Theories of Instructional Design

Tram TruongFeb. 14, 2011INST 5131: Assignment 2

A Study of Psychological Foundations, Learning Environments, and Learner Motivation

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

Introduction

A variety of different theories have influenced the field of instructional design; however, they all have one underlying notion – instruction leads to learning.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 36)

Learning

Behavioral Learning

Cognitive Info Processing

Schema & Cognitive Load

Situated Learning

Gagné’s Theory of Instruction

Constructivism

Behavioral Learning Theory

Behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner, believe that learning can be predicted based on the repetition of the learner’s behavior in certain learning situations (Reiser & Dempsey,

2007, p. 38). They focus on observable behaviors and use positive and negative reinforcement techniques to enforce learning (Funderstanding, 2008, para. 1-9).

Behavioral Learning Theory, continued

Conditioning (Universal learning

process)Classic ConditioningNatural reflex

response, i.e., fear of public speaking

Behavioral/ Operant

ConditioningResponse is

reinforced, i.e., praise for good grades

Adapted from (Funderstanding, 2008, para. 9).

Cognitive Information Processing

Adapted from(Driscoll, 2005, p.74)

Sensory MemoryLearners organize and code groups of patterns or information

Short-term MemoryLearners hold info briefly to connect with other info in long-term memory

Long-term MemoryLearners remember and apply info long after it was originally learned.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 38)

StimuliStimuli

Stimuli

Stimuli

Stimuli

Stimuli

Stimuli

Information Processing

[Sensory, short-term, or long-term memory to retrieve data]

Behavior

Behavior

BehaviorBehavior

Behavior

Behavior

Behavior

Stimuli

Behavior

Behavior

Behavior

Behavior

Cognitive Information Processing, continued

Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 39)

Although cognitivist accepts behavioristic beliefs, they deem “learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information" (Good and

Brophy, 1990, p. 187).

Gagné’s Theory of Instruction

Learning is based on 3 components:

Taxonomies of Learning outcomes that depicts ways that humans can learn

Internal and External Learning Conditions specific to each learning outcome

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction helps facilitate the process of learning

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)

Gagné’s Theory of Instruction, continued

1. Gain attention2. Inform objectives3. Stimulate recall of prior

learning4. Present stimulus5. Provide guidance6. Elicit performance7. Provide feedback8. Assess performance9. Enhance retention and

transfer

Different learning conditions are required for each learning outcome, i.e., learning conditions of a motor skill (riding a bike) vs. an intellectual skill (choosing the correct decision)

Five major categories:1. Verbal information2. Intellectual skills3. Cognitive strategies4. Attitudes5. Motor skills

Taxonomies of Learning

Internal and External Learning

Conditions

Gagné’s Nine Events of

Instruction

Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)

Constructivism

Learning is about actively engaging in the surrounding environment, making sense of what is seen and experienced and then validating those ideas and understandings with friends and teachers.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 42)

Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts

Assessments are essential to the learning process to

ensure learning has taken place

Mental models help students perceive

the world and their assumptions

Learning is a search for meaning

Constructivism, continued

Guiding Principles

Adapted from (Funderstanding,

2008, para. 2).

Personal Learning Foundation

Learning, to me, is not only based on one philosophical framework but rather from combination of practices and beliefs ranging from the behaviorist point of view to cognitivism and constructivism.

Positive and Negative Constructive Feedback is necessary to improve behavior or performance

Validating ideas with peers and personal experience is an essential part of the learning process

Learning relies on linking new data to old data stored in our memory

Learning outcomes and conditions influence lesson planning

Effective learning instruction needs to be informative, engaging and include interactive activities relevant to learning outcomes

LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Introduction

One of the key components in designing effective instruction is taking in account the conditions and requirements of the learning environment. Whether learning takes place in the classroom or while on the job, teachers must realize the importance of adjusting their instruction in accordance to the learning environment.

Complex Learning Environments

Engage learners in activities

relevant to learning

outcomes

Provide collaboration opportunities

where perspectives

can be exchanged

Support learners in

setting their own goals and regulations in their learning

Encourage learners to

reflect on what and how they are learning

Constructivists encourage the use of complex learning environments to support learning goals. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p.42)

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive apprenticeship is the process where the teacher educates that skill or information to an learner. (Wikipedia, 2010, para. 1)

It is “designed, among other things, to bring these tacit processes into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them with help from the teacher” (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1987, p. 4).

Defining characteristics

Communities of Practice

Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. (Wenger, 2006, para. 4)

(1) The Domain: group has a shared identity/interest that distinguishes them from non-members

(3) The Practice: practitioners who develop a shared repertoire of resources

(2) The Community: group engages in activities , helps each other and learn together

(Wenger, 2006, para. 5)

Evolved from museum schools

to online LMS

Benefits online learnersEncourages

blended learning

Technology Enabled

“Perhaps it is time for us to take a much closer look at the technology we have available and find new and innovative ways of building a curriculum around it” (Halocha, 2007, p. 125).

Pedagogic audience

Ease of using multimedia

Personal Learning Environment

Truong’s Learning

Environment

Relevant and realistic

examples and scenarios

Interactive activities and

projects

Blended learning

instruction Assessments to ensure

learning took place

Positive and negative

constructive feedback

LEARNER MOTIVATION

Introduction

Even if the instruction may be interactive, filled with relevant information, and engaging, without learner motivation the materials developed may just be another boring course to the learner. Therefore, understanding learner motivation is an important aspect when designing sound training.

ARCS Model

AttentionPerceptual

arousal Inquiry arousal

RelevanceConcrete language

Relevant examples

ConfidenceExplain

likelihood to succeed

Provide objectives and pre-requisites

Learner control and feedback

Satisfaction Reward system Feedback and reinforcement

Provide real-world opportunities to practice

acquired knowledge

John Keller’s ARCS model is systematic and uses a problem-solving approach that helps provide a rational basis for tactic selection. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 87)

Adapted from (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2011, para. 4-7)

Attribution

Learners' current self-perceptions strongly influence the ways in which they will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors.

Stable/

UnstableStable = same

outcome in different occasion Unstable = different outcome in different occasion

Controllable/

Uncontrollable Controllable =

factor that can be alteredUncontrollable = factor unable to alter

Intern

al/

Extern

alThe cause of

the success or failure lies in ourselves or from our environment

(Author unknown, 2011, para. 1-3, http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm)

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to individuals' beliefs about their capabilities to perform well (Graham, n.d., para. 11). People are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent at those activities (Author unknown, 2011, para. 1, http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm).

Instruction manipulations to increase self-efficacy:

Encourage using short-term over long-term goalsprogress is easier to judge in short-term goals

Use specific learning strategies that increases learner’s attention to the task

Give performance-contingent rewards to reward single task mastery

(Graham, n.d., para. 15)

Self-Regulation

Learners attempt to monitor and control their own learning (Pintrich,

n.d., para. 1). Self-regulating learners are much more likely to be successful in school, to learn more, and to achieve at higher levels (Pintrich, n.d., para. 13).

CognitionUsing strategies to help remember, understand, and solve problems

1

MotivationUsing strategies to help regulate motivations and emotions

2

BehaviorUsing strategies to attempt to control overt behaviors

3

EnvironmentUsing strategies to monitor and control the environment

4

General Domains

(Pintrich, n.d., para. 5-9)

Personal Learner Motivation

Incentives Relevance

Environment Interactive

Reward system (praises, stickers, recognition)

Fun actitives that requires interaction with peers

Examples and activities relevant to learning outcomes

Friendly, warm, inviting, promotes learning

REFERENCES

References

• Attribution Theory. (2011). Retrieved February, 10, 2011 from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm

• Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing and mathematics (Technical Report No. 403). BBN Laboratories, Cambridge, MA. Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. January, 1987.

• Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

• Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding constructivism. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism

• Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding behaviorism. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism

• Graham, Sandra (n.d). Motivation - Instruction, Self-regulated Learning – OVERVIEW. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2250/Motivation.html

References

• Halocha, J. (2007). Using ICT in Teaching. In J. Johnston, J. Halocha & M. Chater (Eds.), Developing Teaching Skills in the Primary School (pp. 119–134). Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.

• Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011). ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller). Retrieved February 13th, 2011 from http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html

• Pintrich, Paul R. (n.d). Motivation - Self-regulated Learning. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2249/Motivation-SELF-REGULATED-LEARNING.html

• Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

• Self-Efficacy. (2011). Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm

• Wenger, Etienne (2006). Communities of practice a brief introduction. Retrieved February, 11, 2011 from http://www.ewenger.com/theory/