! ... .)~

~ "!~.} u.....:.. 257 ~ ~ J

i.J.o ~I ~ wl.;iJ1

284~.~.J:!,Il1

JL,.i - : ("L..:iAl,> ~I !ul:ii J,. J

yt;..u .a:J1 J y~1

l''' : ~I.) ~~ wlOl l' ... wlOl UllS ~y.:..ll wi ! ... -..w

.ijlA ~I tWo -285~

-~ ~\ wts J

~WI yy:. i.J.o -yJl .~ ~I J..WI.><li .~~I.l!1 ~L.. ~ ~~.l:I w'-! ~ .} J..i:I wts W; y.;.:.ll ~L..l1 ~ ..,...;..i J ,~1:i.!J1

"ts,. J ,JIilI J u~ 4,; ...... L.....~J..ts~1

her gaze on the approaching taxi. It stopped and he opened the door for her.J.I 966:211) The same insane desire, indeed as whenever she got into a fight. However, he drew away before she could carry out her instinct. (1966:212) - Which floor is it on? - The first, he replied smiling, "you won't suffer any hardship by condescending to visit it. "

( 1966:213)

This house will perform that miracle. Did you think that the heavens would rain only shrapnel? Now get ready to meet the dressmaker. (1966:244) One day he had examined her hands and said: Why don't you take better care of your hands, they look like those of a peasant. (1966:289)

... And Ja'ada, the baker, went by carrying bread to the houses. (1966:315) was she killed? Asked Kirsha

- I don't think so, answered Hussein .

(1966:317)

He spent a full hour sitting in his darkening office trembling with fear and panic, his nerves shattered by uncle Kamil's weeping ... (1966:318)

and fixed her gaze on the approaching taxi. It stopped and he opened the door for her. 11992:1881 The same insane desire, indeed as whenever she got into a fight. However, he drew away before she could obey her instinct. (1992:190)

Which floor is it on? - "The second"

He replied, "you won't suffer any hardship by condescending to visit it." (1992:190)

This house will perform that miracle. Did you think that the heavens would rain down gold and diamonds? Oh no, they rain bombs! (1992:217)

One day he examined her: Why don't you take better care of your hands. Let your nails grow and put polish on them. Your hands are a weak point, you know. (1992:257)

... And Ja'ada, the baker, went by bringing dough from houses nearby.

11992:2821 Was she killed? Asked Kirsha?

I don't think so, answered Hussein. Too bad, he lost his life in vain.

(1992:283)

He had, due to hot weather, been disregarding the doctor's orders to drink only warm water, but now he instructed that it always be served warm as before . He ~ent a full hour

6.1.32 revision

6.1.33 revision

6.1.34 revision 6.1.35 revision

6.1.36 revision

6.1.37 revision

6.1.38 revision

6.1.39 revision

6.1.40 revision

6.1.41

- 142-

286~ sitting In his darkening office trembling with fear and panic, his nerves shattered by uncle Kamil's weeping ...

(1992:284) Incomplete LitJI ,,\Jj Y 4=-Y' Hello, street of Hello, street of bliss.

Substantive

Negative

Negative

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

Substantive

:29 ~) .~t......ll .J Happiness (1966:26) (1992:28) (1973

w.li:i...,1 J,t. ! • .li\!.u....r. 3i !\r~.} i..l.oo.l.J 4t..ili.. ,w,w 'J ~ I~ fi' ..!l:.§~ • t:ilh..

&-.I.J . ~) . ..::. ~ .J t.,u..llo4!~.J~1 ~ lA y:.ii.;>11 ~I.,ll

... ~~I • ..l.oo.I.J.~ (32 ~) . ..l!1 .&....1...

!y\S 0:'1 .;a..J1

(37~)

ylS ~ 0:'1 W,il

(37~)

.I..:i! .~ .ili:..1

~ '1 .J ,,~\1I ~.fi .} ~ ~ 'C.Jy wi (38~).~yJl

~ ~~I.)

..r.- ji.i... ~ .J j..tS yl..::.l\.,l w..J.:. ..;.:. .. ."..all o¥ .} ~J~ ~I '-i~1 ~ ~ • .,.:ill.)c. ~YI ~ ~ .J ~~I JS. ~I : 72 ~).~ ..,L!JI

(1973 j..tS~~.J

(79 ~) y~~.J ~

lli,1.c ~ wtS .J

.J ~L...:. ~.J .J ~..J ~I ..s~ ,W4- • ."..: ~.J~I..s~W ~I .)..,? ~I ~I.J.J

• .,.:u ~I .} u4 W ~) .. ..,?I... ......... tt.

(80

WF-I wi ..1;,.",.'1 .li .J

.'-:-':/Y' ~ ~ wu,J1 (80~)

You're completely without profit for me. Have 1 managed to make a penny out of you in your whole life? No! Your head is as bald as an egg, your face as hairless as a baby's. 1 make my living by cutting or shaving hairs and you haven't one on your whole body. May God have mercy on you. (1966:35) Travelling is a bitch!

(1966:40) You're the son of sixty bitches. ( I 966:4()l Your sister Hamlda is a girl of fine character. She would never be so shameless as to walk alone in Mousky street. (1966:41 ) Mrs. Kirsha questioned uncle Kamil and Sankar, the cafe waiter, until she learned of the boy who had began to frequent the coffee house. (1966:81) Uncle Kamil opened his eyes and stared. (1966:89) Zero translation (1966:90)

He noticed that the girls looked at him with curiosity and interest.J 1966 :91 ) May God sweeten

You're completely without profit for me. Have 1 managed to make a penny out of you in your whole life? Your chin and upper lip don't sprout and your head's quite bald. On all that vast world you call your body there's not a single hair for me to cut. God forgive you! (1992:31 )

Oh, Travelling is such a bore!11992:36) You're the real bore! (1992:36)

Your sister Hamida is a girl of fine character. There's nothing wrong with her strolling occasionally along the MousJsy. (1992: 37) Mrs. Kirsha questioned uncle Kamil and Sankar, the cafe waiter, until she learned of the boy who had began to frequent the cafe being served most graciously by Kirsha himself.11992:73l Uncle KamiI opened his eyes and yawned.

11992:801 His love was a mixture of gentle affection, sincere devotion, and hungry passion. He longed to feel the warmth of her body and experience the magical, mysterious intoxication of her eyes.

11992:811 He noticed that the girls looked at him with mischievous curiosity 11992:81,8~

May God sweeten 1.0ur

- 143 -

.. .J..lSll c;:IJ)'-! ~ vUi your whole life and whole life and delight reVISIOn

:23) ~ del ight your heart with your heart with a perfect (1973 a successful marriage. marriage. (1992:21)

(1966:21 ) 6.1.42 Substantive I:" L.JA .l:lill ~ Zero Translation Hamlda blanched at revision L. u,\.l ~.Jic.1 J f""" '}I (1966:160) mention of him and

';:::':"J ~ .)A1...,..!.u~ objected: " what's he got J;..J'} • .>"'1 ~ to do with my personal

Ul;.,J ~ ill- affairs" (1992:143) (1973:140)

6.1.43 Substantive '} J;..)I 01S J He was a merchant Although not stingy , He revision .ul '}I "ill,}1 LP .~ ~ who always made the was a merchant who

.... .,i; '1 I y'"u .ill.:l.S 01S most minute scrutiny always made the most ...:lj>1 J:!A ,jJU..l .)c t )IJ.. '11 of his budget, thus minute scrutiny of his

'} L.~ jYH '} ~ spending only what budget , thus spending . '1" .JYHu ~ was absolutely only what was absolutely (1973:146) necessary. ( 1966: 166) necessary (1992:149)

6.1.44 Substantive ~~.:.. My, this sweetmeat of My, this sweetmeat of revision U"lill w ~ J ;;~.) yours looks delicious yours looks delicious as

illli lA .l! ta.....u. _ J _. (1966: 167) everyone will know (1973:148) tonight (1992: 15Ql

6.1.45 Substantive "-!l¥IL.JS.\J Indeed, his admiration Indeed, his admiration for revision Jp. ..li..:;!01S W. for him stemmed from him stemmed from what

J .... l,I,jc. ~L. what he heard of his he heard of his cruelty ~ cruelty and courage. and barbarity. (I 992: 152)

(1973:169) (1966: 169)

6.1.46 incomplete ~I r;!J).li.. J A quarter of a jar is Far stronger, weight for revision ~ L.JA i.S"s1 .:::.:..IJ W..l stronger than any weight than any other

wufo .. ·lI- other known stimulant known stimulant (1973: 151) (1966: 172) (1992:154)

6.1.47 Substantive .l:!! ... y)lS~ While they have all While they have all the revision y)lS.J1 LP lfol (+il the dirty tricks of dirty tricks of dogs, they

'+J.iL.I...,..! IJ.lo\j J t.,:;.....~ dogs, they pretend to have none of their (1973: 173) have the faithfulness faithfulness! (1992:176)

of dogs too! 11966:197)

6.1.48 Substantive ...,..! lA.lo\) W On the other hand, her No, she had no wish revision ~I JI I""lill.,..,J1 role of the sweet and either to be or to have a

tft,ll gentle mistress did not passive lover. (1992:201) (1973:197) appeal to her at all.

J.I966:2251 6.1.49 Substantive l.i:i~:J."i,!~J Your room, he said. Our room, he said revision (1973:203) (1966:2321 (1992:207) 6.1.50 Substantive W..l.lc.. I I~L. What have you set What are your plans for revision !J,W......lI aside for the future? the future? (1992:213)

(1973:209) (1966:2391 6.1.51 Substantive ~."..)j~01S He dressed in a smart He was dressed in a smart revision ~L..Ji..;~J~1 white shirt and sand- white shirt and a gray

(1973:228) colored trousers trousers (1992:230) (1966:259)

6.1.52 Substantive .lW.uc.I~I~ Then they sacked him Then they fired him and revision ~I..,ll and he came back he came back home

(1973:2281 home (1966:26Ql (1992:237) 6.1.53 Substantive ~~~J Anyway, she must be Anyway, she must be in revision '}I .J .,,~YII~ ~ ~ in love with this man love with this man in the

.)c ...... ..,...ll <::J.)l W in the suit; otherwise suit; otherwise how could ,,-!~IJjll how could she she prostitute herself

6.1.54 revision

6.1.55 revision

7.1.56 revision

Incomplete

Incomplete

substantive

- 144 -

( 1973:237)

')L.,.,.I J J

U5"..W...;:.. ~\ , ~ '1 ..,.~\ U""'1\

"""",L- (.)"4c- .fo (1973:282)

015. J "wI ~\j 01:iJ..,-! .JjlS~\ ~ .M

0:! J ~ .ft..>i ..,. ~\ Y. "':''1 ~I y. ...:,'1 J, .~ ('I ...:,)..... wlJ-lI-.J t'-! ..,.~\ "-! ~ ..!> ... (.)"4 '1 ~

.• .ft..> ~

:107)~

( 1973

~\..:J\w.o........IJ wlti J ~\ '-t£!\:i .)\

~.fi...)c. j~ 'J II ~

~~~L;.~".Y'I.; ~ ... .)W'1: (')uc

21

prostitute ( 1966:268)

herself rather than marry Abbas. (1992:238)

They continued on their way until they reached the unforgettable spot where Hamida's carriage had stopped the day before. Abbas prodded his friend. (1966:312,313) Abbas smiled his gratitude to the doctor. It was he who had acted as ambassador to HamTda's mother, and it was he who had bought his shop fittings at a price that provided the necessary expenses for his journey. (1966:122)

The matchmaker listened to her artificial disgust at the idea of marriage with perspicacity and contempt and said to herself: I can see your cunning Ms. Afity. She addressed her visitor with an almost vicious tone. (1966:22)

They continued on their way until they reached the scene of Abbas's last dramatic encounter with Hamida. The barber nudged his friend. (1992:280)

Abbas smiled his gratitude to the doctor. It was he who had acted as ambassador to Hamida's mother, and it was he who had bought his shop fittings at a price that provided the money for his journey. (1992: 110)

The matchmaker listened with shrewd contempt to her fake disgust at the idea of marriage and told herself. "I can see through your cunning Ms. Afify

She reproached her visitor, Do not exaggerate ... ! (1992: 19)

Table 6.1 Linguistic Translation Problems

Nord (200111997: 81) defines literary translation from a linguistic point of

view: "Literary language is clearly assumed to have a particular connotative ,

expressive or aesthetic meaning of its own, which may shed some light on the

sender's intention or intentions (Schmidt 1970a).

Nord's discussion supports the idea that a linguistic choice should be made

carefully by the translator, due to that it is strongly related to the intention. The

examples under investigation include many cases where the linguistic selection in

TTl and sometimes in TT2 has not been successful to capture the ST linguistic

- 145 -

meaning and in some cases it distorts the meaning of the ST. The translator has

managed in many of these examples to modify his selection successfully in TT2,

while in other examples, this did not take place.


As explained above, the examples under investigation are sub-classified into

examples which underwent substantive revision, incomplete revision or negative

revision as follows

6.1.1 Substantive Revision

Substantive revised examples are those which underwent a justified required

revision from TTl to TT2. Below is the analysis of such kind of examples.

Example 6.1.1 displays the misunderstanding of the translator for the source

language which led to a mistranslation. In TT I Le Gassick misreads the word

"~~l"which means put out the "light" but in TT2 he renders the actual meaning of

the word.

"Light the stove, Jaada"(1966:2)

"Put out the oven Jaada" (1992:2)

".o~ '-:I 0.;il' ~l "-

(1973 :6)~

This example and this particular word is a simple word in Arabic Language,

and it is believed in this study that mistranslating it can only point to the modest

understanding of the source language. Despite trying to justify the choice of Le

Gassick, the only reason could be because both words share a semantic field and are

- 146 -

stored together in the brain. Therefore the mistake could be carelessness rather than

misunderstanding. This example underwent a substantive revision and restored the

accurate meaning in TT2.

Another example with the same problem is:

w··,II· '.,- -II· t_ . '1 .~II O.la..::o. . >.!'!" u-o~ ~U? .~.J

(1973:284)

- ... And Ja'ada, the baker, went by carrying bread to the houses. (1966:315)

- ... And Ja'ada, the baker, went by bringing dough from houses nearby.

(1992:282)

In the example above the preposition: .yo, which means "from" has been

rendered into "to" in TTl. However, this has been modified in TT2 to become

"from". Moreover, the word ~I which means "dough" has been translated for the

word "bread". It is, however, restored in TT2.

In example 6.1.2 the translator chooses an equivalent which is not quite

accurate in TTl. In TT2 he decides to change his choice to a more accurate term,

therefore it is considered to be a substantive revision.

( 1973 :7) ~

- "A workman is setting up a second hand loudspeaker on a wall." (1966:4)

"He is setting up a second-hand radio." (1992:3)

The above example is also a matter of using the inaccurate target equivalent in

TTl and then restoring the actual meaning in TT2 .The word "t\';1." is merely the

- 147 -

Arabic word for "radio". Le Gassick translates it first into a "loudspeaker" and

translates the word "I.A.)~" which means "on its wall". In the 1940s the Radio was

a new invention which was beginning to become popular. In cafes, they used to be

installed high on the walls to enable all customers to listen to them as loudspeakers

were not common at the time of writing this novel (1947). Le Gassick, in TT2, omits

the word "on the wall" and changes loudspeaker to radio, which is the accurate

equivalent. In my view, this again, was a matter of misunderstanding on the part of

the translator. However, the omission of "on the wall" was not necessary since it is

mentioned in the source text and since this happens to be a literary text. It is believed

in this study, that Mahfouz has used the word "on the wall" to trigger the reader's

imagination and to make him live the novel and imagine every scene he reads while

being exposed to a lot of the descriptive details he uses. However, the translator

could have been basing his translation on his own experience and knowledge. This

example went through a substantive revision.

Example 6.1.4 is again a misreading or misunderstanding by Le Gassick in

TTl. However, he uses another equivalent in TT2

(1973 :12)~

"Uncle Kamel followed swaying like a camel." (1966: 11)

"Uncle Kamel followed swaying like a palanquin." (1992:9)

The term "~I" was misread by the translator to end up as "~". It is

obvious that both words look alike with little difference. Thus, it is possible that this

- 148 -

was the reason why Le Gassick mistook it for ~ "camel" .Nevertheless, he has

used an interesting equivalent for the word in TT2 "palanquin". According to The

American Heritage Dictionary (2000) palanquin means: "A covered litter carried on

poles on the shoulders of four or more bearers, formerly used in eastern Asia." The

meaning of the word palanquin is a very close equivalent to the source target term.

The revision of this example is considered as substantive.

Example 6.1.5:

14 ~

- Sankar, the waiter, was as busy as ever, bringing orders and putting money into

thetill. (1966:13)

- Sankar, the waiter, was as busy as ever, bringing orders and putting the money

tokens into the till (1992: 11)

In this example the translator chooses to create a linguistic shift which is not

required. The translation of the word "wtS.)l.." in TTl is "money" which is the right

equivalent. However, in TT2 the translation changes to "money tokens" which is

rather used to describe a kind of coins and notes which are normally exchanged for

real money but are not real. They are used in certain situations such as games or

poker. However, this meaning does not match the meaning in the source text. The

coffee house where Sankar works only serves hot and cold drinks in addition to

Narguilah. There is no mention of any kinds of games which take place there;

therefore it is most likely that the translator has made a change which was not quite

required in TT2. This example went through a substantive revision.

Example number 6.1.6:

- 149-

( 1973 :15) ~

"Another group of men arrived, all associates of Kirsha." (1966:14)

"Another group of men arrived, all peers of the cafe owner." (1992: 12)

Example 6.1.6 has been changed in terms of two equivalents. The first is the

word 't;I.)i". Le Gassick uses "associates" in TT 1, but decides to change it to

"peers" in TT2. He does not make an excellent choice in TT I but manages to restore

the meaning in TT2 to an accurate equivalent. The word "peers" would be a very

close equivalent to the source text word. On the other hand the meaning of the word

"associates" suggests people who work with Kirsha.

The other shift is using the "cafe owner" instead of the name Kirsha. This

technique is justified in order to clarify the job or what he does for the readership

since the names sound strange or not familiar for target readers. The revision is

substantive.

Example 6.1.8:

(19:1973)

Mrs. Afify made no reply while HamTda, her tenant's daughter, who had just

come into the room placed a raqwe on the table and went back from where

she had come. (1966: 19)

Mrs. Afify made no reply while HamTda, her tenant's daughter, who had just

come into the room, placed a tray with coffee on the table and left again.

(1992:17)

- 150 -

The translator uses the word "raqwe" in TTl which means in Arabic the

special Turkish coffee kettle. This word was not mentioned by Mahfouz in the

source text. The author simply mentioned the word coffee. Le Gassick, becoming

aware that this word was not quite familiar for the target reader, translated what

Mahfouz has included without any additions. This is an interesting translation which

introduces an exotic item absent from the ST. The revision of this example is

considered to be a substantive one.

The next example:

.J,~ ':J ~I.l....R" ~ .lilh... !!~~..} i~l.J ~.lli... u.li:i...1 J,\ p;~\j.u... -r.y ':J J,;...J 0-0.ill Y

&-..L... ... 4-ib-! ~i o~IJ o~ ~ lAJC.ii ~I ~I}I ~I o~ ~ J ~I d...1.J. ~.Jl.!..ill~

..ill

(\973 :32~)

- You're completely without profit for me. Have I managed to make a penny out

of you in your whole life? No! Your head is as bald as an egg, your face as

hairless as a baby's. I make my living by cutting or shaving hairs and you

haven't one on your whole body. May God have mercy on you. (1966:35)

- You're completely without profit for me. Have I managed to make a penny out

of you in your whole life? Your chin and upper lip don't sprout and your

head's quite bald. On all that vast world you call your body there's not a

single hair for me to cut. God forgive you! (1992:31)

Example 6.1.10 above shows that Le Gassick has translated it in TTl in a

functional manner; he chose to render the expressions in a way closer to the target

reader. Therefore, we find him adding words or using similes familiar to the target

reader, however in TT2 he chooses to translate what was exactly said by Abbas Hilu

- 151 -

in the source text. It is believed that the exact words and expressions used in the

source text were intended by the source text author, like using the expression "that

entire vast world you call your body" which indicates how big uncle Kamil was.

This, unfortunately, was missing in TTl yet was rendered in TT2.

The rest of the expressions which were rendered functionally in TTl did not

carry the essence of the source culture. It sounded more or less like the target culture.

The revision fthis example is considered substantive.

In example 6.1.12 Abbas while talking to Hussein Kirsha praised HamTda's

walking about in the Mousky Street.

(38~)

- Your sister HamTda is a girl of fine character. She would never be so

shameless as to walk alone in Mousky Street. (1966:41)

- Your sister HamTda is a girl of fine character. There's nothing wrong with her

strolling occasionally along the Mousky. (1992: 37)

IT I uses a double negation to render the meaning of the word. Therefore we find the

translation a bit confusing for the target reader. 4+.!a:! 'J

On the other hand, TT2 uses a direct way of rendering the intended meaning in

a way which is familiar for the target reader. This was done by translating the same

expression in TT2 to:

"There's nothing wrong with her strolling occasionally along the Mousky."

- 152 -

The revision of this example IS substantive for it contributed to clarifying the

meaning in the ST.

The following example 6.1.13 is translated in TTl with the last part being

completely omitted in translation.

- Mrs. Kirsha questioned uncle Kamil and Sankar, the cafe waiter, until she

learned of the boy who had begun to frequent the coffee house. (1966:81)

- Mrs. Kirsha questioned uncle Kamil and Sankar, the cafe waiter, until she

learned of the boy who had began to frequent the cafe being served most

graciously by Kirsha himself. (1992:73)

After a close look at both translations, it has been found that the last part of the

example was missing in TTl

The above example means that the boy was warmly welcomed by Kirsha, and

that the latter served him tea himself. However, although it was not rendered in TTl

we find it translated to an extent in TT2 as being served most graciously by Kirsha

himself

The revision of this example is substantive for it rendered an omitted part

which is significant to the overall meaning of the example.

Another example on a modification for a more accurate equivalent is:

- 153 -

(1973:80)

- He noticed that the girls looked at him with curiosity and interest. (1966:91)

-He noticed that the girls looked at him with mischievous curiosity

(1992:81,82)

In the example above, it is obvious that the translator has shifted from using:

"With curiosity and interest" to using "with mischievous curiosity". Going back to

the source text we find that it is "':-l:!..>"~. This is exactly what TT2 included. TTl

had the word "interest"; a meaning not intended in the ST. This meaning was

eliminated in TT2 and was replaced with an accurate equivalent of the source text.

The following example is another instance of how the translator goes more

accurate in selecting an equivalent to a lexical item.

(1973 :23)~

- May God sweeten your whole life and delight your heart with a successful

marriage. (1966:21)

- May God sweeten your whole life and delight your heart with a perfect

marriage. (1992 :21 )

The Arabic collocation for marriage is J,.1.Sli ~I-,)~ while the English

collocation is "successful marriage". In TTl the English collocation is used, in order

to meet the expectations of the target readership and the experience of the translator,

a native speaker of English. In TT2 the Arabic collocation was met by rendering it

into "a perfect marriage". The revision is considered substantive.

The following example includes another instance on Zero translation:

- 154 -

(1973: 140)

Zero Translation (1966: 160)

HamTda blanched at mention of him and objected: " what's he got to do with

my personal affairs" (1992:143)

This example is another instance where zero translation has been found in TTl.

These two sentences were said by Hamida when she was expressing her frustration

at the refusal of Radwan Hussainy for her to get married to Salim Alwan. Her

mother responds that he is considered the man of the family for our family has no

man. The omission of these two sentences created a gap in the meaning in TTl with

regards to Hamida's reaction towards Hussainy's opinion. However, this part is

restored in TT2 which makes the meaning more comprehensive and the image

complete. This example is classified as a linguistic translation problem which has a

substantive revision from TTl to TT2.

(1973:146)

He was a merchant who always made the most minute scrutiny of his budget,

thus spending only what was absolutely necessary. (1966: 166)

- ISS -

Although not stingy, He was a merchant who always made the most minute

scrutiny of his budget , thus spending only what was absolutely necessary

(1992: 149)

In TTl the example above was translated omitting the first part" 'l ~)I 0\.S J

",\.ii'll .:.J' o~ ~". This part means that the man was far from being stingy. However,

TT2 restores the missing meaning by adding "although not stingy". This example is

considered to be a linguistic translation problem which underwent a substantive

revision.

The next example:

(1973: 148)

My, this sweetmeat of yours looks delicious (1966:167)

My, this sweetmeat of yours looks delicious as everyone will know tonight

(1992: 150)

This is another example where omission took place; the last part of the

sentence "~I lA.JJ! ~ (.)"Ull u~ J" is omitted from the translation in TTL

The meaning of this part is as rendered in TT2 "as everyone will know tonight".

This clause means that Ibrahim Farahat, the speaker, is going to buy the sweets

to serve to the people who will attend his election campaign. He is addressing

Uncle Kamil. Eliminating this part does not touch upon the core of the sentence

but adds what the ST author would like to convey. However, this example was

substantively revised in TT2, and it belongs to linguistic translation problems

~ J ~4 uc ~ 1... JP ~ 0\.S h ~4-c-1 0SJ J

- 156 -

(1973: 169)

Indeed, his admiration for him stemmed from what he heard of his cruelty

and courage. (1966: 169)

Indeed, his admiration for him stemmed from what he heard of his cruelty

and barbarity. (1992: 152)

The ST included "~ J ........ l!"; both words refer negatively to Hitler. However,

TTl included one positive equivalent and another negative equivalent; "cruelty and

courage". Kirsha is portrayed as a negative, immoral character in the novel and his

being fascinated by Hitler as a hero is , we believe, intended by the ST author.

However, TT2 witnessed a substantive modification by changing the word "courage"

into "barbarity". The shift created between TTl to TT2 is considered to be a

linguistic translation problem which underwent a substantive revision.

The next example:

(1973: 173)

While they have all the dirty tricks of dogs, they pretend to have the

faithfulness of dogs too! (1966: 197)

While they have all the dirty tricks of dogs, they have none of their

faithfulness! (1992: 176)

In the example above, TTl renders a very little part of the ST. The word lJ-lAj

is rendered in TTl as "they pretend to have ... ". On the other hand, in TT2 it is

rendered into "they have none of. .. " It is obvious that the problem in translation is a

linguistic problem caused by the meaning of the word "1J.lAIj" which means "they

barely had any". The use of the word "pretend" adds an element of pretense or

- 157 -

hypocrisy to the meaning which is not inferred in the ST. In TT2 the translation is

modified to approach the ST more accurately; "Have none of their faithfulness". The

translation problem in this example is classified as a linguistic translation problem

which underwent a substantive revision.

The following example underwent a substantive revision for TTl uses an

inaccurate pronoun which affects the meaning:

( 1973:203)

Your room, he said. (1966:232)

Our room, he said (1992 :207)

The example above is probably related to carelessness on the side of the

translator. In the ST the word illY-"-"" which means "our room" is rendered into "your

room" in TTl. The misreading here can affect the meaning. Referring to the context

of this phrase would clarify the significance of the lipronoun which means "our". It

has been used intentionally by Ibrahim Farraj while he was showing HamTda their

bedroom. He was trying for the first time to tell her indirectly that they will be

sharing the same bedroom when she decided to stay in his house and become a

prostitute. However, TT2 revises the translation and renders it into "our room". This

example is classified as a linguistic translation problem which underwent a

substantive revision.

The next example:

(1973:209)

- 158 -

What have you set aside for the future? (1966:239)

What are your plans for the future? (1992:213)

This example includes a general question which literally translates as "what

have you prepared for the future?" TTl renders a slightly different meaning. Instead

of asking about plans, the question in TTl is a rather financial question. "What have

you set aside for the future?" means how much did you save for the future?

However, TT2 includes a shift which is more centered on future plans rather than a

financial question. The translation problem here is a linguistic one related to the

word W').lC. i . The revision is substantive due to the fact that TT2 is more accurate

when compared to ST.

In the following example the revised items are different from the previous

cases; they are adjectives which have to do with colors:

(1973:228)

He dressed in a smart white shirt and sand-colored trousers (1966:259)

He was dressed in a smart white shirt and a gray trousers (1992:230)

This is another instance of a linguistic translation problem which is believed to

be the result of carelessness. The color of the trousers 4.)~.J which means grey is

rendered into "sand-colored". Nevertheless, the right color is restored into "grey" in

TT2. Therefore, the linguistic translation problem is thought to be a substantive

revision.

- 159 -

The next example:

( 1973:228)

Then they sacked him and he came back home (1966:260)

Then they fired him and he came back home (\ 992:237)

In this example the word <llc. '.,w....' is translated into "sacked him" in TTl and

"fired him" in TT2. Fire and sack both carry the same meaning to tell someone to

leave the job, typically because one's work is not substantive. On the other hand,

however, the word sack is believed to be a British-English word, while "fire" is

more commonly used in North America. Le Gassick is Canadian, therefore for him

to change "sack" into "fire" indicates that he was trying to naturalize or domesticate

the TT for the readership. The shift was not an essential one to make between TTl

and TT2. However, it can be justified by using lexical items the audience is more

familiar with. The translation problem is thought to be a linguistic translation

problem with a substantive revision. It is thought however, that shifts like these are

not essential to the accuracy of the TT, and are only made to create shifts or changes

between TTl and TT2.

The next example:

(1973:237)

Anyway, she must be in love with this man in the suit; otherwise how could

she prostitute herself (1966:268)

- 160 -

Anyway, she must be in love with this man in the suit; otherwise how could

she prostitute herself rather than marry Abbas. (1992:238)

The word ~ in the ST means literally "is crazy about". It indicates the state

of love Hamida is in with the man in the suit. This word has been rendered in TTl

into "must be in love with". The choice is justified for it links the assumption made

by Abbas to Hamida's state of love. Although TTl is a good rendering, it does not

render the last part of the ST sentence, ..." CI..,YI .)c, this phrase means "than

marrying him". Such a rendering can create a kind of confusion between the man in

the suit and Abbas, therefore the translator chose to omit this part to prevent any

kind of confusion. However, Le Gassick takes a different yet more effective

approach in dealing with this problem. He renders it into "rather than marry Abbas",

The shift in TT2 is a positive and a clearer one. This kind of translation problem is


revision.

The next example:

'I..i:i" .I ... ••• 4,f"' J: ry we ~

(1973:21 )

The matchmaker listened to her artificial disgust at the idea of marriage with

perspicacity and contempt and said to herself: I can see your cunning Ms.

Afify. She addressed her visitor with an almost vicious tone. (1966:22)

The matchmaker listened with shrewd contempt to her fake disgust at the

idea of marriage and told herself. "I can see through your cunning Ms. Afify,

She reproached her visitor, do not exaggerate ... ! (1992: 19)

- 161 -

TTl renders the phrase ~I 4-i!li .)1 into "her artificial disgust", however,

TT2 renders it into "shrewd contempt". TT2 uses a better, non-literal equivalent

which renders the meaning in a more natural way without affecting the meaning in

the ST. The linguistic shift which took place in TTl is considered to be a substantive

shift which avoids a literal rendering and conveys the intended meaning by using a

better equivalent.

6.1.2 Incomplete Revision

Incompletely revised examples are those which underwent revision, but it was

insufficient to bridge the linguistic gap between ST, TTl or TT2. The following

examples clarify this.

"If we have been suffering of dark nights" (1966:2)

"If we have been suffering of dark blackouts"{l992:2)

Le Gassick uses dark nights in (1966) for the Arabic words "ul) . .aJ1 J r~I".

Dark nights mean Wl:..J1 ~I ..,l4lltherefore, the translation was not quite accurate.

The Arabic words mean darkness and air raids. However, later in TT2 the translator

renders it into dark blackouts, which I believe, is a closer equivalent of the source

words. Although Le Gassick was not able to produce an accurate equivalent in the

first version of the translation, yet he managed to merge the meanings of both words

in TT2. The revision is a substantive one which rendered the meaning of the words

- 162 -

accurately to TT2 in accordance with ST. The problem here is a linguistic translation

problem which underwent an incomplete revision as more corrections were required.

Example 6.1.7:

(1973 :18)~

Dr. Booshy had interfered with a little girl in the shelter in the last air raid

and someone had struck him for it. (1966: 19)

Dr. Booshy had interfered with a little girl in the shelter in the last air raid

and some upright citizen had struck him for it. (1992: 16)

Example 6.1.7 is an instance where Le Gassick adds the term "upright citizen"

for someone who is respectful with a very good reputation, to the original translation

to clarify the intended meaning. The collocation "upright citizen" is a very strong

one which renders the meaning in the ST, while the TTl equivalent was simply

"someone", this word is too generic to be used in this example.

The adjective "r'~" means respectful and was rendered as upright. This word

was missing from TTl yet, he added it to TT2. The word citizen was used as an

equivalent in both translations for the word "J.?,j'which should translate as "man".

The other term which was mistranslated is the word ."&I"This word means

harassed, but Le Gassick decided to use the word "interfered" which is not quite the

case. According to the Webster's Dictionary (l t h ed.) one of the meanings for the

word interfere is "to strike one another. However, this leads to a different meaning

of the whole sentence. It has caused a meaning distortion. The inaccurate equivalent

was used by Le Gassick in both translations, and no revision for the choice was

considered. The revision of this example is considered as an incomplete revision.

- 163 -

Example 6.1.9 is an instance of when Le Gassick chooses one of two linguistic

equivalents in TTl then chooses to eliminate it and take the other in TT2, when both

words should be rendered.

(1973 :29 ~) .;;~L.....J' J \.41' ",U j y ~ jA

- ~lcllo, street of Happiness (1966:26)

- Hello. street of bliss. (1992:28)

As shown above, in TT I the word happiness was rendered as an equivalent to

;;~L.....JI in Arabic. In contrast, the other word which is \.41' was ignored. The complete

opposite was done in TT2 where the translator chose to render the word \.41' into

bliss and eliminate the translation of the first word. A more accurate translation

would include both happiness and bliss, as intended by Mahfouz in the source text.

The revision of this example is considered incomplete and more revision is required.

In some examples no translation was found in TTl. This means that the

translator chose to omit certain parts for some reason. However, after reviewing the

translation, the omitted part is rendered in TT2 .The following example is an

instance of such cases:

~.ill' ~'.JJ A J~' i.S~ ~ ~.ill' i.S~ ,WI.;..;;~ J ~L:.~..J J~..J ~\,,;. ~ 0\S J

(1973 :80~) ; • ...>'"'t....... ~\i:. .. ~~, ~ U"4 ~~, ")...>'"'

- Zero translation (1966:90)

- His love was a mixture of gentle affection, sincere devotion, and hungry

passion. He longed to feel the warmth of her body and experience the

magical, mysterious intoxication of her eyes. (1992:81)

- 164-

The example above is a detailed description of Abbas's feelings towards

HamTda. Mahfouz was considered very bold to include such detailed expressions in

an Arabic text. He was largely criticized by radicals and fundamentalists for

including such expressions and detailed sexual feelings in a conservative

community. The irony is that the translator who comes from a more liberal society

chose to omit them in TTl .On the other hand, in TT2 a close, yet not accurate

translation was included for this particular example. The reason being behind

considering the translation not accurate is the following part:

The translation of this part which was omitted from the TT2 as suggested by

this study is as follows:

"He is in love with her breasts as much as he is with her eyes, and he is trying

to feel the heat of her body through her breasts."

The technique used in translating this example is omission of parts which may cause

a translation problem for the translator. This problem could relate to euphemism in

translation. The definition of "Euphemism" according to Merriam Webster Dictionary

2011 is: "The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may

offend or suggest something unpleasant; also: the expression so substituted."

It is probable that the translator thought that the rendition of such detailed

sexual statement could be inappropriate for the readership and decided to undertake

a kind of "Euphemism" to avoid presenting an offensive or indecent kind of

statement. The revision of this example is incomplete for it does not render the

whole ST example and omits a part intended by the ST author. Mahfouz was known

- 165 -

to be a bold author who challenged taboos of the Egyptian society, and therefore

such detailed sexual description is a feature of Mahfouz's style in writing and should

have been rendered in translation.

The following example is an instance of a loss In meaning due to an

incomplete revision:

(1973:151)

A quarter of a jar is stronger than any other known stimulant (1966: 172)

Far stronger, weight for weight than any other known stimulant (1992: 154)

In this example a negative revision took place from TTl to TT2. For instance

in TT I, the word '\~I"is rendered into "jar" which is the accurate equivalent. The

Arabic word here is a colloquial Egyptian Arabic term used to refer to a small jar.

However, this word has been omitted in TT2. The whole structure of the sentence in

translation differs from TTl to TT2.

Nevertheless TTl has a translation problem as well; it does not render the

words "G~\J W.l" which means "at once". This phrase, it is believed is significant to

the meaning intended in the example. The omission of it affects the point that this

quarter of the jar should be taken at once to be more effective than any other

stimulant.

The translation problem in this example is of a linguistic nature, with an

incomplete revision. The example needs more revision and the issue of

- 166 -

domesticating the TT at the expense of the intended meaning in the ST causes a loss

in meaning.

In the next example, the revision is insufficient:

(1973:197)

On the other hand, her role of the sweet and gentle mistress did not appeal to

her at all. (1966:225)

No, she had no wish either to be or to have a passive lover. (1992:20 I)

This example is another instance on the misreading of the word .~jI .TTl

reflects a clear misreading of the ST. TTl makes Hamida not interested in

playing the gentle mistress. The ST clearly says that she is not interested in a soft

love or a coward lover. tyJI ~I .Ji rc-Ul1 y.:JI .; \A~ jI W . The misreading

which took place in TTl resulted in a wrong meaning being conveyed. On the

other hand, although TT2 has been revised, this revision is not complete. The

meaning in TT2 included not only the coward lover but a coward Hamida as

well; "she had no wish either to be or to have ... " The revision which took place

was incomplete and there was still a sort of misreading reflected in TT2. A more

accurate translation would be "she was not interested in a soft love or in a

coward lover"

This kind of translation problem is classified as a linguistic translation

problem which underwent an incomplete revision.

The next example:

- 167 -

( 1973:282)

They continued on their way until they reached the unforgettable spot where

Hamida's carriage had stopped the day before. Abbas prodded his friend.

(1966:312.313)

They continued on their way until they reached the scene of Abbas's last

dramatic encounter with Hamida. The barber nudged his friend. (1992:280)

The phrase ..yw";1 ws-""which means: the situation of the day before or what

took place the day before has been rendered into the "unforgettable spot". The

addition here is justified for it clarifies to the reader which stop is meant.

However, more addition takes place when TTl chooses to illustrate more on

what took place the day before. "Where Hamida's carriage had stopped the day

before" It is possible here that the translator chose to explain further in order to

facilitate the understanding of the reader. Mahfouz, the ST author, on the other

hand uses a technique where the reader is required to think and remember in

order to link things together. It is believed that the ST has been intentionally

shortened to invite the reader to establish a linkage between the incidents

happening throughout the novel.

The shifts which occurred to TT2 on the other hand are few. TT2 uses the

phrase "dramatic encounter" instead of "unforgettable spot"; this is also an

addition to what has been used in the ST U""''';I ws-"".

- 168-

Another linguistic shift which took place between TTl and TT2 is the use

of the word "prodded" in TT I then "nudged" in TT2 as translations for the ST

word fl.

After a thorough investigation, it has been found that the word "prodded" is

usually used to indicate an unfriendly poke with the finger. It is seen as an

aggressive gesture which takes place when the doer has superiority over the

recipient. Nudge on the other hand, is a more friendly kind of gesture which

involves a friendly poke with the elbow. It usually takes place between friends.

The shift with regards to the translation of the word: fl is not an essential one.

This example is considered to be linguistic, due to the shifts which

occurred to the ST words U""''11 W!-"" and fl. The shifts or the revision which

took place are incomplete as there is more revision required to this example.

6.1.3 Negative Revision

By negative, we mean unrequited revision, which created a translation problem

in TT2. This problem did not exist in TTl and the negative revision caused it. It also

caused a distortion of meaning as explained in the listed examples.

Example 6.1.10 is another case of omitting and modifying certain parts and

domesticating the translation for the target readership or words in TTl and rendering

them in TTl. In TT2 the translator went literal in translating these parts.

Example 6.1.11 and example 6.1.13 share one way of translating due to the

fact that they share a "taboo word":

- 169 -

Two examples include the word"yl5;", which means dog in English. The word

is an expletive; therefore Le Gassick has rendered it into "bitch" in TTL In TT2 he

decided to change the translation into: "such a bore" which is not accurate.

(1973 :37 ~) !yl5; 011 .;WI

- Travelling is a bitch! (1966:40)

- Oh, Travelling is such a bore! (1992:36)

- You're the son of sixty bitches. (1966:40)

- You're the real bore! (1992:36)

The translator however, could be justified for his TT2 selection. Although the

TT 1 sounds more accurate, the TT2 sounds more polite and appropriate for the

target readership. Translation of taboo words can justify the change or the shift

created by the translator. However, the translator chooses an inaccurate equivalent

for the term ~ 011 • The revision is negative for TT2 fails to use the corresponding

equivalents, while they are used in TT I.

6.2 Conclusion

Chapter six discussed and analysed linguistic translation problems which

underwent one of the following: substantive revision, incomplete revision, or

negative revision. Examples which were revised substantively have dominated the

number of the overall examples. There have been a few examples which were

revised incompletely, and only one which was revised negatively. The numbers and

the frequency of each sub-classification will be discussed later in chapter nine. It is

- 170-

obvious that the frequency of the linguistic translation problems has exceeded the

number of the cultural translation problems.

- 171 -

Chapter Seven

Stylistic Translation Problems

Chapter SIX discussed linguistic translation problems and analysed the

examples after sub-classifying them according to the types of shifts which occurred

in them. These sub-classifications are: substantive revision, incomplete revision and

negative revision.

This chapter aims to tackle text-specific translation problems or stylistic

translation problems. This study sub-classifies stylistic translation problem in

accordance with the examples under investigation into: substantive revision and

minor revision. Substantive revision is when the examples are revised in a positive

manner to prevent confusion, this means that the shift in style is desired and resulted

in a better TT. The second kind is minor revision where the shift does not change

much in the example, and is not essential to prevent confusion or to clarify the

translation.

7.1 The Significance of Style in Translation

Style in translation has been tackled by many scholars. Some of them believe

that the term "style" should not be used, due to the imprecision it is associated with.

Fowler (1986/96: 185-86) for instance, introduces "register" alongside other

sociolinguistic terms such as "idiolect and dialect" to be used instead. On the other

hand, Leech and Short (1981: I 0) define style as: "It refers to the way in which

language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose, and so

on." This definition is detailed at a later discussion by Leech and Short into that

- 172-

Style refers to "linguistic habits of a particular writer ... genre, period,

school ... "Leech and Short (1981 : II)

Nida and Taber explain:

Style: the patterning of choice made by a particular author within the

resources and limitations of the language and of the literary genre in which

[sic] is working. It is the style which gives to a text its uniqueness and which

relates the text personally to its author. Nida and Taber (1969:207)

Nida and Taber (1969: 145-147) go further to provide "a classification of

features of style". These features, explains Munday (2008:29) are "categories of

formal and lexical features" which are designed for "efficiency and special effects".

These include: discourse markers, sentence structure, clause order, and parallelism,

on the other hand, lexical features include: frequency and familiarity of words,

combinations of words, archaisms or modern usage, appropriateness for the

audience.

On the other hand, Kohlmayor (1988: 150) explains that a translator or a

translation cannot focus wholly on the target language, because there is a need for

the target audience to see and read the "effects of the original". This would take

place even ifnot "directly or in the same way".

Boase-Beier (2006:26) says that, a translation must not be based on the

"expectations of the target audience" or be a reflection for the translator's personal

experience.

This means that a translation should reflect the style of the ST rather than meet

"the expectations" of the TL readership. Moreover, it should not be purely

- 173 -

subjective, due to the fact that this could distort the link to the ST style, or even send

a different message.

Boase-Beier (2006:29) explains that stylistics is an important aspect in

translating literary texts, and when a translator is stylistically aware he will be able to

"appreciate the full effects of the text and the state of mind or view that informs

them." He also says that Style "signals the literary nature of the text".

In certain examples the TT 1 reflects "the expectations of the target audience"

and the personal experience of the translator. It is believed here that when a reader

selects a translated work from a different culture, the expectation would be to read a

reflection of the source text and its message.

The discussion of Boase-Beier which signifies the importance of style in

translation and how it signals the literary nature of the text is justifiably true. What

distinguishes a literary text from a non-literary text is the style or 'the frame' within

which it is placed. If this style is not rendered to the TT, the genre of the TT might

not be very distinguishable from any non-literary text.

He further explains that to translate is to "write a new text", therefore the style

of TT is the choice of the translator when it comes to "genre, TL, linguistic, literary

or cultural system into which the TT is placed. Boase-Beier goes on to say that there

are four potential viewpoints with regards to style in translation:

i) The style of the source text as an expression of its author's choices

ii) The style of the source text in its effects on the reader (and on the

translator as reader)

iii) The style of the target text as an expression of choices made by its

author (who is the translator)

- 174 -

iv) The style of the target text in its effects on the reader.

Boase-Beier (2006:5)

The points introduced by Boase-Beier focus on the necessity that all four

aspects: reader, author of translation (translator), ST and TT should be taken

into consideration during the translation process. The style of the ST should be

"perceived" by the translator in order to decide how much can be rendered in

translation.

On the other hand, Gutt (2000: 130) believes that a literary text is related

to ST more than a non-literary text, in the sense that it should "preserve" its

style, and not only the message.

The current study believes that rendering the style, would help promoting the

ST author. Although it can be sometimes challenging for the translator to

render the style as such, yet it is possible and desirable to tie the TT

stylistically to the ST.

Stylistic translation problems are very important. They can influence the way a

message or meaning is presented to the target audience and whether this presentation

in translation has met the expectations of the Target audience or conveyed the

message of the source text.

Below are the Text-specific examples which were found to be stylistic

translation problems. They represent a considerable proportion of the overall

examples.

Stylistic Translation Problem 7.1.1 Minor revision

7.1.2 Minor revision



7.1.5 substantive revision

7.1.6 substantive revision

7.1.7 minor revision

7.1.8 minor revision

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Source Text Target Text I

"~I~ ¥y-\ J..JfJ & y" "Sheikh Darwish, are you happy now?"

(1973 :IO)~ (1966:8)

~IJ)I.J>" 0'> ~ l.. ~ (1973 :20)~

0f0......~ ~.)c t:i.J;. J

~ J L.J;J.)~ ~ 0'> W;-. fii..1 J

.')JY"' J .l.41 .) ,:;~.lJ (1973: 110) ~

J ,~I ~.u~;, YI:ll..;'

J ~...:£l ~ !ljW ,-*)1 J J.i.:J1

J,.....l ,;ilJ4 ~I)I «.:i...L..J;1 J • Y. j J ~ \AljiA ...::..&.).lU,~ ~).4l1

. ~ J ~ J.) J 4.:i J:I..;e. (1973: 160)~

,4-l"..l¥.) ~ ~ Cl.) J., .u~ ~.l.:oo.,! 4-,Jii , ~ ...,. I.lJ LJc 'J ... ):.:Wl5 . y;)l 4...-.) ~ ..;Ai

.illllA J ~ LJc ~ ~ ~ \A ')JY"' J ¥."wl ~ 4.J.lJ tr. J !!

(1973: 166) ~ . ..,.-A)I

~I .) u.J\ " 4J Ji:I ~ J\ !!"~'i "";I J ,,:a..;J

(1973: 179)~

.u.,.- .)c ~\.,w "-lUI .;:.iU\ ;.

.)1 ,,);..il" :~ ~\ .) l>""t:l

.¥I.).,ill ~t;. .) Jiy- -4 .:;L-II

..,..slfillS ":"Ifo..:w ~ ~I J,.,\ "!~.l.!\ l.. ,LJf4\ l.. , • .):Il.J1

(1973: 186) w......

Mrs Afify listened uninterestingly to all this , her mind busy with the matter about which she had come (1966: 19)

I had enough of the bitterness of marriage. ( 1966:20) They sat side by side on the sofa and the hostess took out two cigarettes from her case, which they lit and sat smoking in pleasure. (1966: 132)

But what would she do? Why should she want to take out her humiliation on him? It was that smile of his that caused all the trouble. (1966:183)

She made excuses to herself that he had spoken to her most politely, even showing more than common courtesy. But who was he and what was he doing in Midaq Alley of all places? She resolved to wait until time revealed the truth about him. And then? (1966:188)

Why else would he say: "are you not on this earth to be taken? And I am going to take you.

(1966:183) She was suddenly

aware of his voice whispering in her ear: just look at the beautiful women in their superb clothes! "Yes, they were

Target text 2

"Sheikh Darwish, does this please you?" (1992:7)

Mrs. Afify listened with disinterest to all this, her mind busy with the matter about which she had come. (1992: 17) No more of the bitterness of marriage forme (1991: 18) They sat side by side on the sofa and the hostess took out two cigarettes from her case, which they lit and sat pleasurably. smoking (1992: 119) But what would she do then? Give him hell! But why should she want to take out her humiliation on him? It was that smile that caused all the trouble. (1992: 163) She made excuses to herself that he had spoken to her most politely, even showing more than common courtesy. Yet she sensed he was really a tiger waiting to pounce. She determined to withhold judgment until he revealed his true self. And then? How sorry she'd make him. (1992:168)

Why else would he say: "aren't you on this earth to be taken? I'm just the one to take you!

(1992:183) She was

suddenly aware of his voice whispering in her ear: just look at the fine ladies in their superb clothes! "Yes, they

- 176 -

swaying and dancing were swaying and along like luminous dancing along like starts ... how beautiful luminous stars ... how they were, how beautiful they were, wonderful!" how wonderful!"

(1966:212) (1992:189)

7.1.9 minor ..w , <.S~ <\.ilk. '-:-"'~ rol J His speech was not His speech was not revision .4-!l.......ci jjjJ Ub. J ,4Jc <.SY" without effectiveness for ineffective, for now

(1973: 220)~ now Hamida felt all her Hamid a felt all her cares gone and her cares gone and her nervous tension nervous tension subsided. subsided.

( 1966:250) (1992:222)

7.1.10 0-<..lJ roli ... ~\¥ '-.it:.. ...... yo:; 'Ji Don't you know Vita's Don't you know Vita's substantive y ~I JJlI .) ~I bar? Didn't you ever get bar? Didn't you revision ·'-ll....;..:i!w ~\j We. ...... t:..ti .. . U" ... a liking for drink up develop a liking for

. )IS there at Tell el- Kbir? drink up there at Tel el-(1973: 247)~ - No, I didn't Kbir?

(1966:278) - No, I didn't (1992:248)

7.1.11 J..i\1 .,r..lJ -4 .1.:iY""'IJ What a pity! Fancy What a pity! Imagine minor ~I~II~-r~ letting lice live in that letting lice live in that revision (1973: 25)~ lovely hair. ( 1966:27) lovely hair! (1992:24)

7.1.12 .~~ . ...:..iI~I.JL... You're the best in the You're the best in the substantive (1973: 27)~ world yourself, I don't world yourself, aren't revision think! (1966:29) you? (1992:26)

7.1.13 ~~YI ~I <"IJ J..::..wJ May you and your Long life to you and all substantive (1973: 29)~ inhabitants long survive. your fine inhabitants. revision (1966:31 ) (1992:28)

7.1.14 0-<1..1.:i.. U.fi ~I I~ J Over there sits Kirsha, Over there sits Kirsha, substantive .r-iUl'-i .Yo l... J r-i\..:J\.S i.J"1)1 the cafe owner, his head the cafe owner, his revision (1973:29) bowed as if in a deep head bowed as if in a

sleep, but he is not deep sleep, but he is really. (1966:31) really awake.

(1992:28)

Table 7.1 Stylistic Translation Problems


The shifts in stylistic translation problems from TTl to TT2 show that in some

cases they were negligible. It is deducted from some of the following examples that

change was probably intended just for the sake of creating a difference in TT2. This

is explained in the analysis of such examples. Below are some examples on the

minor revisions which took place in terms of stylistic translation problems. The

- 177 -

classification of Nida and Taber (1969) and Vinay and Darbclnet (1995) will be the

main reliable taxonomy for analysis of examples.

7.2.1 Substantive Revision

Substantive revision is desired for it results in a better translation which

prevents confusion; this means that the shift in style is required.

Some examples have had a substantive shift which linked the TT style to the ST

style, such an instance is:

. 166) ~ • JI I.A ~ -:- 'I ' <1I ' '~..l ~ ~~ ~llA .ui..i.:..' ~ - . I'-~:~I . .~Y .J_lY-" -' -~ ~ ~ -' -' -' _ we- _ t..r"-~ ...

(1973

- She made excuses to herself that he had spoken to her most politely, even

showing more than common courtesy. But who was he and what was he

doing in Midaq Alley of all places? She resolved to wait until time revealed

the truth about him. And then ... (1966: 188)

- She made excuses to herself that he had spoken to her most politely, even

showing more than common courtesy. Yet she sensed he was really a tiger

waiting to pounce. She determined to withhold judgment until he revealed

his true self. And then How sorry she'd make him. (1992: 168)

Example 7.1.6 had a substantive revision. The ST had a metaphor, ~~ ~

yji."ll J....-.) ~ ~.u4 which was not rendered in TTl; instead the translation was

different stylistically to the extent that the link to the ST was modest. However, TT2

renders a literal translation of the metaphor and a closer style to the ST, "he was

really a tiger waiting to pounce". It also includes a clarification of how Hamida

- 178 -

would like to make Farraj feel "how sorry she would make him" which did not exist

inTTI.

This stylistic translation problem created in translation of this example is

believed to be due to failing to render the Nida & Taber (1969) lexical feature,

combination of words, in this case the metaphor. Failing to render the metaphor in

TTl created a stylistic gap.

Example 7.1.12 also underwent a substantive revision in terms of stylistic translation

problems.

(1973 : 27)

- You're the best in the world yourself, I don't think! (1966:29)

- You're the best in the world yourself, aren't you? (1992:26)

The ST has a very clear sense of sarcasm which has not been rendered in TTl.

The phrase "~ ~" which means they are as good as nothing and which is used

sarcastically to say "you are as worthless as them", and has been rendered in TTl

into "I don't think". The direct way of introducing a hidden sarcasm used in TTl

probably distorts the way the meaning is presented. However, TT2 restores the

sarcasm used in ST "aren't you?" Although the translation of the example in TTl

and TT2 were not very accurate to the ST, the style of TTl affected the meaning.

Modifying the style in IT2 presented the message in a better manner when

compared to ST. this example is thought belong to formal features of Nida & Taber

(1969) sentence structure. The change in the structure of the sentence has created a

change in meaning not intended by the ST author.

- 179-

7.2.2 Minor Revision

Minor revision is when the example underwent a non-required shift in style

which does not touch upon the essence of the translation. This kind of minor shift is

unessential.

Examples on this are as follows:

(1973 : 19) w......:.

- Mrs Afify listened un interestingly to all this, her mind busy with the matter

about which she had come (1966: 19)

- Mrs. Afify listened with disinterest to all this, her mind busy with the matter

about which she had come. (1992: 17)

The example above is almost the same in the two versions of translation. In

(1966) the expression: was translated into: "un interestingly" ,

while in (1992) it was translated into: "with disinterest". There is barely a difference

between both selections. Both translations render the meaning intended by the source

text author with no major difference. In this example the shift created from TTl to

TT2 was not essential. TT2 does not read in a better way. The translator was

probably trying to create a more natural translation to the reader, however, what

distinguishes the literary genre is the style, and this style should be conveyed. This is

due to the fact that style gives the text "its uniqueness and relate the text personally

to its author" (Nida and Taber 1969)

Another example on the above is:

- 180 -

(1973 :20)~

I had enough of the bitterness of marriage. (1966:20)

No more of the bitterness of marriage for me (1991: 18)

In TTl the translator has intended a normal and accurate translation, yet he

probably felt it did not sound rhetorical or literary enough to meet the effect of the

source text, so he decided to create effect by starting off the sentence with negation

and end it with the pronoun.

The word ~ means I had enough. Therefore, change here was not quite

required. The message of the source text was conveyed sufficiently in TTl and TT2

was not very different from the perspective of a native Arabic speaker.

There are many examples in table 7.1 which witnessed minor shifts or

revisions. In some cases the translator was trying to create a more natural translation,

which work in some examples but fail in others.

Example 7.1.9 is another instance for the minor revision:

(1973 : 220)

- His speech was not without effectiveness for now HamTda felt all her cares

gone and her nervous tension subsided.

- His speech was not ineffective, for now HamTda felt all her cares gone and her

nervous tension subsided. (1992:222)

In this example the stylistic shift occurred from TTl to TT2 in terms of the

translation of the phrase r.S~ 1..;-lA~ ~ , which has been rendered into "was not

- 181 -

without effectiveness", which is accurate, however TT2 decides to create a stylistic

shift to this phrase to become "Was not ineffective". This example is one of the

cases where the shift was not essential but it sounds more domesticated for the

readers and reads more naturally.

Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:36) explain that a case like example 7.1.9 in

stylistics is called transposition. Transposition, they go on to explain is "replacing

one word class with another without changing the message". The first expression is

called "the base expression" while the second is called "the transposed expression".

Vinay and Darbelnet also identify two kinds of transposition in translation:

obligatory transposition and optional transposition.

Example 7.1.9 is an optional transposition where the "transposed expression"

is not better than the "base expression".

Another example on inaccurate translation and minor revision is example 7.1.11:

~I ~I 11\ ..r y- J.,.ill ..,r-Sj '-¥ o\.:i ..>"""-IJ

(1973: 25)~

- What a pity! Fancy letting lice live in that lovely hair. (1966:27)

- What a pity! Imagine letting lice live in that lovely hair! (1992:24)

Example 7.1.11 had a revision on the linguistic aspect where the phrase" '-¥

..,r-Sj" which means "how can you let?" is rendered in TTl as "Fancy", in TT2 it is rendered

into "imagine". None of the translations approached the ST phrase. However, although

there is a linguistic translation problem in this example, by using the wrong translation in

TTl and TT2, there is a more obvious stylistic translation problem which renders the

meaning wrongly. The shift created is minor while the required shift is substantive. More

revision is required in order to ensure the meaning in the ST is conveyed in the TT.

- 182 -

(Nida and Taber 1969: 12): explain "Translation consists In reproducing in the

receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the SL message, first in terms of

meaning and secondly in terms of style."

This again reiterates the need to preserve style in translation rather than create

domestication for the Target reader.

7.3 Conclusion

Chapter seven has defined stylistics translation problems according to different

theorists; it has also classified stylistic translation problems into examples which

underwent minor revision, and those which underwent substantive revision. A

number of examples underwent an optional stylistic transposition (of Vinay and

Darbelbnet 1995) from TTl to TT2. Many of the examples under investigation went

through minor revisions, to naturalize or domesticate the IT for the readership.

- 183 -

Chapter Eight

Pragmatic Translation Problems

As explained in chapter four, Nord defines pragmatic translation problems as

translation problems which arise when the "transfer situation" contrasts with regards

to the ST vs. TT medium and ST vs. TT recipients, motive for ST production vs.

motive for TT translation, or even ST function vs. TT function. Nord goes on to say

that this type of problems exists in all kinds of translations and therefore, they can be

"generalized" regardless of language or culture.

8.1 The Role of Pragmatics in Translation

Pragmatic Translation Problems are thought to be the most serious type of

translation problems.

Leech (1983 :34) defines pragmatics as:

Pragmatics is about meaning in speech situations as it is manifest in

social acts outside sentences, and about the making of meaning as a

dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between

speaker and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social,

linguistic) and the meaning potential of an utterance.

Baker (1992 :217) defines pragmatics as "the study of language in use, it is the

study of meaning, not as generated by the linguists system but as conveyed and

manipulated by participants in a communicative situation"

- 184 -

Her detinition sheds light on how pragmatics can be with all aspects related to

the users of the language as well as the "communicative situation" they are using the

language in. As will be explained below, Sperber and Wilson believe this can relate

to beliefs, religious issues, social interaction, as well as cultural assumptions.

On the other hand Gutt (1998:52) defines translation as a: "Primarily pragmatic

notion, used to indicate the kind of communication intended by the communicator.

Its communication- facilitating role will depend on how similar the notion of

translation held by the translator and held by the audience are to each other".

If necessary, the translator may have to consider measures to bring those

notions close together. Gutt goes on to explain, that the main difficulties facing the

translator are usually pragmatic in translating the difference, is as much of context as

of language.

Gutt( 1998) explains what is called "the relevance theory" by saying that

"communication not only requires encoding, transfer and decoding processes, but

crucially involves inference in addition."

In relevance theory, "context of an utterance" is a "psychological construct" of

the receiver's "assumptions" about the world.

The word "context" here can be very broad to include:

A context in this sense is not limited to information about the immediate

physical environment or the immediately preceding utterances; expectations

about the future, scientific hypothesis or religious beliefs, anecdotal memories,

general cultural assumptions, beliefs about the mental state of the speaker, may

all playa role in interpretation (Sperber & Wilson 1986: 15t)

- 185 -

The definition of what context can include is a broad definition which included

the two sub-classifications introduced for pragmatic translation problems, the first is

religious related and the other is general cultural assumptions (social).

Nord (1997/2001 :85) explains that the literary translator as a reader of the ST

has "an individual understanding" of the text. He must try to "infer" the meaning

intended in the ST by analyzing the "textual features" and "consulting secondary

resources" .

Nord argues that the duties of the literary translator are to

a) Analyse the textual features

b) Try to consult secondary resources before translating the ST

Nord's argument is justifiably true, for when the translator of a literary work

has a good background on the ST in terms of culture and pragmatics, this would

prevent or minimize the number of translation problems facing him through the

process of translation, and the product would be less problematic and link more to

the ST.

The table below shows the pragmatic translation problems done in both ITI

and TT2 in most of the cases. Although the number of this kind of Translation

problems is limited to an extent in the case study of this research, yet they are

extremely serious and cause problems in understanding the beliefs of the ST

audience.

It is note-worthy here that in some examples TTl and TT2 translations were

not revised and the mistakes were not identified in both versions. However, this

- 186 -

study lists them to discuss the pragmatic dimension and explain why and how these

examples should have been rendered.

Pragmatic Translation Problem

8.1.1 Religious & social

8.1.2 Religious

8.1.3 Religious

8.1.4 Religious

8.1.5 Social

- 187 -

Source Text Target Text I

WA. J , :it:.L...l1 wlAJ\c o~ These are signs of ~i J..:i.......o (.P ~J)J ~I Cy.. the hour! Now

:J~ sheikh Darwish

.~;WI ';J~ ~I w.... y 01

• .l,!o' j .).ill.wl J ul\ ~IA ~ ..,.s Wilii (1973 :55~)

!~.)c ~\ JI'''-\ 24~

0.lLi J tlJ."lII'.J:!.u tJ:i ~\ ... !.\t.J.l1 ~4-'J ~I tl.i.:.:i...Y

265~

suddenly emerged from his silence and began to recite poetry and to mutter: Oh madam; love I worth millions. I have spent, madam, for love of you one hundred thousand, but this is a paltry sum. (1966:59)

I am willing to go on a diet and just have an onion for breakfast. (1966:25)

When they said farewell, had she not promised to pray to the lord Hussein to look after him and answer their prayers? (1966:297)

.~I Jj Y t..:..)1 ,t..:..)1 Mercy ... Mercy, oh 287 ~ people of the house!

(1966:319)

~ 0\S J "-'II J.fo. ~I jJ1:J J

.wli!\ .) oJIj J i'»p 4.Jj ~I I'UlI ~ l,u4- ...... y..ll Cy...)1 ij\.pJ1

w.-~ ~ ~ ~ oJJY. J 4JJ~ 4...:..io..! J\ ~ w.)J .t.....l '11 \...\')Y'\

66 ~ .J)c j ~ ¥ (.P

Salim Alwan was very impressed by what his son said. He had faith in his educated sons and his determination to put politics aside was reinforced by his ignorance and indifference to that world. His only political awareness was of few names of these from the time of Saad Zaghloul. (1966:73)

Table 8.1 Pragmatic Translation Problems

Target Text 2

These are signs of the hour! Now sheikh Darwish suddenly emerged from his silence and began to recite poetry and to mutter: Oh madam; love i worth millions. I have spent, madam, for love of you one hundred thousand, but this is a paltry sum. (1992:53)

What! Break a fast by eating an onion? (1992:22)

When they said farewell, had she not promised to pray to the lord Hussein to look after him and answer their prayers? (1992:265)

Mercy... Mercy, oh people of the house! (1992:286)

Salim Alwan was very impressed by what his son said. He had faith in his educated sons and his detennination to put politics aside was reinforced by his ignorance and indifference to that world. His only political awareness was of a few names, and some affection or aversion for a few of these from the era of the nationalist hero Saad Zaghlul. (1992: 66)

- 188 -


The examples under investigation are classified into religious related examples

and social related examples. Below is the explanation to each kind of them and their

examples.

8.2.1 Religious Related Examples

Example 8.1.1 is the only pragmatic translation problem which includes both

kinds of sub-classifications. It is social pragmatic translation problem in one part and

religious pragmatic translation problem in another part.

(1973 :55~)

- These are signs of the hour! Now sheikh Darwish suddenly emerged from his

silence and began to recite poetry and to mutter: Oh madam; my love is

worth millions. I have spent, madam, for love of you one hundred thousand,

but this is a paltry sum. (1966:59)

- 189 -

- These are signs of the hour! Now sheikh Darwish suddenly emerged from his

silence and began to recite poetry and to mutter: Oh madam; my love is

worth millions. I have spent, madam, for love of you one hundred thousand,

but this is a paltry sum. (1992:53)

The example above includes more than one problem. The first is the

expression: ~\.....JI wL.)k. o~ which means the day of resurrection or dooms day. TTl

and TT2 include a literal rendition which was not very comprehensible. For TT

reader: "signs of the hour", does not have a lot of connotation in the target language

and culture to what it stands for in the source language and culture.

In terms of this religious pragmatic translation problem, there has been no shift

to modify the meaning conveyed in TT2. Therefore both TTl and TT2 fail to grasp

the meaning and connotation of this pragmatic expression.

(Gutt 1998:50) explains that dealing with a literary text requires the translator

to be informed in terms of historical and cultural backgrounds of a certain literary

work in order to understand the ST and thus to be able to render it properly into the

TT.

Gutl's argument supports the discussion in the current study, where it is argued

that the translator's unawareness of "mismatches" in terms of culture and history

would result in an inaccurate translation. On the other hand; the translation would

probably be more accurate with regards to serious pragmatic issues, had the

translator done some research on the cultural and historical backgrounds of the ST,

prior to translation.

The other pragmatic problem in this example is the poetry cited by the speaker.

This poetry is completely omitted from both TTl and TT2.

- 190 -

These poetry verses are much immersed in the source culture and would take a

lot of effort from the translator to render them into English. This part of the example

is considered as a social pragmatic translation problem. It has not been revised in

TT2 and therefore the social pragmatic translation problem exists in both TTl and

TT2.

Example 8.1.2 has another pragmatic translation problem in TTl, but it was

rendered into an acceptable equivalent in TT2.

(1973:24)

I am willing to go on a diet and just have an onion for breakfast. (1966:25)

What! Break a fast by eating an onion? (1992:22)

The example above hits the pragmatic dimension when the translator

decides to translate the word r.,.....i which means fasting for Muslims, a very

important and essential part of the Egyptian or even Islamic culture, into go on a

diet. The IT I equivalent is completely inaccurate and should have consulted the

cultural aspect. The other thing is the word ..,;.b!1 which means break the fast. In

TTl the translator decides to base the rest of the sentence on the first part of it. He

renders it into "have an onion for breakfast."

- 191 -

In both cases the TT I is inappropriate in terms of the source language and

culture and it would be quite offensive for Muslims or people of the source

culture to call fasting as going on a diet. After all fasting is for spiritual reasons

rather than dieting reasons.

In TT2 Le Gassick renders the pragmatic dimension and restores both terms

to what they should be. In TT2 we find:

Break a fast by eating an onion?

Although this might not sound familiar for the target readership, yet it

sounds more faithful to the source language and culture.

In the following two examples the translation of TTl and TT2 is not revised at

all, despite the grave mistakes in both.

(265: (973)

When they said farewell, had she not promised to pray to the lord Hussein to

look after him and answer their prayers? (1966:297)

When they said farewell, had she not promised to pray to the lord Hussein to

look after him and answer their prayers? (1992:265)

In the example above, Mahfouz in the ST mentions an aspect very specific to

the Egyptian society. "AI Hussein" whose tomb is in central Cairo, happens to be

the grandson of Prophet Mohammed and people in Egypt ask him to act as a

mediator for them to have their prayers heard by God. The translator was not

aware, apparently, of this and thus translated the sentence into:

- 192-

- "To pray to Lord Hussein to look after him and answer their prayers."

The word "tl..i..::.:i....li"was translated into "to pray" which was not accurate. The

Arabic word in the source text means to act as a mediator to God (to intervene).

The use of the word to pray presents Hussein for the target readership as a God.

Moreover, the addition of the word lord boosts this idea, despite the use of the

word"\.j~" commonly used by the Egyptians, which literally translates as "our

lord", yet the addition of "our lord" has a negative connotation which was not

intended. For Muslims there is only one lord (Allah), the use of this word in this

context is misplaced.

As a whole, this is a quite contradicting statement to the beliefs of Muslims. It

was never meant by Mahfouz that people pray to Hussein. This is considered to

be a grave problem which is quite offensive to Islam. The interesting thing is that

Mahfouz was not successful in spotting this mistake when the second version of

the translation was revised in 1975. As mentioned above, the translation of this

statement was not revised in both TTl and TT2.

Gutt(1998:51) explains that a translator might not be aware of "the

mismatches" in "contextual information" which can lead to a "wrong meaning"

and "jeopardise the communicability of sustainable parts of the original or even of

the original as a whole"

In the following example, the translation was the same in both versions as

well, but was found to be extremely relevant to cultural translation problems

related to religious background.

.~I J14 ~)I ,~)I".

(287:1973)

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In the example above, Le Gassick literally translates: "~' Ji" into "people of

the house". The source text word has a cultural religious dimension. It means "Ahl

AI 8ayt": relatives of Prophet Mohammed. Using "people of the house" as Le

Gassick has done resulted in confusing the readership. It is not obvious which house

is meant here, it could have been any house in Midaq Alley. This, however, suggests

that domesticating a translation is sometimes needed to avoid causing

misunderstanding for the readership.

Translating a literary work sometimes involves rendering the work with the

cultural background from the perspective of the translator rather than the writer. The

translator should "quote" the ST author "out of context". However, Gutt prefers to

call the situation of "presenting the audience" with a "context" presented by the

author's perspective and different from the original, which is presented from the ST

author's perspective, as "secondary communication situations" Gutt (1998:49)

8.2.2 Social Related Examples

Social related pragmatic translation problems occur when the translation

problem is related to social issues. This means that the misunderstanding which took

place in translation results from a lack of knowledge in essential social background

information

The following example has been translated from the source language properly;

however, the translator in TTl has just translated without pointing or explaining the

political figure mentioned in the source text. Sa'ad Zaghlfil is a national hero who

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led the second Egyptian revolution in 1919. He was the leader of AI Wafd political

party, and he demanded Egyptian independence from the British high Commissioner

during the revolution.

~\ J~ ~\ y'U J r1' 4ly.:.. ~~ Jy. J ~ J~ ~I.:il\ ~ t,u4o, A......y..J\ CY> ~\ i j~\ ~~Ij J

.J)c. j .la...... ¥- 0C ~ Ji ~ ~.JJ ~bl 'il I.A .J-""Iu-o ~ cAl

(66: 1973)

His only political awareness was of few names of these from the time of Sa'ad

Zaghlul. (1966:73)

. His only political awareness was of a few names, and some affection or

aversion for a few of these from the era of the nationalist hero Sa'ad Zaghliil.

(1992: 66)

After revising the first translation, in TT2 Le Gassick, decided to add a kind of

explanation to enlighten the target text reader about who this figure was.

In TTl there is no explanation as to who this figure might be, which would

cause some confusion for the target reader. By adding: "the nationalist hero Saad

Zaghliil" in TT2 the translator solves the problem and makes it clearer to the reader

that Sa'ad Zaghliil is a nationalist hero.

The translator has also deleted the word "~"in the first translation but

rendered it in TT2. This addition took place as follows:

His only political awareness was of few names of these from the time of

Saad Zaghloul. (1966:73)

His only political awareness was of a few names, and some affection or

aversion for a few of these from the era of the nationalist hero Saad Zaghlul.

(1992: 66)

- 195 -

The word ~ is rendered or added in TT2 into the word aversion. So instead

of omitting this phrase he restores it in TT2 eliminating the pragmatic gap here.

8.3 Conclusion

Pragmatic translation problems are considered by Nord (2005) to be the most

serious kind of translation problems; nevertheless, the number of pragmatic

translation problems examples is modest in comparison to other kinds of translation

problems encountered in this case study ..

Pragmatic translation problems are sub-classified into religious pragmatic

translation problems and social pragmatic translation problems.

The sub-classification of the examples, as shown in table 8.1, includes more

religious than social pragmatic translation problems. Some of the pragmatic

problems have not been dealt with in TT2 which reflects that the translator was

probably unaware ofthe "mismatches" created in both translations.

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Chapter Nine

Discussion of Translation Problems and Findings

This chapter discusses the trends and the frequency of the number of each kind

of translation problems as well as the numbers of their sub-classifications. The issue

of overlapping will also be discussed in detail.

All of the above will pave the way to build an overall judgment of both TTl

and TT2 depending on the numbers of the examples and how serious the problems

are. The last part of the chapter will discuss the limitations of this study.

9.1 Translation Problems and Findings

9.1.1 Cultural Translation Problems:

The first kind of translation problems which has been discussed is the cultural

translation problems. Nord defines cultural translation problems as those caused by the

difference between two cultures in terms of habits, norms, traditions or conventions. Nord

believes these are the most common kind of translation problems and can be found in

most if not all kinds of translations.

Cultural translation problems have an overall number of nineteen examples in the

case study under investigation, but a lot of the examples in the linguistic translation

problems and the pragmatic translation problems can be said to relate to the cultural

background in one way or another.

Nevertheless, the six examples in chapter eight were purely cultural. This is the

reason why they were the only examples which were classified as cultural. Other

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examples which interrelate to culture are used to represent the problems they more

obviously contain.

However, it has been found in this study that the examples which relate to more

than one kind of translation problems form a kind of translation problems on their own.

For instance it is true that the findings of the pure cultural translation problems were

modest but adding the cultural linguistic translation problems and cultural pragmatic

translation problems which have been discussed earlier in chapter four expands on the

cultural aspect which is one of the main aspects under investigation.

Most cultural translation problems found in this study, whether pure or overlapping

with other translation problems, related either to possible lack of knowledge in the

religious background or the social background of the Egyptian society; that is the source

language audience. This is the reason why the findings were sorted according to this

criterion.

The revision of the examples from TTl into TT2 was most of the times substantive,

many examples which were revisited in TT2 have restored missing cultural elements.

Most of the examples under cultural translation problems have not been revised in a

substantive manner. As explained in chapter three, culture is closely linked to language. It

is a significant aspect in translation (see 3.2) and should not be omitted. Failing to render

the ST culture in the TT affects the quality of the translation presented.

The table below shows the more frequent cultural translation problems:

- 19& -

Cultural Translation Problems

Sub-classification Number of examples

Religious background 13

Social background 6

Table 9.1 Cultural Translation Problems Frequency

The numbers above show that the majority of the examples on cultural translation

problems related to religious background. Egyptian society is a mostly Muslim society

where terms and expressions which have to do with religion are used on a daily basis.

The translator reflects in a number of examples his lack of knowledge of the SC

which results in misreading or mistranslating some terms, expressions or even concepts.

The other kind of cultural translation problems has to do with social background.

Analysis revealed 6 examples. Therefore, the social translation problems were less

frequent than the religious ones.

9.1.2 Linguistic Translation Problems

Linguistic translation problems, as explained in chapter six, arise due to differences

between the two languages involved in translation. These are a result of difference in

"Iexis" and sentence structure, which Nord related to "text function", "register" and

"audience orientation".

Linguistic Translation problems in the present study have the highest number of

examples as shown in table 6.1. The number of the linguistic translation problems is fifty

five examples. As explained in chapter 6 linguistic translation problems have been sub

classified into: (i) substantive revision, (ii) incomplete revision and (iii) negative revision.

Substantive revision takes place when the example is justifiably revised in a

satisfactory way from TTl into TT2. Incomplete revision is when the revised example

- 199 -

still requires more corrections to render the meaning in the ST. Negative revision refers to

cases where, although the example does not require any revision, the translator revises it

in TT2 in such a way that he creates new translation problems.

Linguistic Translation Problems

Sub classification for Linguistic Translation Problems Number of Examples

Substantive revision (more accurate equivalent in TT2) 44

Incomplete revision (more change was required) 7

Negative revision 4

Table 9.2 Linguistic Translation Problems' Frequency

As shown in the table above, the translator deals with the translation of different

examples in different ways.

(i) Substantive Revision

In Substantive revision from TTl into TT2, the translator manages to place a more

accurate linguistic item to meet the ST. In linguistic translation problems this sub-

classification was far more common than other sub-kinds. Therefore, this study gives

credit to the translator for succeeding in amending the majority of the problems in TTL

(ii) Incomplete Revision

On the other hand the number of incomplete revisions in the examples under

investigation is seven examples. This shows that the translator did not wholly render the

meaning in the ST and that the linguistic translation problem which he identified in TTl

was partly dealt with in TT2 ..

(iii) Negative Revision

The last sub-classification of linguistic translation problems is negative revision.

This takes place when the translator revises an example which does not need revision.

- 200-

This results mostly in a negative revision in which the revised is inaccurate in TT2 while

it used to be substantive in TTL

Most of the linguistic translation problems are revised successfully in TT2. The

number of negative revisions and incomplete revisions were far less than the number

of substantive revisions where the translator managed to render the missing meaning

in TTl. This indicates a successful revision of the linguistic translation problems as

a whole.

9.1.3 Stylistic Translation problems

Munday (2009:229,230) discusses the relation of stylistics and translation and how

stylistics has been understood and presented from different points of views. He simply

defines style in translation as that associated with form rather than content. Nida and

Taber (1974: 12) on the other hand, believe that meaning has a priority in translation over

style.

As discussed in chapter 7, Stylistics is significant to the way the audience receive

and hence understand the message intended in the ST.

Some of the stylistic translation problems underwent stylistic transposition

where the word class changes from TTl to TT2.

In other cases, however, the changes seem to serve the aim of getting the message

across more accurately. Therefore, stylistic translation problems have been divided into

(i) Substantive revision and (ii) Minor revision.

- 201 -

Stylistic Translation problems

Sub-classification Number of Examples

Substantive revision 7

Minor revision 8

Table 9.3 Stylistic Translation Problems Frequency

(i) Substantive Revision

By substantive revision, we mean those examples where change has created a

positive difference in getting the message across.

(ii) Minor Revision

Minor revision means that the change which occurred from TTl to TT2 is quite

insignificant that it barely affects the translation,.

The shifts which took place on TTl to TT2 have been divided closely between the

two sub-classifications. The outcome suggests that stylistic translation problems were

dealt with satisfactorily in TT2.

9.1.4 Pragmatic Translation Problems

The fourth kind of translation problems are pragmatic translation problems.

Although there were only five examples in the chapters under investigation, they were

rather serious, as they had a negative influence on the quality of the translation. Some of

these were translated in a way which has resulted in disrespect of the source language

audience, their culture and their religion.

- 202-

The examples were sub-classified again to religious, examples which relate to

religious issues, and beliefs and social which are related to the social background of the

ST society.

Pra2matic Translation Problems Sub-classification Number of examples

Social background 1 Religious background 4

Table 9.4 Pragmatic Translation Problems Frequency

Nevertheless the findings and the numbers in the table above show that the religious

background examples in pragmatic translation problems were more frequent than the

social background examples. This makes the outcome of the cultural translation problems

sub-classification more obvious in that the translator was probably weaker in terms of

religious background information than he was with regards to social background

information.

(i) Religious Related Examples

Religious related examples are those which include words, expressions or

concepts relevant to the Islamic culture in the ST audience. The mistranslation in

such examples leads to a major misunderstanding in the TT, and causes a serious

problem for the beliefs of the ST audience.

It is also noteworthy that, although the number of pragmatic translation problems

is modest, the mistranslations were serious as the message which was intended in the

ST was not rendered. The literal translation attempted by Le Gassick was far from

rendering the intended message. As it is obvious in Table 8.1, some of the examples

were not revised and with those which were revised the change was little. These

- 203 -

examples are considered serious because they have distorted the ST in a way that

affected the SC, particularly in terms of rei igious related matters.

(ii) Social Related

Social related pragmatic translation problems are examples which included

expressions or collocations that related directly to the language in use amongst the

audience of the ST. these expresssions, words or collocations have been mis-

rendered by the translator due to the modest knowledge, it is believed, with regards

to pragmatic information related to social background.

9.2 Overlapping Translation Problems

This section will discuss translation examples which are classified as

overlapping between two different translation problems. These have been found to

belong to two types: cultural linguistic translation problems and cultural pragmatic

translation problems. An example will be analyzed for each kind to clarify the link

or the overlap between the two translation problems.

9.2.1 Cultural Linguistic Translation Problems

A considerable number of the examples which were initially sorted as linguistic

translation problems were found to overlap with cultural translation problems to a large

extent. These again were sub-classified into cultural linguistic translation problems

relating to lack of knowledge in the religious background and those which relate to lack

of knowledge in the social background. Both backgrounds, it has to be said, are essential

to the Arabic culture and language SC and SL. This means that misreading any example

would obviously result into a mistranslation.

- 204-

In some of the examples the translation problems existed in more than one part of

the example as in the following case:

( 1973:269)

Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for the holy land

(1966:301)

Everyone knew this was the day Radwan Hussainy would leave for Suez on his way

to the holy land. (1992:269)

The shift in this example took place on a linguistic level. The phrase ~)I ~

has been omitted. This word is an Islamic word which means "God willing". It

has been omitted from both TTl and TT2. Such phrases reflect the SC and

should be rendered to prevent the TT to appear like an ST as explained

previously.

Another phrase which has been omitted from TTl is ~..,.JI .)1 which is


revision in TT2. This phrase explains that Hussainy was heading to Suez on his

way to the holy lands. The translator might have omitted this phrase thinking it is

not significant. However, many of the detailed expressions used in the ST by

Mahfouz are intended and should be rendered in IT .Therefore; TT2 restores this

phrase to become "would leave for Suez on his way to the holy lands". This

example is considered a cultural translation problem related to religious

background.

- 205 -

Cultural linguistic Translation Problems

Sub classification Number of Examples

Lack of religious background 7

Lack of background social I

Table 9.5 Cultural Linguistic Translation Problems

The numbers in the table above show that the frequency of examples in this kind of

translation problems was higher in terms of lack of religious background. This takes us

back to the discussion of cultural translation problems to reiterate the idea that the Arabic

Egyptian culture is deeply immersed in religion. The translation in TTl and TT2 should

have paid more attention to both missing dimensions.

9.2.2 Cultural Pragmatic Translation Problems

The next kind of translation problems is found to be an overlap between cultural

and pragmatic translation problems. This kind of translation problems has proved to

relate to rendering the intended message, which is related to the cultural background, in a

wrong manner. Therefore it has been decided that any kind of translation problems which

convey the message in an inaccurate way and which is at the same time immersed in

culture to be this kind. The examples as discussed in the previous chapter are again sorted

into those which relate to religious background and others which relate to social

background.

Cultural Pragmatic Translation Problems

Sub-classification Number of examples

Lack of knowledge in the religious background 6

Lack of knowledge in the social background 2

Table 9.6 Cultural Pragmatic Translation Problems

- 206-

An instance of the above kind of translation problem can be seen in the example

below:

(1973: 18)


fate had struck down her father. (1966: 19)


her father had informed the police. (1992: 16,17)

A grave misunderstanding by Le Gassick is obvious in this example. Two

misunderstandings occurred in the translation of this example. One was modified in

the second translation, but the other was not. The first mistranslation was the last

part of the sentence: "~II.Ay'1 ~ J". This part means that her father had informed

the police, which is exactly what Le Gassick said, in TT2. In TTl the translator

misunderstood the meaning and rendered it into: "fate had struck down her father."

The word "~I"means police station but it is very specific to the Egyptian dialect.

Thus, it is believed that this has caused the translator to misunderstand the whole

sentence.

On the other hand, Le Gassick has repeated a grave mistake in both translations

without being aware of that. He had translated the word "~.fi" which means

daughter into "wife". The source word is again specific to the dialect. A bicultural

translator would have been aware of what is meant by the author.

- 207-

This example is considered to be a cultural pragmatic translation problem

because the translator has committed both kinds in the same example. On the one

hand the translator renders the word ~fi which means as discussed above the

daughter of someone into the wife of someone. This word being rendered

inaccurately makes this example belong to the set of linguistic translation problems,

but this is not the only translation problem in this example.

Mistranslating the word ~ on the other hand relates to culture more than

linguistic translation problems. This word means police station but its use is quite

specific to the Egyptian dialect in the Arabic language, therefore mistranslating it

does not only mean an inaccurate selection of a linguistic item, it also reveals a lack

of cultural social background information. Therefore this example is an instance of

an overlap between linguistic and cultural translation problems.

The revision which took place by the translator was insufficient in this instance. An

example on this kind of translation problems is the following:

(1973:30)

- What a strong man he must have been! He says he spent a hundred thousand pounds

on his love for our lady Zainab. Do you think he would have given me ten

thousand? (1966:32)



too mean to give me ten thousand? (1992:28,29)

- 208 -

The example above has included both a pragmatic translation problem and a

cultural translation problem, to be more specific, it consists of a religious

background cultural pragmatic translation problem.

The pragmatic translation problem is the translation of ~j o~1 into "our

lady Zainab" in TTl and TT2. As discussed earlier "Zainab" happens to be the

granddaughter of Prophet Mohammed. She is believed to be buried in Cairo.

Translating or resorting to literal translation leaves the reader or the receptor

confused as to whether this figure is historical, political, or even a character in the

novel which they must have missed. This results in a distortion of the message

intended by the author. it is, therefore, considered to be of pragmatic nature. On the

other hand this same translation of our lady "Zainab" being mistaken by the readers

offends the source culture users because it is associated with religious reasons and

important historical figures. As such, this example is a clear instance of an overlap

between two kinds of translation problems which has motivated the urgency of

setting up additional kinds of translation problems.

Despite the fact that the numbers above are not high in frequency, the findings are

significant. These examples combine two of the most serious translation problems which

can be encountered in this study. Pragmatic translation problems are deemed to be the

most serious while cultural translation problems are very important in rendering the

flavour of the source text and culture.

The two overlapping translation problems as discussed above are the only

overlapping categories amongst the four types of translation problems. These have been

discussed briefly due to the fact that the focus of this study is on the main kinds of the

translation problems found in the process of comparing ST to TTl/TT2 and their sub

classifications.

- 209-

Conclusion

Chapter one discussed the author of the case study, his works, the translations

of his works, his significance in Arabic literature as well as the significance and

summary of Ziqaq Al Midaq .

In chapter two the literature review is discussed of Quality assessment works in

Arabic>English translations of different works in Arabic literature which have been

rendered into English. Moreover, works which had as case studies works of

Mahfouz.

Chapter three IS an overvIew of translation theory. It highlights the

significance of DTS and locates this study under product oriented descriptive

translation studies. It also focuses on the role of culture in translation, and the

significance of culture in Arabic literature. Moreover, it sheds light on significant

translation theory such as Foreignization vs. Domestication, and covert vs. overt

translation, it also discusses different theories which are thought to be relevant to

this study.

Chapter four discusses three different models for translation quality

assessment. Toury (1995) House (1997) and Nord (2005/1991) models of translation

quality assessment alongside their strengths and weaknesses are discussed, and a

model is selected at the end of the chapter. The translation problems of Nord (2005)

are explained and the approach by which the study will be undertaken is clarified.

Chapter five tackles cultural translation problems, a brief explanation of the

significance of culture in translation is made at the beginning of the chapter. the sub-

- 2 \0-

classifications of the cultural which include religious and social are explained. The

table of the cultural translation problems' sub-classifications, ST, TTl and TT2 is

tollowed by the analysis of the examples. The chapter is concluded at the end with

major tindings.

Chapter six discusses linguistic translation problems, their sub-c1assitications.

Selected examples on these sub-classifications are analysed to highlight the shifts

from TTl to TT2.

Chapter seven deals with stylistic translation problems, and the significance of

style in translation from the perspective of different theorists is highlighted at the

beginning of chapter. The examples under investigation are sub-classified into minor

revision and substantive revision. Selected examples are analysed while relating

them to relevant theories in stylistics and translation.

Chapter eight discusses pragmatic translation problems. These have been sub

classified into religious and social. The role of pragmatics in translation is

highlighted at the beginning of the chapter. The analysis of the examples sheds light

on some cases where the translator was not aware of the pragmatic dimension and

therefore, no shift has been created between TT I and TT2.

Chapter nine is a comprehensive discussion of the findings of the analysis of

the examples. It highlights the number of examples found in each kind of translation

problem as well as the detailed number of the sub-classifications discussed earlier. It

also sheds light on overlapping translation problems.

- 211 -

The originality of the current study lies in the following points:

The current study has investigated two translations for the same ST and more

importantly by the same translator. A number of studies have set comparative assessment

studies to investigate more than a TT for the same ST; however, the TTs were mostly

done by different translators.

In this part the research questions which have been presented in the introduction as

the objectives of this study will be answered in order to measure to which this study has

succeeded in meeting every aspect in the objectives. These questions were:

1- What translation quality criteria will be used for assessing the texts in this study?

In this study, selected models of translation quality assessment are discussed such as

Toury (1995), House (1997/1977), Dickins (2002), Newmark (1988), Reiss (2000)

and Nord (2005/1991). Toury (1995) discusses many useful points in the process of

translation quality assessment, his discussion is used for the overall DTS perspective.

Therefore, there is a need for a more detailed model of text analysis is required for the

ST- TTl/TT2 comparison.

It is note-worthy that it has found that the weak point which exists in Toury (1995)

model is the selection and analysis of the source text-target text segments which

Toury (1995: 00) admits to being "ad hoc"

Another model is consulted in order to find a more useable model which would

assist in analyzing the differences between TTl and TT2 against ST.

By criticism Newmark does not mean criticizing the translation. It rather

means understanding and trying to know why the translator has undertaken a certain

procedure over the other and what his intention in doing so was. Newmark

- 212 -

recommends that the critic should know and distinguish between the incompetent

translator and the translator whose taste is too academic or too idiomatic for the

critic through the translations he/she undertakes.

For Newmark all translations are under-translations. Newmark believes that no

translation can equal the ST. The critic has always to look for what he calls de

culturalized or transferred to the target language culture. This takes place when the

text is transferred into the target culture without any reference to the source culture.

Newmark suggests here a way of criticizing the work of the translator rather

than pre-judging the whole translation as good or not.

The person criticizing the translation should inquire the following, how the

translator solved particular problems such as the title, structure, paraphrasing,

metaphors, cultural words, ambiguity, etc.

Moreover, the accuracy the translator should seek to achieve is of two levels,

the referential level and the pragmatic level of accuracy.

For Newmark the change of form for the sake of content (meaning) ST is quite

acceptable, and "the accommodation of meaning" is the most important element. By

"accommodation of meaning" Newmark means rendering the meaning of the ST into

the TT or accommodating the meaning of the ST into the TT.

Newmark moves in to explain that a critic should avoid criticizing the

translator for ignoring translation principles which were not even established when

the translation took place. The things to look at are the quality and the semantic

deficit.

It should also e established when criticizing a IT whether the semantic deficit

is inevitable or is the result of the translator's incompetence.

- 213 -

Newmark then introduces two approaches for assessing a translation, the functional,

which is usually unreliable, is an overall assessment of the work and the second is

analytical. It investigates where the translator omitted, intentionally or unintentionally,

ideas and details in the translation. It also aims at discovering where the translator went

short. This approach is seen as an unreliable method due to its subjectivity. As for the

analytical approach, it tends to be more detailed but subjective. A text is looked at in

sections so a bad translation would surface easier than a good one. Newmark explains

that the analytical approach tends to be more detailed yet it is subjective.

Newmark proposes the critic should look at the translation in isolation of the

original text. This translation should read as natural, agreeable, objective, informative or

even persuasive according to the type of the original text

One of the significant points Newmark stresses is that the translator must be

aware of the importance of the novel or the ST in its culture, .its influence on the SC

audience and if it is worth rendering in translation or not.

Newmark's model highlights the fact that the model is quite prescriptive than

descriptive. It tends to give instructions rather than assess an existing translation in

the view point of this study. However, Newmark discusses some useful points such

as the significance of the novel and its value in the source culture. Also, reading the

translated work in isolation from the ST is useful suggestion for those who would

agree with that the translation should read as an original. Nevertheless, the proposed

model by Newmark is quite perspective and would not result into a reliable

assessment of any translated text.

The next model under discussion is Dickins (2002) who presents a model which

listing the degrees of cultural transposition. These are according to Dickins:

- 214 -

Exoticism, calque, cultural transposition, cultural borrowing and communicative

translation.

Dickins explains that Cultural transposition involves adapting the ST into the TC in

addition to changing the features of the ST in order to make it familiar with the target

reader's culture. This process involves eliminating of any foreignism in the ST and

naturalizing the text.

Dickins defines Exoticism as rendering all foreign features of the ST including

grammatical and cultural features with minor changes into the TL. This results in a

foreign text. The TT is marked with most of its source cultural foreignness. However,

exoticism is intentionally used in translation in some cases in order to achieve the

objective of attracting the reader to something he is not familiar with.

An example is the following:

- Standard Arabic:

- Colloquial Arabic (Egyptian):

- Literal Translation: Peace be upon you

Calque, from Vinay & Darbelnet (1958), is another degree of Cultural Transposition

It involves rendering the source text respecting the grammatical and syntactic features

of the target language but is not idiomatically familiar in the target reader's culture.

An example on calque is the following:

- What is past has died

Cultural Transplantation according to Sandor (2995:23) is hardly a translation.

They are more of adaptations, where texts are "reinvented "in the TL. An

example is the cultural transplantation of the musical Man of the Mancha which

- 215 -

is based on Don Quixote and Lou's Stein's Salsa. However, Sandor explains that

it is not necessary a negative degree of Cultural Transposition since it succeeded

in creating very successful texts.

Cultural Borrowing introduces a ST term preserving its foreignness to the target

language. It is more or less transliterating a source language term without any

sort of adaptation or explanation such as transliterating the word intifada.

Furthermore, Cultural borrowing, explains Dickins, introduces a lot of "exotic

elements" into the TT. These may become familiar for the TC by time. Dickins

also suggests that a translator should add a paratext which explicates the exotic

terms in the form of a glossary with all the "exotic terms" at the end of the

translated work or by the use of footnoting in order to clarify these terms for is

the reader.

An example on cultural borrowing is the translation of the word Filta which is

translated from Egyptian Arabic into "hand towel", but into "child nappy" in the

Arabic.

Communicative translation alms at introducing a reader oriented translation

where the reader is not estranged from the text or no "exotic" is introduced.

An example on communicative translation is the following:

- Literal translation: That which has passed has died

- Balanced translation: What's past is gone

- Communicative translation: Let bygones be bygones (or) what's done is done

- 216 -

However, when there is no "cultural correspondent" for the SL, the translator

might face some translation problems.

An example on communicative translation is:

No entry

- Dickins model introduces some useful features in his model; however it has

been found that the model does not provide a solid framework to assess the

translations under investigation. Therefore; the process of exploring features

covered by other models which serve the objectives of the current study had

to continue.

Reiss (1971/2000) introduces another translation criticism model In which she

makes some useful points and guidelines.

Reiss (\ 97112000) explains that there is barely a judgment on translations of

literary works due to commercialization. She adds that such judgement is

insufficient for assessing the translations. The elements investigated in such

superficial assessments would be the style, content and sometimes the aesthetic

element. The ST is never referred to. She stresses that translation criticism should

always take the ST into consideration; otherwise the judgement would be very

subjective and poor. A critic of translations should always try to justify the choice of

the translator.

Reiss (2000) explains what she means by "objective criticism of translation

"and that the critic should be explicit on positive and negative sides of the

translation, giving examples on these two sides.

- 217 -

When the critic spots a negative side or an error made by the translator, he

should state reasons which led the translator to committing that error. However,

elements that are involved in the process of criticism are: the setting of the original

text, the SL, the restrictions of the target language as well as the idioms and

technical style of the target language.

Reiss adds that a suggestion for a negative translation or an error should be

provided by the critic. Reiss also believes that whenever a negative part or an error

is stated, the translator should be able to provide the reader with an alternative, or

even a justification for marking the choice of the translator as an error or inaccuracy.

Comparing the TT with the ST provides the translator with different options of

equivalents to choose from. Many literary critics may judge the TT in isolation,

however, translation studies quality assessment must involve a ST-TT comparison as

argued by Toury (1995) (See 3.1)

One of the significant points Reiss stresses is that assessing a work of fiction must

involve a ST -TT comparison, especially when the work under investigation is of

cultural value. This would be to ensure elements of style and structure are integrated

in the TT the way they are presented in the ST. the process of comparing ST -TT

would surface the deficiencies in translation, and would provide a solid criterion to

passing ajudgment on the translation.

Reiss makes important distinctions of genre and how they influence the translation.

Moreover, she adds that a critic should be knowledgeable in the ST and SC in order

to be aware of the potentials of the SL and to be able to pass an objective judgment

on the translation.

- 218 -

The points the translator should be successful in rendering as Reiss stresses are:

the lexical components of the source text like the idiomatic expressions,

names, expressions, and proverbs. Reiss believes the translator's competence

can be judged according to his ability to deal with technical problems and

special idioms and rendering them successfully.

Reiss's model provides some insight in translation criticism but like Newmark

does not provide a solid framework to assess a TT. Reiss does stress the idea of

ST-TT comparison like Toury (1995) but there is no clear criterion to apply on

TT in comparison with ST. therefore, another model is consulted.

The question then arises as to how to systematize the analytical process. At this stage

House (1997/1977) who presents a model for translation quality assessment is

consulted.

House (1997/1977) introduces a model which is discussed in the present study

due to the fact that it encompasses linguistic, pragmatics, stylistics as well as the

situational differences and peculiarities between the source text and the target

text. Furthermore, it is based on the theory of register, and discourse analysis.

The basic notion of her model would be functional equivalence. House attempts

to link the idea to what she refers to as overt and covert translation.

House defines "Overt" translation as the kind of translation in which the

addressees of the translation are not being directly addressed such as literary

texts. House explains further that overt translation is not meant to be a second

original; it is rather tied to the TL and Te. An "Overt" translation renders the ST

as intact as possible taking the necessary measures to transfer it into the target

language. This, is very difficult in the case of socio-cultural contexts, due to that

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this kind of contexts requires major changes in order to topicalize it into the

target culture. The relationship between preserving the original and altering it is

another difficulty. This creates a difficulty in finding equivalents.

Covert translation as House explains (1977/1997:69) is that kind of translation

which is created according to its own rules or to the publishers' rules. It is

equally as significant as the original and is not addressed to the ST audience such

as a tourist brochure or a product manual. Unlike overt translation, covert

translation is not tied to the ST. It is an original rather than a translation. A

translator would resort to covert translation in case he/she would like to maintain

the function of the ST equivalent in the translated text. Normally in case the

translator seeks an equivalent function for his translation as that of the original

then he has to take the cultural presuppositions into consideration. There would

be a need on the side of the translator to adapt the cultural setting into that of the

target language in order to meet the target audience expectations and needs. This

would be done in order to secure an equivalent textual function in the source and

the target cultures.

She says that it is a strategy which enables the reader to "touch upon" the

function of the original or the source text in terms of language and culture, or

what House (1997) prefers to call "lingua-culture" in the target language.

According to House, in order to achieve a functional equivalence, a cultural

filter must be introduced and used. This will enable us to make changes using a

number of "pragmatic parameters" House's equivalence would involve

maintaining three aspects of meaning:

1- The Semantic aspect of meaning

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2-The pragmatic aspect of meaning

3-The textual aspect of meaning

House (199711977) model largely depends or is based upon the Hallidayian

approach. Her model encompasses a considerable number of concepts and sub

-concepts such as tenor, mode, genre, etc. House's model produces an overall

judgement on the quality but, in my opinion, and for the purposes of this study,

it does not consider sufficient detail (especially culture-bound) translation

problems that abound in the Mahfouz text.

Nord (2005/1991) was then brought into discussion. Nord (2005/1991) in her

slightly revised model form (\ 991) discusses the relationship between inter

textual factors in the translated text to the intra-textual factors.

The relation of intra-textual factors to intra-textual factors provides a different

perspective and the more detailed study of certain aspects covered by House

(199711977). For example, there is greater attention paid to situational factors

such as the sender, the sender's intention, the recipient and the text function

(1997/1977). In addition, Nord (1991) discusses medium, time of

communication, motive for communication, place of communication, as well as

interdependence of extra-textual factors under the intra-textual factors.

Furthermore, under intra-textual factors Nord discusses subject matter (theme),

content (lexical items), presuppositions, text composition, non verbal elements,

lex is, sentence structure, supra-segmental features and interdependence of intra

textual factors.

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Furthermore, under intra-textual factors she discusses subject matter (theme),

content (lexical items), presuppositions, text composition, non verbal elements,

lexis, sentence structure, supra-segmental features and interdependence of intra

textual factors.

The treatment of these factors creates a detailed map for the ST, TTl and TT2.

When it comes to the detailed text analysis, Nord speaks of four kinds of

translation problems. These are linguistic translation problems, cultural

translation problems, pragmatic translation problems and text-specific translation

problems (which we called 'stylistic problems'), which formed the basis of this

study. A comparison between ST, TTl and TT2 was carried out to measure the

accuracy of translation and to assess the revision, if any, which took place

between TT I and TT2.

However, it was found that when some translation problems overlap, they do not

fit in any category identified by Nord (2005/1991). These overlapping translation

problems as discussed in chapter nine have been highlighted due to the fact that

they had a modest number.

2- How far does the cultural aspect dominate the translation problems in TTl?

Although this study anticipated the highest number of examples would revolve

around culture, this was not the case. The translation problems which Le Gassick

faced in the process of translation deviated from what was expected. The examples

proved to vary between the four major kinds of translation problems as identified by

Nord (2005/1991) and the additional kinds which overlap between two kinds of the

major four translation problems.

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Nevertheless cultural translation problems had a number of 19 examples, for the

pure cultural translation problems and those which overlap with other kinds of

translation problems such as cultural linguistic translation problems with a total of 8

examples and cultural pragmatic translation problems with a total of 8 examples as

well. Nevertheless, we cannot ignore the number of examples which appeared to

belong to the linguistic translation problems which amounted to 55 examples or the

stylistic translation problems which totalled 15 examples. Pragmatic Translation

problems were significant as well; however the number of pragmatic translation

problem examples was only 5. Therefore, the expectation of the hypothesis of this

study which states that the results will be mainly cultural or related to the cultural

aspect is not accurate at all. Although Culture and the translator's lack of knowledge

in the cultural background seem to have influenced the quality of translation, yet other

kinds of translation problems contributed to the level of accuracy delivered both in

TTl.

3- How useful was the model selected In assessing the translations under

investigation?

Nord (2005/1991) has provided a good insight of the features to look at when

assessing a translation. The detailed features provided a guideline in applying the

model in a different and useful way.

Table 4.3 describes the relevant inter-textual and intra-textual factors applied to the

case study to ST, TTl and TT2.

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Source Text Translation TTl TT2 Problems & Procedures

Extra-textual Factors Sender Naguib Mahfouz Transliteration of Naguib Mahfouz Naguib Mahfouz

names (mediated by (mediated by Trevor Le Trevor Le Gassick) Gassick)

Intention Fiction and entertainment Structures and style Rendering a work Rendering a work of were suitable for of cultural value cultural value into a fiction into a different different culture

culture Recipient People of all classes in Introducing English speaking English speaking people

the source culture, different cultural people who are who are into fiction and laymen, elements which do into fiction and into different cultures sophisticated ... etc not existent in the into different (Arabic speaking people) target culture cultures.

(language)

Medium Novel None known No change in No change In layout layout (novel) (novel)

Place. The National Library, Transliteration of AI Khayat AUC Press Cairo- Egypt Cairo-Egypt names of places, Publishing House,

recreating the image Beirut- Lebanon for those places.

Time 1947 Difference in 1966 1975 Setting

Motive Disseminating his works N/A Transferring a Amending a lot of and identifying people different culture mistakes and translation with the dark side of the and literature to problems which were alleys of old Cairo the English largely criticized after

speaking audience the publication of the first translation

Text- To entertain and to Difference In To entertain and To entertain and to function inform structures and to inform inform

literary style.

Intra- textual Factors Subject The dark side of Ziqaq AI The subject matter An insight into An insight into Cairo. matter Midaq in old Cairo. is a source culture Cairo.

feature

Content Very detailed Descriptive Difficulty In Describing the Describing the images of images of the setting and recreating those images of people people and the details of the people living in the images and and the details of the Alley place, which carries the realizing what the Alley reader to the Ziqaq as he Mahfouz was able reads to do in the target

language/culture.

Pre- The author presumes a No elaboration on The translator The translator assumes suppositio shared cultural background cultural bound assumes the target the target reader to have ns with the audience or the terms and concepts. reader to have a a great deal of

readership, therefore he The TT readers may great deal of background knowledge attempted his novel not have been background of the work he has without exerting any effort familiar with the ST knowledge of the translated. in getting it through setting and culture. work he has

translated. Text- Division into chapters. N/A Same division Same division into compositi (fiction layout) into chapters. chapters. (fiction layout) on (fiction layout) Non- Front cover includes a N/A The hard front The second translation verbal symbolic drawing for an cover of the book has a different cover

elements

Lexis

Sentence Structure

alley. it portraits an old neighbourhood in Cairo.

Simplified standard Arabic which can get through to every class in the community

Either short sentences or long descriptive ones.(see 1.4 for Mahfouzs style)

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Adapting this lexis to fit in the Target culture convention

Literal translation has resulted in long structures in both translations ..

includes a picture different from the Source text book yet has the same theme. The cover of the first translation features a lady, a man, as well as some soldiers. It IS believed here that the picture focuses on Hamida's story as the main character with Faraj, the pimp, and the British soldiers. The translator used the American English dialect in TTl , however, there has been a lot of lexical problems in TTl, even in dialogue (see linguistic translation problems chapter 6) Long sentences and repeated expressions: e.g.: " Oh master, Oh helper, Oh Provider, Oh, generous one, May the ending be sweet !"

Text Analysis and Translation Skopos (Examples)

from the first. It is noteworthy that different publishing houses used different covers for the same content regarding this second TT. The cover of the second translation is an image for different people. It is believed here that the cover focuses on all characters of the alley rather than certain ones.

The dialect used is American English but there were Fewer instances of linguistic translation, problems than TTl.

Some sentences were deleted like the example cited in the first translation, but most of the structures were kept. Repetition of certain structures and over- use of long sentences.

Table 4.3 clarifies the use of the actual model of Nord (2005/1991) to this

study. The detailed features highlight a lot of data regarding the case study ST as

well as TTl and TT2.

The table above shows that Nord has set to analyse the intra-textual factors and

the extra-textual factors. The intra-textual factors' analysis does not provide much

- 225-

information about the quality of the translations. Applying the subject matter for

instance shed light on the dark side of Midaq Alley, while content dealt with the

descriptive images of the setting the people who live in it. On the other hand, pre

suppositions involved the translator assuming a good knowledge on the side of the

target reader of the source culture, which is not entirely true. Text-composition told

us that the layout of the ST and TTl as well as TT2 is a fiction layout (chapters).the

non-verbal elements highlighted the front cover image used in ST, TTl and TT2 and

how they are different in portraying the novel. The lexis used in ST is simplified

standard Arabic which can be understood by laymen. The language used in TT 1 and

TT2 is the American English dialect. However, there are a considerable number with

regards to the linguistic translation problems.

On the other hand the extra-textual factors Nord applies involve, the sender

who is Naguib Mahfouz in the ST and Naguib Mahfouz mediated by Trevor Le

Gassick in TTl and TT2. While intention, is fiction in ST and rendering a work of

cultural value in TTl and TT2. The third extra-textual factor is the recipient, who is

the Arabic speaking people in the ST (whether they are laymen or sophisticated

people) and English speaker people in TTl and TT2 who are interested in different

cultures. The medium is the way the work is presented and in this case it is the novel

in ST, TTl and TT2. The place of publication of the ST is the National Library in

Cairo, Egypt, the Khayat Publication House in Beirut, Lebanon for TTl and AUC

Press in Cairo, Egypt in TT2. The time of publication is ST 1947, TTl 1966, TT2

(1975/1992). On the other hand, the motive for the ST is disseminating Mahfouz's

works to ST audience, while in the TTl; the motive is to render the ST into English

to acquaint them with the culture. In TT2 however, the motive is to amend a lot of

- 226-

mistakes which were done in TTl. The text function in ST, TTl and TT2 is to

entertain and to inform.

Williams (2004) speaks of Nord's model as a functional purpose model which

fails to produce an overall judgment at the end of the assessment of the case studies.

However, Nord (200511991) argues differently after analyzing each factor in the

intra-textual and extra-textual factors separately, and explains at the end of the

analysis of the model features undertaken on the five sample texts: "The analysis of

the five translations shows that none of them meets the requirements set by text

function and audience orientation." This clarifies that Nord set her model to carry

out a comprehensive evaluation of texts under investigation. However, the current

study found the model itself insufficient to pass an overall judgment on the TTl and

TT2. Therefore, the present study resorted to the translation problems. Nord

(200511991) argues that by analyzing and expanding these problems, a statement of

quality assessment can be made at the end of the analysis depending on the number

of examples and their revisions as well as to how serious they are to the quality of

the translation.

Nord (200511991) identifies four kinds of translation problems. These are as

Nord (2006: 158-159) explains: The first is pragmatic translation problems. These

have to do with particular transfer problems such as the source text vs. target text

medium and ST vs. TT recipients as well as motive for ST production vs. motive

for TT translation, or even ST function vs. TT function.

The second kind of translation problems is cultural. These result from

differences in culture such as certain verbal habits, expectations, norms and

traditions or conventions which are either verbal or other behaviour. They are

- 227-

embodied by:" textual conventions or norms of style, norms of measuring, formal

conventions of making certain elements in the text." Nord (200511991)

The third kind is linguistic translation problems, these exist as a result

differences between two languages specifically in lexis and sentence structure.

The forth and last kind is text-specific translation problems. Under this kind

goes any problem in translation which does not belong to the first three previous

kinds of translation problems. An example can be the translation of a figure of

speech, or even "individual word creations" Nord (200511991)

However, in this study, this last kind is termed stylistic translation problems

according to the number of examples which hit this aspect. The other reason is

because stylistic translation problems are thought to be of paramount significance

of getting the message through to the target audience.

This study sorts the examples according to Nord's classification, for during,

the process of analyzing the examples; it was found that some of these examples

belong to more than one kind of translation problems at the same time. Therefore

there was a clear overlap between some kinds of translation problems. This urged

the need for inserting new and additional types of translation problems such as

cultural linguistic translation problems and cultural pragmatic translation

problems.

It has to be stated here though that the Nord (200511991) model provided a

framework to work on and was the most robust amongst the three models

consulted in this study. This study again suggests a minor revision of the model

based on studies which apply Nord's model to assess the quality of translations in

- 228-

order to ensure that the TT is looked at from different angles and aspects and that

an overall reliable judgment is produced at the end of the process of assessment.

5- What Types of quality differences are noted in TT2 compared to TTl? What

might be motivating these differences?

After the discussion of each kind of translation problems and their sub

classifications, it has been found that the quality of the TTl which depends

on all kinds of translation problems is quite poor due to the fact that there

were around 19 unresolved cultural translation problems, 55 linguistic

translation problems, 15 stylistic translation problems, and 5 pragmatic

translation problems. The cultural and pragmatic translation problems were

more significant than linguistic and stylistic translation problems because

they touch upon more sensitive issues such as religious beliefs of ST

audience as obvious in some example (see chapter 8)

TT2 has dealt with most of the linguistic translation problems in a

satisfactory way. It has modified linguistic problems and the sub

classifications clarify that the substantive revisions were a considerable

number of the revised examples. Stylistic translation problems can also be

considered to undergo a satisfied revision, despite the fact that around half

the examples underwent a minor revision. On the other hand cultural

translation problems in most examples were not identified and the problem

persisted in TT2 as it did in TTl. As for pragmatic translation problems, the

number of the examples under investigation reflects that the translator did

face many pragmatic translation problems during the process of translation or

dealt with them successively.

- 229-

However, the low number of five examples were mostly not revised, very

little was changed which reflects the fact that the translator may not have

been aware in some of the cases of the problems in the translation.

The results show that TT2 is in many ways a better quality translation than

TTl. The translator attempted to solve a lot of problems, and was successful

in many examples. Nevertheless, more revision and research specifically on

cultural elements was required. The incomplete revision of TTl into TT2

could be the reason a third translation is being published for Ziqaq Al Midaq

in November 2011: "The new translation, which is being completed by

Humphrey Davies, is scheduled for release this November, a month before

what would've been Mahfouz's 100th birthday." AVe press 2011

Most probably it is simply a case of bringing a new perspective to the text, 40

years after Le G's work, and also a clever commercial move to tie in to

Naguib Mahfouz's centenary.

It is also believed that TT2 should be revised further by a native speaker of the

source language and someone who belongs to the source culture in order to

identify the translation problems which were unrevised.

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Limitations of the Study

The aim of this study is to measure the shifts which occurred between TT I and TT2

when compared to the ST. Examples which underwent shifts from TTl to TT2 were

analysed and examples in the three books were placed in tables. These examples were

sorted according to four types of translation problems which have faced the translator. At

a later stage each kind of translation problems was sub-classified in accordance with the

findings and what the examples, under investigation, decided. All of this was done to

explore the differences and the frequency of each kind of problems and to assess the final

translation (TT2).

However, after all this work, it has to be said that there are certain points which

restricted the research from going further. The following points summarize the limitations

of this study:

1- Nord's model which is consulted did not cover all areas of translation problems.

The three major kinds of translation problems which are clearly mentioned in the

model would be the cultural translation problems, linguistic translation problems

and pragmatic translation problems. The fourth is left open- ended by Nord and

called 'text-specific translation problems'. This study names the fourth kind as

stylistic translation problems according to the examples under investigation.

Furthermore; these were never discussed as having sub-classifications and trends

in the examples showed and that they could be sub-classified into different kinds

according to the examples or the trends the translator has been following. It is

believed that the model consulted should be revised and more input should be

placed in it depending on actual studies like this one, in order to cover most

- 231 -

possible areas in translation quality assessment. The corpus of the study is a

comparison of a translation with a re-translation by the same translator.

2- Other limitations and applications of this model should be explored in order to

seek the most optimal way to utilize such kinds of models. Nord (2005/1991)

discusses inter-textual and intra-textual factors which could be utilized to create a

different kind of use for this model. Furthermore, more uses of this model can be

explored such as different kinds of texts than literary texts. When Nord (2005)

designed this model, it was not the prime intention of it being a model utilized

solely for literary texts. Therefore; it is worthy of exploring other text types for it

such as political speeches, journalistic texts, etc. These are probably likely to

show different results in terms of the approach the model is applied and the genre

as well as in terms of the outcomes.

3- During the process of classification which took place, Classification was an

inherent problem in some cases. The problem of overlapping translation problems

created confusion in a number of examples. The number of overlapping

translation problems is not considerable; however this study decided to focus on

creating a clear classification and relate the overlapping example to translation

problems which were more obvious in them. Discussing the overlapping

translation problems more profoundly could have taken the study to a different

undesired direction.

The issue of overlapping translation problems can be intricate and establish

studies of its own. Nord's model does not discuss any kind of interrelation

- 232 -

between the translation problems she identities. These need to be looked at

separately, and probably Nord's model should be reconsidered for such cases.

4- During the process of going through chapters and spotting examples which have

been revised between TT I and TT2, it was noticed that whole chapters have not

been revised, although there was a need to. A further aspect of study would take

this research further as to look into what should have been changed and was never

revised. An example on such a case is the following:

The following example's translation was not revised in both TTl and TT2,

However it was found to be extremely relevant to cultural translation

problems related to religious background.

(287: 1973)



In the example above, Le Gassick literally translates: "~\ Ji" into "people of

the house". The source text word has a cultural religious dimension. It means

"Aal Al Bayt": relatives of Prophet Mohammed. Using "people of the house"

as Le Gassick has done resulted in confusing the readership. It is not obvious

which house is meant here, it could have been any house in Midaq Alley.

This study has looked into shifts from TTl to TT2 and how these changes

came to meet the expectations of the source audience or failed to do so. As

discussed above the changes or revisions attempted were sometimes accurate

- 233 -

and sufficient, but in other times more change was probably needed to clarify

the meaning and to be more faithful to the source text. This would definitely

be bearing in mind the significance of the author's works to the SL and the

Sc.

It has been found however, that some examples as shown in the study had

not been changed in TT2 although they are considered of major importance or to

be more accurate of pragmatic dimension to the ST. Not changing or modifying

the translation in TT2 despite the pragmatic problem suggests that the translator

was possibly unaware of the cultural aspect of dimension, therefore resorted to

literal translation which has resulted in most of the cases into a major

misunderstanding and sometimes an abuse to the beliefs of the mostly Islamic SL

society.

Such examples are extremely significant and can establish a separate study,

which focuses on lack of shifts for cultural and pragmatic translation problems.

The number of these examples is relatively high due to the little background in

culture the translator has showed throughout TTl and TT2.

Recommendations

In the light of the findings of this study, it is recommended that literary works

in translation undergo a criterion of translation quality assessment to ensure they

preserve the essence of the ST. Nevertheless, due to several restrictions which might

limit the application of this suggestion, studies and research which investigate the

quality of existent translations for literary works are highly recommended in order to

promote the quality assurance of translations. These studies should establish a trend

in evaluating literary translations and put an end to the translation problems created

- 234-

by di fferent translators on different levels especially with regards to Arabic

literature.

- 235 -

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