Transforming New York's Privately Owned Public Spaces with Technology

Huge Whitepaper 1October 2012

Transforming New Yorkrsquos Privately Owned Public Spaces with Technology

Amaani Hamid Chris Holmes Chris Michaud


New York City is famous for its public spaces Residents and tourists retreat to places like Central Park McCarren Park or The Highline to find sanctuary from the hustle and bustle of daily life These spaces while open and endearing are enjoyed year-round and can become overcrowded at times somewhat defeating their purpose Recently a different type of public space has come to the forefront in NYC the famed Occupy Wall Street movement used a privately owned public space Zuccotti Park as its eventual home base shedding light on a little known treasure in NYCrsquos landscape

There are surprisingly over 500 privately owned public spaces also referred to as POPS in NYC but many are unknown and unused by the community In a city where over 8 million people live in a densely packed environ-ment and where well-known public spaces are just as congested POPS present an untapped opportunity to enrich city life

Diverse public spaces provide refuge from overcrowded streets and sidewalks venues for art and culture open areas for exercise and relaxation opportunities to be closer to nature within an urban environment and places for public discourse and community assembly Better-conserved public spaces can lead to more connected communities safer neighborhoods and a better quality of life

However there are many hurdles to overcome in order for NYC denizens to fully utilize POPS Foremost there is

a lack of awareness about their existence Furthermore many POPS are in a state of disrepair have insufficient amenities and sometimes exist in inhospitable condi-tions that prevent these spaces from being truly utilized

This report discusses the many benefits of POPS ex-amines the aforementioned hurdles that prevent wider usage of these spaces and describes how technology

can help overcome those challenges This report is a col-laboration between Huge a global digital agency based in Brooklyn the Municipal Art Society (MAS) a non-profit organization dedicated to improving New York City and Advocates for Privately Owned Public Space (APOPS)

To compile this report Huge conducted user research stakeholder interviews and location assessments to gain insights into the challenges and needs across building owners community advocates public citizens and the city The report summarizes the history of POPS depicts the current landscape and makes recommendations based on findings

A definition And history of PoPs

In 1961 The City of New York established a zoning pro-gram that offered private developers additional building space as long as a certain amount was designated for public use The program has since created 526 POPS in the five boroughs equal to approximately 35 million square feet of public space1

Introduction

The more successfully a city mingles everyday diversity of uses and users in its everyday streets the more successfully casually (and economically) its people thereby enliven and support well-located parks that can thus give back grace and delight to their neighborhoods instead of vacuityrdquo

ndashJane Jacobs The Death and Life of Great American Cities

1

ldquo

1 Kayden Jerold Privately Owned Public Spaces (New York John Wiley amp Sons 2000) pg 44

These spaces are intended to provide New York City residents with open spaces where they can retreat from the dense overcrowded urban environment especially in neighborhoods without nearby city parks

Initially the zoning resolution did not stipulate strong de-sign guidelines basic amenity provisions or a standard set of rules and regulations regarding usage Thus many ldquofirst-generation spacesrdquo which account for one-third of current POPS lack the fundamental assets that make public spaces appealing and practical for public use2 Many of them lack adequate seating greenery shade signage or accessibility Further adjustments to the zoning resolution were made in the 1970rsquos and 1980rsquos most notably after William H Whytersquos research on public spaces which analyzed human behavior in urban set-tings3 In 2007 the New York City Council modified the text on the standards for the creation and design of outdoor POPS and followed in 2009 with an addition to clarify and enhance the previous provisions4 Both sets of changes are intended to facilitate higher-quality design and development of these public spaces in order to make them more inviting to citizens

Despite City Planningrsquos efforts to improve POPS over the past 50 years with these amendments a significant number of New York City POPS are currently in a state of disrepair Professor Jerold Kayden Director of the Mas-ter in Urban Planning Degree Program at the Harvard University Graduate School of Design is a leading expert in the field and has conducted extensive research that found many of the POPS underutilized and inaccessible

Kaydenrsquos study in 2000 found that only 16 of POPS were used as a destination hangout 21 were used as short-term resting spots 18 were used as pedestrian passageways 4 were under construction and 41 were only marginally useful5 Sadly subsequent investi-gations have found that the state of the POPS has not changed dramatically since Kayden conducted the study 12 years ago


kAydenrsquos 2000 study on the stAte of PoPs

Under Construction 4

Marginally Useful 41

Short-term Rest Spots 21

Destination Hangout 16

Pedestrian Passageways 21

Sadly subsequent investigations have found that the state of the POPS has not changed dramatically since Kayden conducted the study twelve years ago

2 lsquoPrivately Owned Public Spacesrsquo httpwwwnycgovhtmldcphtmlprivprivshtml accessed 1010123lsquoProject for Public Spacesrsquo httpwwwppsorgreferencewwhyte accessed 1014124lsquoPrivately Owned Public Spacesrsquo httpwwwnycgovhtmldcppdfpriv101707_final_ap-proved_textpdf accessed 101012 5Kayden Jerold Privately Owned Public Spaces (New York John Wiley amp Sons 2000) pg 51

The Municipal Art Society (MAS) a non-profit organiza-tion dedicated to the improvement of New York City has partnered with Kayden to form Advocates for Privately Owned Public Space (APOPS) in order to establish a set of guiding principles for revitalizing POPS encourage the creation of new POPS and strengthen the dialogue around public spaces in general MAS and APOPS col-laborated with Huge a global digital agency based in Brooklyn to explore these issues and investigate how technology might be able to help improve local POPS Huge staffers conducted user and stakeholder research in order to devise a strategic plan to employ technology to support APOPSrsquos mission

Huge researchers conducted 15 stakeholder interviews facilitated 20 visitor discussions and collected data from 70 POPS throughout Manhattan Participants were asked to rate on a scale of one to five each spacersquos attractiveness pedestrian traffic and accessibility The team also collected information about each spacersquos amenities and POPS-specific signage

Out of 70 POPS 30 were found to be uninviting to the public by being completely barren or limiting public accessibility while another 20 spaces were considered

mediocre Only 20 POPS were ranked as ldquoinvitingrdquo In terms of usage only 15 POPS had a medium or high (3 to 5 points) user flow score while the rest were close to empty More than 30 of these spaces had no signage identifying them as a public space Much of the signage that did exist in the remaining POPS was hidden and quite varied in style size and information

Who Are the core stAkeholders in the PoPs system

Through our research we identified four core stakehold-ers that are intrinsic to the POPS system


Methods amp research

2

huge reseArch findings

Manhattan POPS in Study

Uninviting POPS

Mediocre POPS

Inviting POPS

70

30

20

20


Communication between the main stakeholders in POPS is lacking and in many cases non-existent Given the limited incentives and resources dedicated to POPS by the City and property owners the existing interac-tion between government owners and users is mostly facilitated by advocacy organizations such as business improvement districts (BIDs) community boards and non-profit organizations

city government amp oWner relAtionshiP

The main line of communication that exists between stakeholders is from the Department of City Planning to private owners This occurs when City Planning informs owners of the rules and guidelines for their particular POPS and the overall POPS program After that when owners wish to update their spacesmdasheven just to add an extra treemdashthey must secure approval from City Planning first Furthermore owners of spaces that were built before the 2007 amendment find it difficult to make adjustments without revealing a longer list of mainte-nance updates required by City Planning The process of obtaining approval could take months and eventu-ally ends with owners being forced to add features they hadnrsquot intended despite a lack of budget to fund them

Often owners would like to update their spaces but they arenrsquot quite sure what exactly to do or where to begin The information related to this process is housed deep within the NYCgov website and is difficult to find

oWner amp AdvocAte relAtionshiP

The advocate group consists of multiple organizations like MAS whose missions revolve around the empow-erment and support of New York City residents and enterprises The dotted double arrow above represents a weak relationship between some owners and some advocates Owners may approach organizations like APOPS for advice on their POPS and inversely APOPS may facilitate a dialogue and assist enthusiastic owners with the process of improving the space BIDs repre-sent the interests of companies within their designated neighborhoods so they have an excellent opportunity to broker collaborations between these businesses and POPS owners Many owners view their POPS spaces as lacking an essential return on investment and would ideally like to rent out part of the space to vendors An example of this partnership can be seen in the Financial Dis-trict where the Downtown Alliance and Community Board 1

supported a zoning amendment that would allow tables and chairs to be set up in the 17 empty arcades along Water Street between Fulton and Whitehall Streets

Current interaction between POPS stakeholders

3


Initially these covered arcades ldquocontinuous covered spaces fronting on and open to a streetrdquo8 were built for the purpose of providing pedestrians with protection from severe weather and overcrowded sidewalks and they were prohibited from including any sort of furni-ture or sit down cafeacute so people could pass through the space easily In 2011 New York City Government with the help of the Downtown Alliance City Planning and Community Board 1 adopted an amendment that would allow owners to put chairs and rent out their arcade space to cafes as long as 40 of the furniture was available for public use9 The Downtown Alliance also assisted owners and local businesses by providing the resources to find furniture for these arcades

AdvocAte amp user relAtionshiP

The relationship between users and advocates is similar to the one between owners and advocates Occasion-ally advocates will inform users about matters related to New York City from legalities to the historical importance

of buildings and neighborhoods They do this mostly through their websites publications or media outreach No simple centralized method of disseminating this information currently exists

Advocates such as Community Boards also act as intermediaries between users and the city government by communicating the publicrsquos concerns to local politicians The main role of Community Boards is to address important grievances from community residents and bring them to the attention of City Government There are 59 community boards throughout New York City with up to 50 members in each board Each board is overseen by a District Manager in charge of improving the services provided by the City government to his or her neighborhood10 6lsquoCity Landrsquo httpwwwcitylandnycorgpublic-cafes-okE28099d-in-water-street-corridor-arcadesmore-2469 ac-cessed 101012 httpwwwcitylandnycorgpublic-cafes-okE28099d-in-water-street-corridor-arcadesmore-24698Kayden Jerold Privately Owned Public Spaces (New York John Wiley amp Sons 2000) 26

9lsquoCity Landrsquo httpwwwcitylandnycorgpublic-cafes-okE28099d-in-water-street-corridor-arcadesmore-246910lsquoNYC Mayors Community Affairs Unitrsquo httpwwwnycgovhtmlcauhtmlcbaboutshtml httpwwwnycgovhtmlcauhtmlcbaboutshtml

loWer mAnhAttAn ArcAdes modificAtion text Amendment6 12011


current PoPs relAtionshiP ecosystem

As shown in the chart below the only strong relationship exists between the government and the owners Meanwhile advocates are only connected to the other stakeholdersmdashowners government and usersmdashvia weak ties There is no interaction at all on this subject between users and owners or between users and city government

The City of New York has granted more than

20 million square feet

of floor area bonuses and other concessions to private developers

in return for their provision of

public spaces

ndashJerold S Kayden Privately Owned Public Spaces11

50350311Kayden Jerold Privately Owned Public Spaces (New York John Wiley amp Sons 2000) pg 43


Establishing a dynamic seamless digital platform can improve the POPS relationship ecosystem By strength-ening the existing relationships digital can also create indirect relationships between users and owners and eventually between users and the city government Below are some examples of digital tools that can aid in improving the POPS system and relationships between stakeholders These resources should be made available via an extensive new POPS website that would serve as a portal to any necessary digital materials

Lack of public engagement can also be attributed to the absence of a larger POPS ldquobrandrdquo identity lack of awareness and failure to provide the public with the proper platform for engagement Non-profit organiza-tions have traditionally been wary of talk about branding but most have come to realize how important it is to achieving their goals For example Amnesty Interna-tional spent five years establishing its global brand

APOPS can reposition itself as a non-profit brand that provides valuable services and establish its identity with a new logo destination website spokesperson for appearances and media opportunities and an advisory board made up of influential community members Once the APOPs brand has been established it can facilitate public engagement through several digital channels

Supporting advocacy with technology

4

2 Incentives to better maintain regulate amp update POPS

3 Information accessibility

4 Unified POPS identity and public awareness

1 Communication stream

huge hAs develoPed A frAmeWork for A centrAlized digitAl PlAtform to imProve the folloWing AreAs for these core stAkeholders

It would be so great if New Yorkers knew these spaces existed that they were available to them for use If there was a responbility on the part of the owner to welcome them into that spacerdquo ndashAlyson Navarro Huge

ldquo


city government amp oWner relAtionshiP imProvements

reg Resource library with robust search and filters reg Tips and ideas for updating a space reg Directory of local developers architects landscapers and designers reg Rules and regulations for various types of POPS reg Furniture ideas and options reg Guidelines for maintaining POPS reg Adopt a Space programreg ROI calculator application

Over time the amount of rent earned from the additional square-footage provided to developers and owners when they agreed to participate in the POPS program becomes negligible That additional revenue stream ceases to be connected to the public space becom-ing integrated into the overall revenue made by owners Many owners find the amount of time and money it takes to preserve or renovate a space actually creates a nega-tive return on investment In fact owners have no knowl-edge of how much ROI (both tangible and intangible) a decent public space can bring to them Unfortunately there is no existing method of determining how much rent money publicity or community goodwill that owners can garner as a result of a well-maintained POPS

The envisioned solution would include the development of an online ROI Calculator application that would deter-mine user traffic benefits to the public and the owners and monetary ROI for particular spaces The data col-lected by the ROI Calculator could also provide evidence that the positive gains from a well-maintained POPS are worth the cost and effort The city government could use these analytics to determine which POPS are best

for different amenities and uses such as greenery lunch break or scenic view A POPS Awards program that bestows annual honors upon these best-in-class POPS would be a fantastic publicity opportunity for the spaces and their owners thus achieving two goalsmdashawareness of POPS and owner incentives

One of the reasons owners are hesitant to undertake the task of updating their POPS is the lack of knowledge on how to begin Each type of space (arcade plaza circula-tion or destination) has its own set of allowances and specific restrictions in terms of size location neigh-borhood-specific zoning laws and more Materials that explain these details are located on the NYCgov website but again theyrsquore very difficult to find Owners lack easy access to information about inexpensive developers architects or designers with public space experience or where they can purchase cheap and sturdy furniture for both indoor and outdoor use This challenge could

be solved with a robust resource library that contains an easy search mechanism and a specific filter scheme If users could filter their searches by attributes like type of space location size desired amenities and intended use it would allow owners to efficiently find the informa-tion they need

Owners could choose to Adopt a Space as Lincoln Cen-ter did with the The David Rubenstein Atrium The atrium was first constructed as The Harmony Atrium but was ldquoadoptedrdquo in 2009 by The Lincoln Center due to neglect and poor usage Now the Rubenstein Atrium serves as Lincoln Centerrsquos ldquofront porchrdquo providing free weekly performances free WiFi ample sitting area and a small food vendor12

Making it easier for owners to maintain their POPS also benefits the government because a more success-ful POPS program would encourage more owners to opt into the program to create them Plus the revenue earned by owners from their POPS is funneled back to the government through taxes

12lsquoLincoln Centerrsquo httpaboutlincolncenterorgpdfstransformingfactsheet-atriumpdf


oWner amp AdvocAte relAtionshiP imProvements

reg POPS case studiesreg Nearby vendor and local business guide for potential partnershipsreg Press kit reg Affiliated programsreg Marketplace to rentlend empty POPS space

Ideally APOPS would be in charge of maintaining the centralized POPS digital platform and ecosystem Advo-cate organizations like APOPS would provide the con-tent and assume responsibility for maintaining the digital environment including the development of POPS case studies that could be updated quarterly or annually The cases would showcase the best POPS and inspire other POPS owners by demonstrating the opportunities for their spaces Much of the data used in these case studies could be collected via the ROI Calculator tool while local business improvement districts could provide insight into neighborhood schools vendors and businesses that are willing to collaborate on kiosks cafes events or other affiliated programs that would earn revenue

The APOPS website should also include an online press-room that provides information media coverage social media profile links a high-resolution logo contact infor-mation for major players both inside and outside of the APOPS organization press releases and any advertising collateral This toolkit will keep the most relevant and trending stories related to POPS in one place that is easy to access and view

APOPS could also display profile pages for various POPS on the site to give owners the chance to show them off and attract visitors They could allow owners to claim ownership of their POPS profile page and update it whenever they have new information or photos similar to the way that business owners can claim and update their pages on Yelp or foursquare If owners have empty spaces they would like to offer to artisans to display their exhibits digital installations or performing arts they could post this on their POPS profile page to attract proposals from possible partners

AdvocAte amp user relAtionshiP imProvements

reg Social Media reg Facebook reg Twitter reg foursquare reg Instagram reg Empty Space for usereg About this Space reg Map amp Location Finder with Filtersreg Schedule of Eventsreg Rate a Space reg Report a Prblemreg Suggestions

Public engagement with POPS is fundamental to APOPS mission Yet out of the four core groups invested in POPS the users are the least involved and aware of the POPS system Even though these spaces are ultimately built for the improvement of resident livability very few user needs are actually taken into account when devel-oping these spaces The majority of the New York City public is not aware that POPS exist

ARCADE

COVERED PEDESTRIAN SPACE

ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE

RESIDENTIAL PLAZAOTHER

THROUGH BLOCK GALLERIA

THROUGH BLOCK CONNECTION

THROUGH BLOCK ARCADE

URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

PrivAtely oWned Public sPAces clAssified totAl 503


In addition to its website APOPS should create a small dedicated team to develop monitor and maintain a dynamic presence on various social media platforms such as Facebook Twitter foursquare Instagram andor Pinterest Manhattanrsquos Bryant Park is a great example of a similar organization that uses social media well as it has profiles on Facebook Twitter Pinterest Flickr and YouTube plus a blog Like Bryant Park APOPS team members would be constantly responding to users producing and disseminating content broadcasting news generating conversation and positioning APOPS as an active thought leader in the field in order to sustain and grow followers The High Line has a multi-platform social media communications strategy and its Facebook page has more than 58000 fans as a result of its frequent updates with beautiful photos and information about the park

A smartphone application or mobile website that rewards people for using it inside and outside the spaces would also be beneficial The application could allow users to

reg GPS-enabled POPS location finder with robust search and filtersreg See information about the space reg Owner contact information reg Hours of operation reg Amenities reg Visitor rules and regulations reg History reg Designer and architect Informationreg Read and submit reviewscomments reg Report a problem

reg Browse foursquare check-ins Tweets and Facebook Instagram photos of the spacereg Schedule of upcoming events

Users could use this application while on-the-go to find a nearby POPS with the features they desire at the time For example if a person is looking for an outdoor space to relax and grab a snack a quiet space to read or somewhere to sit and admire the view the app would provide directions to the closest ideal locale By making usersrsquo lives easier the app would make it more likely that current POPS users would visit more often and tell oth-ers thus increasing usage via word-of-mouth

oWner amp user relAtionshiP imProvements

Feedback and ratings on POPS provided by users in a public forummdashvia the mobile app or websitemdashwould also create an indirect relationship between users and owners through that feedback channel Positive feedback from visitors would help demonstrate the community goodwill benefits to owners while negative feedback could inspire the owners to invest in making improvements Content provided by owners and designed to inform users about events or empty spaces for use for example would establish a reciprocated online relationship


Incentives for each type of stakeholder would also be enhanced through the use of a digital system seam-lessly integrated across all platforms A website for POPS that is tailored to various use cases (owners BIDs community boards publics architects designers) will be more efficient and effective in appealing to the desired users If digital can help reduce the amount of time owners spend trying to renovate their POPS they may be more willing to go through that process Linking relevant vendors artists owners and organizations to one another for collaborative opportunities can decrease the amount of money spent by one company and facili-tate ways to reinvent these spaces to make them more engaging current and exciting for all parties involved

Out of all the New York City residents Huge approached during the study not a single one knew what privately owned public spaces were Awareness about POPS is the first step in producing an engaged user group This includes creating an identity the public can relate to and engage with beyond the physical limitations of the spac-es Even if all the proper digital tools are built no one will use them unless they are launched in an identifiable and unique manner An awareness campaign for POPS has to constantly connect with the rest of the POPS digital ecosystem including

reg Website that makes it easy for stakeholders to communicate and find necessary information reg Optimized mobile website or app for users on-the-go and within the spaces reg Updated contemporized logo and signage reg Fully developed and frequently-updated social media presence

It is imperative that context of usage for each stake-holder group is explored when developing this digital ecosystem For example a property owner is more likely to go to a laptop or desktop to search for a landscaper whereas a user looking for a place to eat lunch is more

likely to use his or her smartphone These specific cases of context will help identify what parts of the ecosystem need to be optimized for different platforms

Given how much NYC residents need and use appealing open spaces it is a shame to let available resources like POPS go to waste Well-designed diverse open spaces are precious and essential to the improvement of overall city livability Technology can facilitate communication between owners city government advocates and users as well as provide information and incentives that will en-gage the various stakeholders in improving POPS

Conclusion

It is not just the number of people using them but the larger number who pass by and enjoy them vicariously or even the larger number who feel better about the city center for knowledge of them For a city such places are priceless whatever the costrdquo ndashWilliam H Whyte lsquoProject for Public Spacesrsquo

ldquo

5


New York City is famous for its public spaces Residents and tourists retreat to places like Central Park McCarren Park or The Highline to find sanctuary from the hustle and bustle of daily life These spaces while open and endearing are enjoyed year-round and can become overcrowded at times somewhat defeating their purpose Recently a different type of public space has come to the forefront in NYC the famed Occupy Wall Street movement used a privately owned public space Zuccotti Park as its eventual home base shedding light on a little known treasure in NYCrsquos landscape

There are surprisingly over 500 privately owned public spaces also referred to as POPS in NYC but many are unknown and unused by the community In a city where over 8 million people live in a densely packed environ-ment and where well-known public spaces are just as congested POPS present an untapped opportunity to enrich city life

Diverse public spaces provide refuge from overcrowded streets and sidewalks venues for art and culture open areas for exercise and relaxation opportunities to be closer to nature within an urban environment and places for public discourse and community assembly Better-conserved public spaces can lead to more connected communities safer neighborhoods and a better quality of life

However there are many hurdles to overcome in order for NYC denizens to fully utilize POPS Foremost there is

a lack of awareness about their existence Furthermore many POPS are in a state of disrepair have insufficient amenities and sometimes exist in inhospitable condi-tions that prevent these spaces from being truly utilized

This report discusses the many benefits of POPS ex-amines the aforementioned hurdles that prevent wider usage of these spaces and describes how technology

can help overcome those challenges This report is a col-laboration between Huge a global digital agency based in Brooklyn the Municipal Art Society (MAS) a non-profit organization dedicated to improving New York City and Advocates for Privately Owned Public Space (APOPS)

To compile this report Huge conducted user research stakeholder interviews and location assessments to gain insights into the challenges and needs across building owners community advocates public citizens and the city The report summarizes the history of POPS depicts the current landscape and makes recommendations based on findings

A definition And history of PoPs

In 1961 The City of New York established a zoning pro-gram that offered private developers additional building space as long as a certain amount was designated for public use The program has since created 526 POPS in the five boroughs equal to approximately 35 million square feet of public space1

Introduction

The more successfully a city mingles everyday diversity of uses and users in its everyday streets the more successfully casually (and economically) its people thereby enliven and support well-located parks that can thus give back grace and delight to their neighborhoods instead of vacuityrdquo

ndashJane Jacobs The Death and Life of Great American Cities

1

ldquo

1 Kayden Jerold Privately Owned Public Spaces (New York John Wiley amp Sons 2000) pg 44






















2



Uninviting POPS

Mediocre POPS

Inviting POPS

70

30

20

20










3
















public spaces








4







ldquo





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5






















2



Uninviting POPS

Mediocre POPS

Inviting POPS

70

30

20

20










3
















public spaces








4







ldquo





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5










3
















public spaces








4







ldquo





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5
















public spaces








4







ldquo





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5






4







ldquo





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5





















ARCADE


ELEVATED PLAZAPLAZA

OPEN AIR CONCOURSE





URBAN PLAZA

SIDEWALK WIDENING

















Conclusion


ldquo

5
















Conclusion


ldquo

5

Transforming New York's Privately Owned Public Spaces with Technology

Documents

Transcript of Transforming New York's Privately Owned Public Spaces with Technology