Training Delivery: Tradition Instructional Approaches and Emerging Technologies Dr. Steve Training &...
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Transcript of Training Delivery: Tradition Instructional Approaches and Emerging Technologies Dr. Steve Training &...
Training Delivery: Tradition Instructional Approaches and Emerging Technologies
Dr. SteveTraining & Development
INP6325
Instructional Techniques What instructional technique works best?
No “one size fits all” solutions, only generalities Ex: don’t train motor skills using lecture format
Why? Lack of generalizability – most empirical research tests a
particular technique for a particular skill Criteria used – evaluations tend to focus on learning, not
transfer
Choosing Instructional Techniques
What do you know about the potential trainees?
1. What training do they currently use?2. What has/hasn’t worked in the past?3. What instructional methods are preferred?
Performance SupportContinuum of possible performance support
mechanisms for learning how to use software
ClassroomTraining
OnlineTutorial
User Guides
Reference Manuals
Help Line
Online Help
Product Affordances
Far From Task Near to Task
Guidelines for Instructional Development*
Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor processes that lead to mastery
Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capability
e.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing task
Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive
Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee self-efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to valued outcomes
Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge*Adapted from research by Campbell
More guidelines in Swezey and Llaneras (p.546-7)
Training DeliveryOn-the-Job Training (OJT) Most common form of training Typically unstructured
Often used as the control group in training evaluations If experimental training not significantly better, OJT is the default Caution: OJT may actually prevent optimal performance and could cost organization in other
ways (job satisfaction, turnover, downtime, etc.)
Training DeliveryOn-the-Job Training (OJT) Practice with actual equipment, in actual setting, under
operational conditions Ex: Food servers, cashiers, retail sales, professors
Advantages High physical fidelity High psychological fidelity High transfer Easy to conduct Low cost
Disadvantages Can learn bad habits/incorrect procedures Difficult to assess effectiveness May be conducted by “trainers” with little knowledge of training May not be connected to needs assessment
Embedded Training – controlled exercises called up and worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in training mode)
Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of common situations to build automaticity
Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant).
Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate the equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipment
Ex: Paper production monitor (in training mode) indicates jamb, trainee must react quickly
Training Delivery
Embedded Training
Training Delivery
Advantages Uses actual equipment – high transfer Safely practice dangerous/unusual events Trainer can structure/control training
Disadvantages Can’t use equipment when being used for training Difficult, costly, or impossible to implement in many jobs
Training DeliveryApprenticeship Training – Classroom (or textbook) plus OJT shadowing
Common among skilled trades (plumbers, electricians, carpenters, sorcerers, jedi warriors Apprentice shadows an experienced worker for a given time period Upon completion, apprentice may be given a test
1937 national Apprenticeship Act created by the Federal bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (DOL) to ensure apprenticeships were safe and fair.
Training Delivery
Apprenticeship Training
Advantages Low cost High transfer Can be used to socialize workers
Disadvantages Does not consider different learning speeds Trainer may share bad work habits
Training Delivery
Lecture – Classroom style delivery of training
Advantages Reach a large group Low cost Good for presenting declarative knowledge (facts)
Disadvantages Lack opportunity for feedback Can’t focus on individual differences/needs of learners Training speed too fast for some, too slow for others One-way communication Inappropriate for most skills
Training Media Audio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide
presentations, used to present info multiple times
Click for bad example of Audio Air Force Training Guide
Advantages Can be captivating Can combine with lecture Training is consistent Inexpensive to deliver Can be dynamic
Disadvantages Not interactive No practice/feedback Difficult to update in some modalities (e.g., video) High development cost
Training MediaProgrammed Instruction – based on work of
behaviorists (e.g., Skinner) Ex: Skinner’s teaching machine provides reinforcement for
each correct response – gradually eliminates errors Systematically displays information at learner’s own
pace Learner is tested at end of each unit Information presented linearly or hierarchically
Linear – finish one section go to next in sequence Hierarchical or Branching – correct responses lead down
one branch, incorrect responses lead down different branch More advanced learner could move thru larger chunks of info
Programmed Instruction
Training Media
Advantages Significantly reduces training time Provides instant feedback Adaptable to many media types (books, software) for portability Uses motivational principles Self-paced for different learning rates
Disadvantages Extensive time and cost of development Focus on factual info, rote memory Many learners dissatisfied if not supplemented with human interaction
Training MediaInteractive Multi-Media – computer driven training system
using text, graphics, video, auditory information Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / Computer-Based Training
(CBT)
Example of CAI
Interactive Multi-Media - Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), Interactive Courseware (ICW), Computer Based Training (CBT)
Trainee interacts directly with computer Computer presents instructional material Computer engages trainee in question and answer Provides immediate feedback/help identify sources of mistakes May store trainee progress/performance data Can adapt to individual differences in trainees
May adapt instruction based on analysis of trainee answers May be used as tutorial or “drill & practice” (no material
presented) Tutorial may serve as stand-alone instruction
Training Media
Computer-Assisted Instruction Research findings:
Takes 300 hrs to produce 1 hr of CAI training Compare to 30 hrs for every 1 hr of classroom instruction Limited research database on learning with CAI, research
focus often on technology Some studies show CAI faster than conventional methods Effectiveness similar to programmed instruction, but learn
in less time Possible Hawthorne effect is threat to generalizability
Traninees enjoy new technology, but novelty wears off
Training Media
Interactive Multi-Media – (CAI, CBT, ICW)
Training Media
Advantages Engaging/motivating Trainee performance data can be stored Convenient delivery Highly interactive Provides testing/feedback
Disadvantages Not much research to identify appropriate vs inappropriate uses Expensive! (Resource intensive: software development time) After novelty wears off motivation may wane Requires multiple skills to develop Some skills not amenable to CAI/CBT
Simulation – imitation of actual environment– imitation of the real environment
Training Media
Advantages Realistic practice Replay/critique performance Interactive, engaging, dynamic Safer than real environment Event-based (trainer-controlled)
Disadvantages Very costly to develop Difficult to develop Costly to implement Simulator sickness
Training System Fidelity Fidelity – realism of the training device Physical Fidelity – how realistic training device
appears Functional Fidelity – how well device trains
concepts Fidelity Issues:
1. Expense – more realism, greater cost2. Necessity – many tasks can be learned as well or better
by simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity)3. Negative transfer – if training environment is very
close to real environment, then things that are different may lead to negative transfer.
Virtual Reality – simulated 3-dimensionally-modeled, interactive, learning environment
Training Media
Advantages Immersive & engaging High realism May involve multiple senses Interactive Safe preparation for unsafe environments
Disadvantages Extremely costly to develop Difficult to develop & implement Limited by current technology Cyber sickness Negative transfer (research on distance estimation)
Training Media
Distance Learning – use of audio and data links to present training to multiple sites simultaneously
Advantages Saves travel expense Reach many at one time Similar in effectiveness as lecture Can provide multiple media
Disadvantages Lack of face time Transmission rates Unreliable hardware Cannot teach skills easily Lack of immediate feedback
Web-Based Instruction Training delivered(mainly text-based) via the
internet or intranet
Training Media
Advantages Available 24 hrs per day Accessible to many at remote sites Easy to update Just-in-time training (available on demand) Self-paced (e.g.,links, exercises, feedback) May promote information sharing
Disadvantages Interface design issues (e.g., web navigation, browser differences) Access to computers (with necessary capability) Lack of face time Limited research on effectiveness and appropriateness
Ex: Human Factors Coursehttp://prometheus.uwf.edu
Intelligent Tutoring Systems – Computer-based individualized instruction that diagnoses, then addresses, learner weaknesses
Training MediaIntelligent Tutor
ExamplesSee http://prime.jsc.nasa.gov/math/
Advantages Customized training for individual needs Interactive Knowledge assessment Non-linear Provides tailored feedback Info updated based on review of past students’ performance
Disadvantages Very costly (up to 500 hrs development time/instruction hour) Instructor complacency Lack of research on effectiveness
Attributes of Intelligent Tutors
Generative – the capacity to generate appropriate instructional interactions at run time, based on learner performance
Mixed-initiative – the capacity to initiate interactions with a learner as well as to interpret and respond usefully to learner-initiated interactions (natural dialogue)
Interactive – the provision of appropriately contextualized, domain relevant and engaging learning activities
Student Modeling – the capability to assess the current state of a learner’s knowledge and the implied capability to do something instructionally useful based on the assessment
Expert Modeling – the capability to model expert performance and the implied capability to do something useful based on the assessment
Instructional Modeling – the capability to make pedagogical inferences and decisions based on the changing state of the student model, based on the prescriptions of an expert model, or both
Self-improving – the capability to monitor, evaluate, and improve its own teaching performance as a function of experience
Training Media and Strategy Guidelines*
Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions
Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review and branch and include skill diagnosis and remediation
Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentations these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but
extremely high timely executions Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback control
of both stimulus and reinforcement variables Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the
number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from students
Link to decision aid for selecting training media
*Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics
Guidelines for Enhancing Transfer
Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that a student may generalize their knowledge
Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the goal of instruction
Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations
Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the job) remain at the end of training
Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment to the operational setting