Transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 1 transitional settlement: displaced...

transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 1transitional settlement: displaced populations

Case study: Bhutanese refugees,

Nepal, 1997trainer name

2004


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1. background

2. description of the Jhapa camps

3. situation profile

4. profile of potential sites

5. forced migrant profile

6. local population profile

7. environmental profile

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1. background







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transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 4

background

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government repression in Bhutan

during the 1980’s the regime in Bhutan became dominated by the Ngalung and Drukpa ethnic groups

since that time, the government has aggressively pursued policies to strip the Nepali-speaking population of their citizenship rights and expel them from the country


background

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flight to Nepal

refugees began to arrive in Nepal (via India) at the end of 1990

the peak-influx was in mid-1992, with 600-800 arrivals daily

refugees self-settled very densely around the town of Maidar, arriving during the dry season

when UNCHR and the Lutheran World Foundation (LWF) arrived however, they realised the site was prone to flooding


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establishment of camps

the refugees were moved to seven new sites in the Jhapa and Moreng districts of south-eastern Nepal

the camps held a total population of 90,000 people in 1997

co-operation between the aid community, Nepalese government, and the displaced population has resulted in the camps often being held up as examples of good management


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description of the Jhapa camps

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the sites were distributed throughout the Jhapa region of the east Nepali Terai, adjoining the foothills of the Himalayas

the sites were all on government forestry department land, with many large saal trees cleared to provide accommodation space

the climate was hot and humid, with heavy rains in June and July, and melt water from the mountains in spring making flooding common

flood protection was required on some sites, but the engineering works undertaken were not wholly successful



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planning in each camp was very dense, with shelters often less than one metre apart

fires did occur and were destructive

there was very little violence within the refugee population

community committees undertook much of the everyday management of the camps



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the local population was competing with the refugees over environmental resources, such as fuelwood and bamboo for construction

locals complained that wells near some camps ran dry, as result of over extraction and ‘draw down’ near refugee wells

relations were relatively good however, with some local population representation in camp management

construction materials and perishable foodstuffs were sourced regionally, but without sustainable strategies


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situation profile

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security situation in the region and in the migrant and host populations

organised violence was rare, whether by refugees, locals, or the authorities

large protest demonstrations by both refugees and locals were treated with tolerance, although policing was heavy-handed by western standards

police posts were established in the camps in response to criminal activity and refugees were involved in security measures


situation profile

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points of entry or sources of influxes

refugees transited from the lowland region of southern Bhutan through Sikkim in India, arriving at a border reception centre at Karkavitta in Nepal

India provided buses to help refugees with the transfer

Nepal also provided some buses to move refugees along the East-West Highway to the camps


situation profile

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host government policy and attitude towards influxes

the presence of the refugees became politically charged through continuous reporting by the Nepali media

UNCHR and its implementing partners had been quick to head off crises and the focus remained largely on negotiations with the Kingdom of Bhutan

the government of Nepal maintained that the integration of the refugees into Nepal was impossible

the government of Nepal negotiated to ensure that the international aid community bore as much of the economic burden as possible


situation profile

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access by migrants to employment

officially, access to employment was illegal, as was the keeping of livestock

many local teachers were refugees, as the education in the camps was better than in the local community

refugee labour was used by roads contractors for rock-breaking

informal work in harvesting caused resentment in local landless populations, although much of the seasonal labour force came from India


situation profile

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contingency plans already in place for migrant influxes

there were no contingency plans at the time of the influx and none for future influxes

site extensions were however being prepared for, in response to the natural population growth of 2 – 2.5%


situation profile

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regional development plans in operation or planned

the improvement of the East-West Highway was the major developmental initiative, funded by the UK DFID

small ‘Refugee affected Area Programmes’ were initiated by UNHCR

UNDP did not operate in Jhapa or Moreng districts, in spite of some need amongst landless IDPs (Internally Displaced Persons)


situation profile

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external and local agencies operating regionally

literally thousands of NGOs were registered in Nepal

most concentrated on development projects for Nepalese in the foothills of the Himalayas, with few operating in the districts were the camps were sited

in the camps themselves, UNHCR, the LWF and Oxfam were operating


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profile of potential sites

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access and supply routes, security concerns and seasonal variations

there was reasonable all-year road access to all camps and an airstrip

improvements were made to roads by UNHCR

security was not an issue



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proximity to local settlements, local agriculture, and other refugee camps

villages abutted some of the camps

agriculture and animal husbandry were intensive

landless settlements throughout the districts had a total population of a similar size to the refugee population



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land use by locals for agriculture, grazing, fuelwood collection, hunting

the sites were originally used for agro-forestry, grazing and fuelwood collection

usage by local groups was informal but well-defined



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standing water and other opportunities for vector proliferation

there was standing water in some camps, although programmes were in place for draining and reclaiming these areas for inhabitation by refugees

initial site preparation included land drainage



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area suitable for occupation

all land used for the camps was government owned, mostly by the forestry ministry

there was insufficient land area for the refugee population, with only 10-15 square metres per person

UNHCR/WHO 1982 standards specify 30 square metres per person



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topography, surface water drainage patterns

the land was relatively flat, with slopes under ten degrees

serious gullying from a nearby river was evident in a number of the camps, with additional erosion occuring every spring from the Himalayan meltwater

there was danger of flooding in more than one camp

flood protection schemes were in place, with varying results



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vegetation cover, influencing soil erosion, shading, and wind shielding

most sites were covered with saal trees, although many had been cut down by the forestry ministry

microclimatic conditions were much better where there was tree cover, both in terms of shading and wind

plants unsuitable for fodder had been planted by UNHCR in gullies to help prevent soil erosion

bush was initially destroyed

since the camps were built, kitchen gardens had been established between all of the shelters



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soil conditions, such as suitability for latrines, drainage and agriculture

in six of the camps, soil was bad for drainage, but good for latrines and agriculture

in the remaining camp, the situation was reversed


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forced migrant profile

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reasons for flight

the Bhutanese government was taking an increasingly tough and restrictive stance against the ethnically Nepali minority

number in current influx and estimated size of imminent influx

92,426 refugees (UNHCR May 1997) lived in seven camps, with populations ranging from 8,000 to 46,000

approximately an additional 10,000 refugees had spontaneously settled elsewhere in Nepal

no future influx was expected



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physical condition and vulnerable groups

health and vulnerability were not issues within the camps and both were better than in surrounding villages

accusations were made of some refugees being engaged in prostitution

ethnic or economic links with the host population

all the refugees were ethnically Nepali, although they considered themselves Bhutanese



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endemic diseases in home areas

malaria and Japanese encephalitis were the main diseases

composition: ethnicity, origin, caste, gender, age and family size

all castes were represented and maintained in the camps

the proportion of males to females was normal

good primary health care meant that the proportion of children was much higher than normal

the average family size as defined for food distribution was 7-8 members although family structures were extended



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backgrounds and skill bases, whether urbanites, farmers or pastoralists

most refugees were hill farmers, although some were from villages or towns, with skills consistent with a developing Asian community

leadership, politicisation and cohesion of communities

communities were well organised and generally cooperative with camp management

political groups did exist, although in hiding, and were suspected of militant action by the Bhutanese government



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presence of intimidating or violent factions

neither intimidation nor violence was an issue



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livestock and its distribution amongst the migrants

no livestock was brought from Bhutan

agreements were in place where:

• refugees provided the capital for purchasing the livestock and took part of the proceeds of their sale

• locals provided official ownership and grazing

morning milk from cattle went to locals, and evening milk went to the refugees



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connections with any land under cultivation in home areas

refugees rarely travelled to and from Bhutan to find out the fate of their farms

many farms had been compulsorily purchased by the Bhutanese government for sums below the market price



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traditional settlement patterns and shelter construction practices

before they left Bhutan, most refugees lived in mud brick one- or two-story homesteads with ancillary agricultural structures

urban buildings were sometimes in fired brick

bamboo structures were used for poor shelters



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traditional patterns of water use, such as quantity used

in Bhutan, water was generally plentiful in both rural and urban areas, although access was often time consuming

traditional hygiene practices, such as use of pit latrines

in Bhutan, latrines were common in urban areas, but not in poorer rural areas



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traditional cooking practices, such as how much fuelwood is used

large clay wood-burning ranges were common, involving ovens and wood drying areas

fuelwood use was therefore quite efficient


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1. background







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local population profile

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endemic diseases:

malaria and Japanese encephalitis were the main diseases

land use practices and land law

land in the districts was under pressure from a growing population

land ownership was rigidly-defined, as was the collection of firewood from communal and government land



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agricultural and livestock practices suitable in the area

the land was suitable for intensive farming

cattle, pigs and chickens were kept on spare land



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use and sources of environmental resources, such as water and wood

water was diverted from streams to flood rice paddies

dead wood from forests provided sufficient fuelwood for local use



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economic profile

the Terai lowland area of Nepal, in which the camps are situated, is relatively prosperous

population growth in the foothills had resulted in migration into the Terai, which did not have sufficient employment opportunities or land to accommodate the population

the presence of the aid community, purchasing food and other materials for the refugees, had significantly inflated the costs of certain products


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environmental profile

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water sources, quantity, location and quality

the water table was high enough for hand pumps in some camps, but mechanically pumped boreholes were required in others

water quality was good



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carrying capacity for extraction of fuelwood and construction materials

there was insufficient fuelwood for both local and refugee needs

in response, kerosene wick stoves were distributed by UNHCR, and fuelwood burning in the camps was forbidden, although some cooking with wood continued illegally

bamboo was used for construction

the one-year UNHCR funding cycle meant it was impossible to cure the bamboo prior to distribution

the result had been over-harvesting of bamboo, with the accompanying soil erosion and large maintenance costs for UNHCR

cured bamboo can last up to 20 years

green bamboo is unlikely to last 2 years



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vulnerable areas or areas with global ecological significance

the river edge was prone to soil erosion

the Himalayas contained much unique ecology



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seasonal variations, impacting on water and environmental resources

heavy flooding in the spring and after monsoon rains threatened to flood areas of camps

there was no significant impact upon potable water supply or environmental resources

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