HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

Accessories Division, Lucknow

PROJECT REPORT

ON

Instruments used in Cockpit of Aircraft

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-Mr. S.P. Singh VARUN MISHRA,

Sr. Manager (Trg.) Branch- E.C.E

(HAL-ADL)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very thankful to everyone who all supported me, for i have completed my project effectively and moreover on time.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teachers who given the valuable knowledge at HAL-ADL training center as well as Manager Mr. S.P. Singh who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic ‘Instruments used in Cockpit of Aircrafts’, which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know about so many new things.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in gathering different information, collecting data and guiding me from time to time in making this project .despite of their busy schedules ,they gave me different ideas in making this project unique.

I am making this project not only for professional academics but to also increase my knowledge.

Content

Introduction.History.Evolution of H.A.L. Production Licensed production Indigenous production

Costumers & Services.Divisions.Introduction to HAL – ADL Products by HAL - ADLFactories in HAL – ADL Mechanical System factory. Fuel System Factory. Instrument/Electrical System Factory.

Cockpit Instruments Barometric Instruments. Gyroscopic Instruments.

Fuel Measurement.ConclusionBibliography

Introduction

H.A.L. one of the most significant and prestigious aeronautical and its

accessories company from the country of varied culture and traditions,

INDIA. As H.A.L. acronym for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. And having

Sales Turnover of Rs.14,204 crores during the Financial Year 2011-12. The

Profit of the Company (Profit Before Tax) soared to Rs.3,329 crores.

H.A.L. has is registered office based in Bangalore, India, is one of Asia's

largest aerospace companies. Under the management of the Indian Ministry

of Defence, this state-owned company is mainly involved in aerospace

industry, which includes manufacturing and assembling aircraft, navigation

and related communication equipment, as well as operating airports.

H.A.L. built the first military aircraft in South Asia and is currently involved in

the design, fabrication and assembly of aircraft, jet engines, and helicopters,

as well as their components and spares. It has several facilities spread

across several states in India including Nasik, Korwa, Kanpur, Koraput,

Lucknow, Bangalore and Hyderabad.

H.A.L. made and assembled many types of fighter aircrafts, helicopters, civil

aviation aircrafts, etc. like Sukhoi (SU 30-MKI), Jaguar, Kirat, Cheetah,

Tejas(L.C.A.), MiG Series Aircrafts, Mirage 2000, etc. under licensed and

indigenous production both.

Today, HAL has 19 Production Units and 10 Research & Design Centers in 8

locations in India. The Company has an impressive product track record - 15

types of Aircraft/Helicopters manufactured with in-house R & D and 14 types

produced under license. HAL has manufactured over

3658 Aircraft/Helicopters, 4178 Engines, Upgraded 272 Aircraft and

overhauled over 9643 Aircraft and 29775 Engines.

History

HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft in Bangalore in 1940 by Seth

Walchand Hirachand to produce military aircraft for the Royal Indian Air

Force. The initiative was actively encouraged by the Kingdom of Mysore,

especially by the Diwan, Sir Mirza Ismail and it also had financial help from

the Indian Government. Mysore was favored because of the availability of

cheap electricity.[2] The organization and equipment for the factory at

Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of the Intercontinental Aircraft

Corporation of New York, an exporter of American aircraft to the region.

Pawley managed to obtain a large number of machine-tools and equipment

from the United States.

The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by

April 1941 as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by

the government was primarily motivated to boost British military hardware

supplies in Asia to counter the increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan

during Second World War. The Kingdom of Mysore supplied two directors, Air

Marshal John Higgins was resident director. The first aircraft built was a

Harlow PC-5[3] On 2 April 1942, the government announced that the company

had been nationalized when it had bought out the stakes of Seth Walchand

Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore

Kingdom refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the

management control over to the Indian Government.

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 when

Hindustan Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF

Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS.748

under license) and the group recently set up to manufacture Mig-21 under

license (with its new factories planned in Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad).[4]

Though HAL was not used actively for developing newer models of fighter

jets, the company has played a crucial role in modernization of the Indian Air

Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol Siddeley Orpheus jet

engines under license at new factory located in Bangalore.

During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in

the development of new indigenous aircraft such as HAL Tejas and HAL

Dhruv. HAL also developed an advanced version of the MiG-21, known as

MiG-21 Bison, which increased its life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has

also obtained several multi-million dollar contracts from leading international

aerospace firms such as Airbus, Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture

aircraft spare parts and engines.

By 2012, HAL was reportedly been bogged down in the details of production

and has been slipping on its schedules.

Production

Licensed Production

Under licensed production India and H.A.L. withdrawn many designs from different countries like:-

Sukhoi (SU 30-MKI) , MiG variant aircrafts from Russia,

SUKHOI (SU 30-MKI)

Twin - seater, Multi-role, Long range Fighter / Bomber / Air Superiority Aircraft.

MIG 27 M

Single - seater Tactical Fighter / Bomber with variable sweep wings.

MIG 21

Single - seater Front line Tactical Interceptor / Fighter Aircraft.

Jaguar and Hawk Advance Jet Trainer from western origins

Jaguar

single-seat, swept-wing, Rolls-Royce Adour Turbofan twin-engine.

Hawk Advance Jet Trainer

Two-man tandem cockpit, a low-mounted cantilever wing, single turbofan engine

Other licensed aircraft and engines production

Harlow PC-5 — first aircraft assembled by HAL Percival Prentice — 66 built by HAL Folland Gnat HAL Ajeet — improved version of the Folland Gnat Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-27 — M variant SEPECAT Jaguar— IS, IB and IM variants Dornier Do 228 — Also providing equipment for production of the

upgraded Mirage 2000 (france) Aerospatiale SA 315B Lama — HAL Cheetah, Lancer, Cheetal Variants Aerospatiale SA 316B Alouette III — HAL Chetak, Chetan Variants HAL HS 748 Avro — Modified for military usage, includes Series 2M

variant with large freight door Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 811 — Engine for SEPECAT Jaguar Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 871 — Engine for BAE Hawk Mk 132 Garrett TPE331-5 — Engine for Dornier Do 228 Turbomeca TM 333 — Engine for HAL Dhruv

Indigenous Production

HF – 24 MARUT

India’s First fighter aircraft

IJT HAL(HJT-36 SITARA)

HAL BASANT(agri-utility aircraft)

Light Combat Aircraft(HAL TEJAS)

Light Combat Helicopter

HAL dhruv

Other types of Production indigenously Engines

GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri- Co-developed with GTRE (DRDO)(under development)

PTAE-7- For indigenously designed Lakshya PTA

GTSU-110 - For starting main engine GE404 or Kaveri of LCA Tejas

HAL/Turbomeca Shakti - Co-developed with Turbomeca for HAL Dhruv Helicopter

Gliders

HAL G-1 - HAL's first original design, dating from 1941. Only one was built.

Ardhra — training glider

Rohini

Transport Aircrafts

Saras — under joint development with the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL)

HAL Multirole Transport Aircraft — under joint-development with Ilyushin Design Bureau

Indian Regional Jet (IRJ) of 70-100 seater capacity to be jointly developed with NAL.

Costumers And Sister Concerns

Sister Concerns

Indian Space Research Organization Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company National Aerospace Laboratories Defense Research and Development Organization Aeronautical Development Agency Directorate General Aeronautical Quality Assurance Directorate General of Civil Aviation

Customers

DOMESTIC                     

DEFENCE & SPACE:

Indian Air Force Indian Army Indian Navy Indian Coast Guard Ordnance Factory Board Border Security Force

CIVIL 

Oil & Natural Gas Cooperation of India Geological Survey of India Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.

EXPORTS:  Airbus Industrie, France Boeing, USA Coast Guard, Mauritius Ecuadorian Air Force, Ecuador ELTA, Israel GE Aviation, USA Hamilton Sundstrand, USA Honeywell International, USA Israel Aircraft Industries, Israel Mauritius Police Force, Mauritius Moog Inc. USA Namibian Air Force, Namibia Nepal Army, Nepal RAC MIG, Russia Rolls Royce Plc, UK Royal Air Force, Oman Royal Malaysian Air Force, Malaysia Royal Thai Air Force, Thailand Ruag, Germany Rosoboron export, Russia

Divisions

Research & Design Centers

Aircraft Research and Design Center, Bangalore

Rotatory Wing Research and Design Center, Bangalore

Aircraft Upgrade Research and Design Center, Nasik

Transport Aircraft Research and Design Center, Kanpur

Mission and Combat System Research and Design Center,

Bangalore

Engine and Test bed Research and Design Center, Bangalore

Strategic Electronics Research and Design Center, Hyderabad

Aerospace Systems & Equipments Research & Design Center,

Lucknow

Gas Turbine Research and Design Center

Central Materials & Processes Laboratory & NDT ,Bangalore

Introduction to HAL – ADLAccessories Division of HAL was established in 1970 with the primary objective of manufacturing systems and accessories for various aircraft and engines and attains self-sufficiency in this area. Its facilities are spread over 116,000 sq. /m of built area set in sylvan surroundings. At present it is turning out over 1300 different types of accessories. The Division started with manufacturing various Systems and Accessories viz, Hydraulics, Engine Fuel System, Air-conditioning and Pressurization, Flight Control, Wheel and Brake, Gyro & Barometric Instruments, Electrical and Power Generation & Control System, Undercarriages, Oxygen System and  Electronic System all under one roof to meet the requirements of the aircraft, helicopters and engines being produced by HAL like MiG series of aircrafts, Dornier, Jaguar, Advanced Light Helicopters(ALH), PTA, Cheetah & Su-30 and repair / Overhaul of Avro, AN-32, HPT-32, Mirage-2000 & Sea-Harrier aircrafts, Cheetah and Chetak helicopters.

The Division undertakes manufacturing and servicing of accessories under Transfer of Technology (Tot) from more than 40 licensor from different countries. In addition, a lot of emphasis has been given on developing indigenous capability for Design and Development of various systems and accessories. This capability has culminated in indigenous design and development of over 350 types of accessories for the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version), Advanced Light Helicopter (all versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil), SARAS and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer). The Division has also developed and has made successful strides into the area of Microprocessor based control systems for the LCA Engine as well as other systems.

The Division has been in the forefront of accessories development and supply not only to Indian Force but to Army, Navy, Coast Guard and various Defense Laboratories as well as for Space applications.

The Division is networked with all sister Divisions and R& D Centers by LAN/WAN. Lean manufacturing and ERP have been implemented to create an efficient manufacturing system. The Division today has a prime name in the Aviation market and various international companies are interested to join hands with it for future projects. The Division has also made steady progress in the area of Export.

Products by HAL - ADL HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND POWER CONTROL

Hydraulic Pumps, Accumulators, Actuators, Electro-selectors, Bootstrap Reservoirs and various types of valves

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Cold Air Unit, Water Extractors, Non Return Valves and Venturies

ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM

Fuel after Burner regulator and distributor, Main Fuel Distributor, Regulator and After Burner Pump, Plunger Pumps, Fuel Metering Device 

INSTRUMENTS

Electrical Indicators, Fuel quantity and flow metering instruments, Flight instruments, Sensors and Switches. 

ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

AC/DC Generator, Control and Protection Units, AC and DC Master Box, Inverters, Transformer Rectifier Unit, Actuators. 

UNDERCARRIAGE, WHEELS AND BRAKES  

Main and Nose Undercarriage, Main and Nose Wheel, Brake System LRUs. 

TEST RIGS

Dedicated Test Rigs, custom-built Fuel/Hydraulic Test Rigs and Electrical Test Rigs.

Factories in HAL – ADL

Mechanical System factory Hydraulics and Pumps Servo-Actuators Flight Control system Environment System Assembly Test

Fuel System Factory Gas Turbine Fuel Flow Metering and Gauging Assembly Test

Instrument & Electrical System Factory Cockpit Instruments Oxygen System Sensors Starter/Generator Static Inverter Gyroscopic Instruments Barometric Instruments Fuel Content Gauging Probes.

PROJECT REPORT ON INTRUMENTS USED IN COCKPIT OF AIRCRAFTS

Cockpit Instruments

Cockpit of aircraft

BAROMETRIC INSTRUMENTS

Altimeter

Altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The greater the altitude the lower the pressure. When a barometer is supplied with a nonlinear calibration so as to indicate altitude, the instrument is called a pressure altimeter or barometric altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most aircraft, and skydivers use wrist-mounted versions for similar purposes. Hikers and mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition to other navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS receiver.

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360 degree operation of the pointers was delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines warning the pilot that he is nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes the window will dis-appear.

Vertical Speed Indicator or Variometer

Variometer measure the rate of change of altitude by detecting the change in air pressure (static pressure) as altitude changes. A simple Variometer can be constructed by adding a large reservoir (a thermos bottle) to augment the storage capacity of a common aircraft rate-of-climb instrument. In its simplest electronic form, the instrument consists of an air bottle connected to the external atmosphere through a sensitive air flow meter. As the aircraft changes altitude, the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft changes and air flows into or out of the air bottle to equalize the pressure inside the bottle and outside the aircraft. The rate and direction of flowing air is measured by the cooling of one of two self-heating thermistors and the difference between the thermistor resistances will cause a voltage difference; this is amplified and displayed to the pilot. The faster the aircraft is ascending (or descending), the faster the air flows. Air flowing out of the bottle indicates that the altitude of the aircraft is increasing. Air flowing into the bottle indicates that the aircraft is descending.

Newer Variometer designs directly measure the static pressure of the atmosphere using a pressure sensor and detect changes in altitude directly from the change in air pressure instead of by measuring air flow. These designs tend to be smaller as they do not need the air bottle. They are more reliable as there is no bottle to be affected by changes in temperature and less chances for leaks to occur in the connecting tubes.

The designs described above, which measure the rate of change of altitude by automatically detecting the change in static pressure as the aircraft changes altitude are referred to as "uncompensated" Variometer. The term

"vertical speed indicator" or "VSI" is most often used for the instrument when it is installed in a powered aircraft. The term "Variometer" is most often used when the instrument is installed in a glider or sailplane.

An "Inertia lead" VSI or ILVSI compensates for relative "g" forces experienced in a turn (powered aircraft) and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to remove otherwise erroneous indications of climb or descent.

Air Speed Indicator

The airspeed indicator or airspeed gauge is an instrument used in an aircraft to display the craft's airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot. In its simplest form, an ASI measures the difference in pressure between that which is generally around the craft and the increased pressure caused by propulsion. The needle tracks pressure differential but the dial is marked off as airspeed.

Along with the altimeter and vertical speed indicator, the airspeed indicator is a member of the pitot-static system of aviation instruments, so named because they operate by measuring pressure in the pitot and static circuits.

Airspeed indicators work by measuring the difference between static pressure, captured through one or more static ports; and stagnation pressure due to "ram air", captured through a pitot tube. This difference in pressure due to ram air is called impact pressure

The static ports are located on the exterior of the aircraft, at a location chosen to detect the prevailing atmospheric pressure as accurately as possible, that is, with minimum disturbance from the presence of the aircraft.

Some aircraft have static ports on both sides of the fuselage or empennage, in order to more accurately measure static pressure during slips and skids. Aerodynamic slips and skids cause either or both static ports and pitot tube(s) to present themselves to the relative wind in other than basic forward motion. Thus, the alternative placements on some aircraft.

Icing is a problem for pitot tubes when the air temperature is below freezing and visible moisture is present in the atmosphere, as when flying through cloud or precipitation. Electrically heated pitot tubes are used to prevent ice forming over the tube.

The airspeed indicator and altimeter will be rendered inoperative by blockage in the static system. To avoid this problem, most aircraft intended for use in instrument meteorological conditions are equipped with an alternate source of static pressure. In unpressurised aircraft, the alternate static source is usually achieved by opening the static pressure system to the air in the cabin. This is less accurate, but is still workable. In pressurized aircraft, the alternate static source is a second set of static ports on the skin of the aircraft, but at a different location to the primary source.

GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

Turn and Slip Indicator

The turn-and-slip indicator provides the only information of either wing's level or bank attitude if the other gyroscopic instruments should fail. This indicator is sometimes called the "needle and ball". This instrument, along with the airspeed indicator, magnetic compass and altimeter, can assist the pilot in flying through instrument weather conditions, even when it is the only gyro instrument operating.

The turn needle of the turn-and-bank indicator gives an indirect indication of the bank attitude of the aircraft. When the turn needle is exactly centered, the aircraft is in straight flight. When the needle is displaced from center, the aircraft is turning in the direction of the displacement. Thus, if the ball is centered, a left displacement of the turn needle means the left wing is low and the aircraft is in a left turn. Return to straight flight is accomplished by coordinating aileron and rudder pressures.

The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator is actually a separate instrument, conveniently located under the turn needle so the two instruments can be used together. This instrument is best used as an indication of attitude. When the ball is centered within its glass tube the maneuver is being executed in a coordinated manner. However, if the ball is out of its center location, the aircraft is either slipping or skidding . The side to which the ball has rolled indicates the direction of the slip or skid.

In a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the lack of centrifugal force causes the ball to be displaced to the inside of the turn. (To correct, decrease the angle of bank, or use rudder to increase the rate of turn, or both). In a skid the rate of turn is too fast for the angle of bank, and excessive centrifugal force causes the ball to be displaced to the outside of the turn. (To correct, increase the bank angle, or use rudder to decrease the rate of turn, or both).

In coordinated flight, the needle may be used to measure the rate of turn; in a "standard rate turn", the needle is aligned with the left or right marker (dog-house) and the aircraft will turn at the rate of 3° per second or 180° in one minute. Hence, in these conditions, the needle indicates both direction and rate of turn.

The answer to controlling and trimming an aircraft in straight and level flight by means of the turn-and-bank indicator requires a return to basic control principles - i.e., control yaw with the rudder and keep the wings level with aileron. Therefore, when flying straight and level through the use of the turn-and-bank indicator, prevent yawing with appropriate rudder pressure, and keep the wings level with appropriate aileron pressure. The needle will not deflect while heading is constantly maintained, since no turn exists.

In other words, control the ball with rudder since the ball moves parallel to a plane passing through the rudder pedals, and control the needle with aileron since the ailerons affect bank angle, a primary requirement for a normal turn.

It is important that both the needle and ball are used together. The problem associated with using these instruments separately is that although the ball will positively indicate that the aircraft is slipping or skidding, just which one of these the aircraft is doing can only be determined by reference to the needle. Furthermore, the needle will not positively indicate a bank attitude. An aircraft could be in a bank attitude and yet the needle could remain

centered or indicate a turn in the opposite direction, if controls are not coordinated.

Heading Indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG; sometimes also called the gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications) displays the aircraft's heading with respect to magnetic north. Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) which provides the same heading information, but also assists with navigation.

The heading indicator works using a gyroscope, tied to the aircraft horizontal, to establish an inertial platform. As such, any configuration of the aircraft horizontal that does not match the local Earth horizontal results in gimbal error, essentially leading to a variation in the predictable "apparent" wander, known in this instance as drift. The heading indicator is arranged so that only the horizontal axis is used to drive the display, which consists of a circular compass card calibrated in degrees. The gyroscope is spun either electrically, or using filtered air from a vacuum pump (sometimes a pressure pump in high altitude aircraft) driven from the aircraft's engine. Because the Earth rotates (ω, 15° per hour), and because of small accumulated errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the heading indicator will drift over time, and must be reset from the compass periodically. The apparent drift is predicted by ω sin Latitude and will thus be greatest over the poles. Another sort of apparent drift exist in the form of transport wander, where aircraft movement will essentially add or subtract to the effect of the Earth's rotation upon a gyroscope. To counter for the effect of Earth rate drift a latitude nut can be set (on the ground only) which induces a (hopefully equal and

opposite) real wander in the gyroscope. Normal procedure is to realign the direction indicator once each ten to fifteen minutes during routine in-flight checks. Failure to do this is a common source of navigation errors among new pilots.

Altitude Indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Attitude indicators use a gyroscope (powered via vacuum pump or electrical motor) to establish an inertial platform. The gyroscope is geared to a display that has two dimensions of freedom, simultaneously displaying pitch and bank. The display may be colored to indicate the horizon as the division between the two colored segments (typically blue for sky and brown for ground), and is intended to be intuitive to use. The actual bank angle is calibrated around the circumference of the instrument. The pitch angle is indicated by a series of calibration lines, each representing 5° or 10° of pitch depending on design.

The instrument may develop small "precession" errors, in pitch indication during extended periods of acceleration or deceleration and, in bank indication during extended periods in a turn, caused by the mechanism that

normally keeps the gyro rotor properly erected. These errors develop very slowly (usually at not more than 2 or 3 degrees per minute) and are not significant in normal flying. Some attitude indicators can only tolerate a specific range of bank angles. If the aircraft rolls too steeply or achieves an extreme pitch attitude — while performing aerobatics, for example — the attitude indicator can "tumble" (or "topple") and become temporarily unusable. For this reason, some attitude indicators are fitted with a "caging mechanism" (a device to restore the gyroscope to an erect position). Some attitude indicators can be manually erected once the airplane is in level flight using the caging mechanism. Most modern instruments are designed to tolerate 360 degrees of rotation in pitch and roll without tumbling, although periods of violent aerobatics may tumble any gyro horizon. Once tumbled, an instrument without a caging mechanism may not be able to re-erect itself until power is removed and the aircraft is in a level pitch and roll attitude for a long enough period that the gyro rotor comes to a stop.

Attitude and Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) are able to provide three-axis information that can be shared with multiple devices in the aircraft, such as "glass cockpit" primary flight displays (PFDs). Rather than using a spinning rotor for the horizon reference, modern AHRS use 3-dimension magnetometers and accelerometers to detect the airplane's pitch and roll attitude, with no moving parts. AHRS have been proven to be highly reliable and are in wide use in commercial and business aircraft. Recent advances in MEMS manufacturing have brought the price of FAA-certified AHRS down to less than $15,000,making them practical for general aviation aircraft. With most AHRS systems, if an aircraft's AIs have failed there will be a standby AI located in the center of the instrument panel, where other standby basic instruments such as the airspeed indicator and altimeter are also available. These mostly mechanical standby instruments may be available even if the electronic flight instruments fail, though the standby attitude indicator may be electrically driven and will, after a short time, fail if its electrical power fails.

Fuel MeasurementFuel measurement is done by probes dipped in fuel and these probes are high level and low level pressure of oil tank.

Fuel Content Gauge Probe

Conclusion

By this report and study of this, which concludes that Hindustan

Aeronautics Limited, is one of the most significant aircraft

manufacturer and developer of India and making India self-reliant

in the fields of aerospace and aircrafts, which tending towards the

boom of Indian self-designed aircrafts and helicopters.

And by no means had Hindustan Aeronautics limited, Accessories

Division, Lucknow, playing vital and magnificent role to make

H.A.L. more prosperous as well as India.

This report also concludes that instruments which are using in

cockpit is very essential to an aircraft, because it helps pilot to fly

aircraft more precisely.

Bibliography

http://hal-india.com/

aircraftdivisionbangalore.asp

http://hal-india.com/products.asp

http://hal-india.com/accessoriesdivision.asp

http://hal-india.com/aircraftdivisionnasik.asp

http://www.slideshare.net

http://www.wikipedia.org