TRANSITION SERIES Topics for the Advanced EMT CHAPTER Endocrine Emergencies: Diabetes Mellitus -...

TRANSITION SERIESTRANSITION SERIES

Topics for the Advanced EMTTopics for the Advanced EMT

CHAPTERCHAPTER

Endocrine Emergencies: Endocrine Emergencies: Diabetes Mellitus - Diabetes Mellitus - HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia

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IntroductionIntroduction

• Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a condition in which the body no longer metabolizes glucose correctly.

• This inability can lead to seriously high or low levels of blood sugar.

• The Advanced EMT must quickly identify the problem and support lost function to reduce morbidity and mortality.

Epidemiology (cont’d)Epidemiology (cont’d)

• Type 1 diabetes mellitus– Autoimmune disease process– Characteristic to younger patients– Requires supplemental insulin– Prone to hypoglycemia and diabetic

ketoacidosis (DKA)

Epidemiology (cont’d)Epidemiology (cont’d)

• Type 2 diabetes mellitus– Impaired insulin production– Impaired insulin effects– Commonly an adult onset– Associated with a higher BMI– Controlled through diet and oral pills– Prone to hyperglycemic hyperosmolar

nonketotic syndrome (HHNS)

PathophysiologyPathophysiology

• Role of hormones in glucose regulation– Insulin and glucagon– Cellular metabolism of glucose

Glucose movement into the cell with insulin and the inability of glucose to get into the cell without insulin.

Pathophysiology (cont’d)Pathophysiology (cont’d)

• Hypoglycemia– Precipitating causes– Patients become symptomatic when

BGL falls to 40-50 mg/dL– Brain most sensitive to low levels of

glucose– Body then releases additional hormones

aimed at trying to raise glucose back up

Assessment FindingsAssessment Findings

• General considerations– Findings can be broadly categorized

Hyperadrenergic – increases sympathetic tone

Neuroglucopenic – brain dysfunction from lack of glucose

Signs and Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

Assessment Findings (cont’d)Assessment Findings (cont’d)

• Other notable assessment characteristics– Hypoglycemia may occur suddenly.– Hypoglycemia may present like a stroke.– Once referred to as “insulin shock” as

many presentation findings mirrored hypovolemic shock.

Emergency Medical CareEmergency Medical Care

• Keep airway patent; be alert for vomiting.

• Place patient in lateral recumbent position.

• Administer oxygen based on ventilatory needs.– Keep SpO2 >95%.

Emergency Medical Care (cont’d)Emergency Medical Care (cont’d)

• Administer oral glucose if criteria is met• Administer 50% dextrose if criteria is

met

HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia

• Review the frequency with which hyperglycemic emergencies occur.

• Discuss the etiologies of hyperglycemia.• Discuss physiology and pathophysiology

of hyperglycemic episodes.– DKA and HHNS

• Review appropriate treatment strategies.

IntroductionIntroduction

• Hyperglycemic episodes are at the opposite end of diabetic emergencies.

• DKA or HHNS must be considered in all patients with altered consciousness.

• History of onset and monitored BGL levels are the best way to differentiate hyperglycemic episodes from other problems.

EpidemiologyEpidemiology

• DKA is more common in Type 1 DM.• HHNS is more common in Type 2 DM.• HHNS occurs with higher frequency

than DKA does, and is more prevalent in females.

• Mortality rates can be 10-20% in hyperglycemic emergencies.

PathophysiologyPathophysiology

• Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)– A relative of absolute insulin deficiency.– BGL rises greater than 300 mg/dL.– The brain has plenty of glucose, but the

body cannot use it without insulin.– Progression produces:

Metabolic acidosis Osmotic diuresis Electrolyte disturbance


• Diabetic ketoacidosis– Slow change in mental status– History and findings consistent with

severe dehydration– Nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain– Fatigue, weakness, lethargy, confusion– Kussmaul respirations

Kussmaul respirations

Pathophysiology (cont’d)Pathophysiology (cont’d)

• Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS)– Severe elevations in BGL (>600 mg/dL)– Some insulin still present

Not enough or not effective

– Changes in physiology Osmotic diuresis Electrolyte disturbance

– No ketogenesis


• HHNS– Slow progression of symptoms– Dehydration findings– Polyuria early, oliguria late– Changes in mental status– Possible seizure activity– Findings of volume depletion

Signs and Symptoms of Diabetic Emergency Conditions

Treatment ConsiderationsTreatment Considerations

• General considerations– Focus of hypoglycemia is the

administration of glucose.– Focus of DKA and HHNS is rehydration of

the patient.

Emergency Medical CareEmergency Medical Care

• Establish and maintain a patent airway.• Establish and maintain adequate

ventilation.• Establish and maintain adequate

oxygenation.• Assess blood glucose level.• Initiate intravenous therapy.

Case StudyCase Study

• You are called one afternoon to evaluate an elderly female patient at home. Upon arrival PD is on scene and has forced entry into the home based on the neighbor saying that the elderly occupant has not been seen for days. You find the patient lying on the couch, dried vomit on the face, with loud sonorous respirations.

Case Study (cont’d)Case Study (cont’d)

• Scene Size-Up– Standard precautions taken.– Scene is safe, no entry or egress

problems.– One patient, elderly female, looks

unresponsive on the couch.– NOI is unknown mental status change.– No signs of struggle or trauma.


• What are some concerns you have based on the scene size-up?

• What are possible conditions you suspect at this time?


• Primary Assessment Findings– Patient does not respond to painful

stimuli.– Sonorous respirations.– Breathing is tachypneic with alveolar

breath sounds.– Peripheral perfusion absent; skin dry,

carotid pulse present.– No indication of significant trauma.


• Is this patient a high or low priority? Why?

• What are the life threats to this patient?• What emergency care should you

provide based on the primary assessment findings?


• Medical History– Unknown

• Medications– Unknown

• Allergies– Unknown


• Pertinent Secondary Assessment Findings– Pupils midsize and midposition.– Airway now maintained with OPA.– Breathing still adequate, rate fast.– Carotid pulse present, peripheral

perfusion absent.– Skin cool and dry, tongue furrowed,

membranes pale.


• Pertinent Secondary Assessment Findings (continued)– B/P 84/64, heart rate 128, respirations

30/min.– Finger prick test of BGL reveals 860

mg/dL.– Pulse oximeter intermittently reading

94%.


• Pertinent Secondary Assessment Findings (continued)– No other findings contributory to

presentation.– Dried urine stains on patient's clothing

and couch.


• With this information, has your field impression changed at all?

• What would be the next steps in management you would provide to the patient?


• Care provided:– Patient placed in lateral recumbent

position.– High-flow oxygen administered via NRB

mask.– OPA kept in place, airway remained

patent.


• Care provided:– Intravenous therapy and fluid

resuscitation.– Patient packaged and prepared for

transport to hospital.


• In a patient with this field impression, discuss why the following findings were present:– Decrease in mental status– Tachycardia– Dry skin and furrowed tongue– Low blood pressure– High glucose level

SummarySummary

• Hyperglycemia can be recognized by its onset and elements of dehydration.

• Although the Advanced EMT's treatment of this problem is supportive in nature, immediate initiation of intravenous therapy can allow for rehydration to begin during transport to the hospital.

SummarySummary

• Diabetic patients are a fairly common type of patient seen by the Advanced EMT.

• Based on the type of diabetes they have, the resulting emergency may cause high or low levels of glucose to develop.

Summary (cont’d)Summary (cont’d)

• The Advanced EMT's goal is to recognize the type of diabetic reaction and provide appropriate care.

TRANSITION SERIES Topics for the Advanced EMT CHAPTER Endocrine Emergencies: Diabetes Mellitus -...

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