TRACKINGHUMANS

TRACKINGHUMANS

AFundamentalApproachtoFindingMissingPersons,Insurgents,Guerillas,andFugitivesfromtheLaw

DavidDiazwithV.L.McCann

LyonsPressGuilford,Connecticut

AnimprintofGlobePequotPress

Copyright©2005,2013byDavidDiazandV.L.McCannFirstLyonsPaperbackEdition,2013

ALLRIGHTSRESERVED.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,exceptasmaybeexpresslypermittedinwritingfromthepublisher.RequestsforpermissionshouldbeaddressedtoGlobePequotPress,Attn:RightsandPermissionsDepartment,POBox480,Guilford,CT06437.

LyonsPressisanimprintofGlobePequotPress.

Allpagenumbersrefertotheprintedbook.

Excerptonpage13from“TheElephant’sChild,”byRudyardKipling.

Excerptonpage21fromTheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness,byErichFromm.

Excerptonpage81from“BurntNorton”fromFourQuartetsbyT.S.Eliot.

Excerptonpage111fromSelectedEssaysbySamuelJohnson.

TextDesign:SherylP.KoberLayout:MaryBallachino

ISBN978-0-7627-9481-2

TheLibraryofCongresshaspreviouslycataloguedanearlier(hardcover)editionasfollows:

Diaz,David,1959—Tracking—signsofman,signsofhope:asystematicapproachtotheartandscienceoftrackinghumans/DavidDiazwithV.L.McCann.

p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN1-59228-686-0(tradepaper)1.Missingpersons—Investigation.2.Forensicsciences.3.Criminalinvestigation.I.McCann,V.L.II.Title.HV6762.A3D522005363.2'336—dc22

2005006063

DedicatedtothemissingandexploitedchildrenthroughouttheworldandtothosemembersoftheAmericanArmedForceswhowere,are,oreverwillbeheldasprisonersofwarordeclaredmissinginaction.

Theinstinctofmanistopursueeverythingthatfliesfromhim,andtoflyfromallthatpursuehim.

—VOLTAIRE

CONTENTS

ForewordIntroduction

Chapter1:HistoryandBriefOverviewASHORTHISTORYATRACKINGOVERVIEW“PREY-LUDE”TOTHECHASE

Chapter2:GettingtoKnowYouOPERATIONCHASE

Chapter3:MyCommonSensesWillFindYouSIGHTVisualTracking•ScanningandSearching

AUDITORYTRACKINGVocalNoises•MechanicalNoises

SCENTTRACKINGSmoke•Cooking•Fuel•BodyOdors

TACTILETRACKINGTHEPURSUIT:DAYONE

Chapter4:WhatHappenedtoMySigns?GROUNDSIGNSFootprints•OtherPrints•Disturbances

MIDDLESIGNS

WindSpeedTOPSIGNSMEASURINGFACTORSAFFECTINGSIGNSOtherHumansandAnimals•Terrain•ClimaticWeatherConditions•Time

THEPURSUIT:DAYTWO

Chapter5:HowLongHasItBeenSinceWeLastMet?HUMANANDANIMALEXCREMENTLIVINGCREATURESANDPLANTLIFECONTROLLEDLABORATORYTESTConductoftheExperiment•WhatYouEatIsWhatYouLeave•Database

ALESSONINFORENSICSCIENCEDecomposition•Mummification•Skeletonization

THEPURSUIT:DAYTHREE

Chapter6:WhatDoWeHaveHere?GATHERINGTHEEVIDENCEPreservetheArea•DirectionofMovement•BloodTrailing•Speedof

Movement•NumberofPeople•KindofFoodConsumed•MiscellaneousItemsandEquipment•WeaponsDOCUMENTINGTHEEVIDENCE:THETRACKINGPATROLREPORTOverview•Searching•Recording•Collecting•Formatting

TRACKINGPATROLREPORT

Chapter7:RoundUpthePosseTRACKERTEAMDutiesandResponsibilities•TrackSearchingProcedures•Formations•

ImmediateActionDrills•BoobyTrapsTRAININGFORTHEBEGINNINGTRACKERStaticandMovementObservationDrills•InitialExercise•ForestedArea

Exercise•OtherSkills

EpilogueTracker’sCreed

AppendixA:HumanProfileCardAppendixB:VehicleProfileCardAppendixC:IncidentReportCardAppendixD:TrackingPatrolReportAppendixE:LaboratoryObservationReportAppendixF:SituationReport(SITREP)AppendixG:SALTReportAppendixH:SaluteReportAppendixI:9-LineMedevacReportAppendixJ:9-LineIEDReport

GlossaryNotesRecommendedReadingAbouttheAuthors

FOREWORD

In this period, when modern armies are uncompromisingly reshaping theirrespectiveforcestofacethechallengesandthreatsofthetwenty-firstcenturyina high-tech mindset, the primordial principles of tracking still prove theirresponsiveness, in the sameway as when human beings still hunted for theirfood.TrackingHumans rekindles the lightand illuminates thepath toward theneedtorelearntheskillsoftracking.Aboveandbeyond,thisbookwillcertainlytrigger the conceptualization of new sensors and surveillance equipment forimprovedcombateffectiveness.Duringmy stint as commander, 18th Infantry Battalion, Philippine Army, I

had the chance to train with SFC David Diaz on Basilan Island, Philippines,duringbilateralmilitaryexercises in2002.Davidwascalledupon to sharehisexpertiseontrackingwiththemembersofthebattalionbecausewebothbelievethat,indeed,trackingmatters.Hissametrainingprogramwasreintroducedintothe PhilippineArmy and has been successfully and aggressively implementedeversince.

LT.COL.DANIELLUCERO

18thInfantryBattalion

PhilippineArmy

Dave Diaz is an acknowledged expert on tracking and field craft, recognizedthroughout the US Army’s Special Operations community. His methods haveproventhemselvesthroughsuccessbyempoweringsoldierstoeffectivelytrackarmedcombatantsduringtheGlobalWaronTerror.Dave’sbookisanexcellentdigestofhisvalidatedmethodsofinstructionandtechniques.I’drecommenditasa“mustread”forallfieldsoldiersandtrainers.Itprovidesinvaluabletoolstoexecute stand-alone tracking courses or enhance sniper or reconnaissanceprograms.

CSMJOHNG.MACEJUNASUSARMY(RETIRED)TRACKINGHUMANSBYDAVID

DIAZISPROBABLYTHEMOSTSUCCINCTTACTICAL/TRACKINGWRITINGTHATIHAVE

EVERHADTHEPLEASUREOFREADING.ITOFFERSSOMETHINGFOREVERYONE,FROMOUTDOORSMAN,POLICEMAN,ANDRESCUEPERSONNELTOSPECOPSOPERATOR.ITALLOWSTHEREADERTOGAINVALUABLEINSIGHTINTOTECHNIQUESANDMETHODS

THATWHENPRACTICEDWILLSIGNIFICANTLYINCREASESURVIVABILITYANDEFFECTIVENESS,DEPENDINGONTHEUSE.ASATWENTY-SIX-YEARARMYVETERAN,SEVENTEEN-PLUSOFWHICHWASASASOFOPERATOR,IHIGHLYRECOMMENDTHISBOOKFORTHOSESERIOUSABOUTOPERATINGINTHEFIELD,WHETHERYOUAREA

SOLDIER,LAWENFORCEMENTOFFICER,ORRESCUEPROFESSIONAL.CW3MICHAELHAUGEN

1STSPECIALFORCESGROUP(AIRBORNE)FORTLEWIS,WASHINGTON,USARMY

Tactical trackinghasbecomea critical skill for theGlobalWaronTerror, andonlyahandfulofpeoplehavetheexpertiseandexperienceofDaveDiaz.Ihadthe good fortune of workingwithDave on Basilan Island, Philippines, in thespringandsummerof2001.Davehadworkedonmeformonthswithhisideasofhow trackingcouldbeapplied toourefforts there.Hechanged thewaywelooked at everything and made our detachment realize the importance ofunderstanding “everything.” What Dave really taught us was IntelligencePreparationoftheBattlefield(IPB)tothesquareinch.DaveteacheshisTrackersto collect data in all types of terrain, weather, and culture in the area ofoperation.ThisdataisthenanalyzedtothepointwhereitbecomesinstinctualtotheTracker.DavebecameasurrogatememberofourteaminthePhilippinesandplanned,

coordinated,andexecutedasix-weektrackercoursefortheFilipinosoldierswewereadvising.Theresultsofhiscoursewerenothingshortofastounding.Insixweeks,he took these soldiers frombarelybeingable topassanarmyphysicalfitness test to completing an extremely demanding field training exercise.Thesoldierswere taught techniques for collecting tracking data and how to applythatdata to actual tracking.Someof the soldiersbecamesoproficient in theirtrackingthat theycouldtrackontheirhandsandkneesduringhoursoflimitedvisibility. The most visible change was the soldier’s situational awareness(culture, terrain, andweather) and attention to detail in every task (especiallytracking reports that would help commanders make informed decisions). Theskills and techniques Dave teaches can be applied from the jungles of thePhilippinestothedesertsoftheMiddleEastandwillkeepsoldiersaliveaswellasbringterroriststojustice.

CAPTAINMICHAELPERRY1STSPECIALFORCESGROUP(AIRBORNE)FORTLEWIS,WASHINGTON,USARMY

INTRODUCTION

Tracker. The veryword forms images of buckskin-clad braves crouching overtheground,carefullystudyingthesignsbeforethem.Itbringsbackmemoriesofoldcavalrymovieswherethedust-wornofficerswatchandwaitwhilethescoutreachesouthishand,touchesthehoofprintnearhisfoot,standsup,andpointstothe horizon declaring, “South. Three days’ ride.” It is an image that fills theaverage person with awe and wonder. How does the scout know which waythey’reheading?Howdoesheknowtheprintisthreedaysold?In themovieButchCassidyand theSundanceKid,Butch andSundance try

everytricktheyknowtoshaketheslow,steadyadvanceoftheirpursuers.Theydoubleupononehorse,watchingwithsurprisewhenthepossedivides in twoandthenquicklycomesbacktogetheragain—deadontheirtrail.“Whoaretheseguys?” theykeepasking.Aftersettingoffonfoot, theywatch indisbeliefasafamedIndianscouttracksthemoversolidrock.“Howdoeshedothat?”theyaskagain.1But is there really a shroud of mystery behind the skills of a native-born

Tracker?Areonlyaselectfewendowedwiththesacredabilitytotrackanimalsorhumanbeingsthroughmilesofrock,brush,or jungle?Iamheretotellyouthatthereisnomysterytotracking,andIwillprovetoyouthattheseskillscanbelearnedbyalmostanyone.Butwhywriteabookontracking?Ourtechnologicallyadvancedsocietyhas

eliminatedtheneedforsuchrudimentarysearchmethods,right?Littleknowntomany in America, people all over the world still use these techniques, andspecializedtraininginthefieldoftrackingisessentialformanyagenciesinourowncountrytoaccomplishtheirmissions.Themilitaryusessomeoftheseskillsinareasofdirectcombat,guerrillawarfare,strategicreconnaissance,VIPrescue,and downed pilot recovery. The success of a search and rescue team mostassuredly depends on the team’s ability to track down a lost child or injuredclimber. US law enforcement agencies have been and still use these skills totrack fugitives and drug traffickers. And the US Border Patrol has highlydistinguisheditself throughitseffectiveuseofthesetechniquesinlocatingandpreventing smugglers, illegal immigrants, and all manner of criminals fromcrossingourborders.Many developing countries—where modern technology hasn’t reached into

every corner of society—still depend upon their knowledge of tracking foreveryday survival. In fact,many of the skills I will be sharing in this book Ilearned firsthand from headhunters, bushmen, and native Trackers locatedthroughouttheworld.MyintentionistobringbackanartthathasbeenallbutlostfromUSsociety,

topreservethehard-earnedandmuch-covetedknowledgelearnedthroughyearsofstudy,experience,anddedication.Myhopeisthatthisknowledgewillbringabout a saferworld; that it will provide skills enabling the average person tobetter find a lost loved one; and that it will be passed on to succeedinggenerationsbeforeitislostforever.Withsomeadaptation, thisbookcanbeusedanywhere in theworld.Unlike

otherbookson tracking, thisbook focuseson trackinghumanbeings,whethertheyareenemysoldiersbehindourlines,criminalsontherun,orchildrenlostinthe woods. It is, therefore, intended for use by military personnel, lawenforcement officers, and search and rescue teams, although its use is notrestricted to public servants. Scouting and adventure groups may find thisinformationhelpfulforoutdoorandsurvivaltraining;thosewhohavelosttheirancientartsmayfindaconnectionwiththeirancestorsthroughtheteachingsinthisbook;andanyindividualwhohasaninterestinthissubjectcanlearnagreatdealbystudyingthesepages.What this bookwill not do ismake the reader an expert Tracker. No book

alone can do that. It is intended only to cover the fundamentals of groundtracking. To become merely proficient takes time, dedication, and hands-ontrainingunderthewatchfuleyeofaskilledandprovenTracker.Ittakesyearsofexperience and practice—sometimes an entire lifetime—to gain respect as awell-known,accomplishedTracker.Butwhatthisbookwilldoisopenyoureyestotheworldaroundyouandmoveyoubeyondthelevelofthebeginnerandintotheranksofthecraftsman.Welcomeandembraceit;trackingisasessentialtodayasitwasyesterday,and

asitwillbetomorrow.Comejointhetwenty-first-centuryTrackerasweexplorethe fundamentals of the past in TrackingHumans, and step into the ranks ofthosewhohaveearnedthetitleof“Tracker.”

CHAPTER1

HistoryandBriefOverview

Weandourancestorsarethesame...—CARLETONCOON

The art of tracking has been around since the creation of humankind and hascome full circle with a renewed interest in this nearly extinct science. Asimportantas theadventof farmingand thediscoveryof fire, tracking—and itsclosecousin,hunting—hasbeencriticaltohumansurvival,notonlyinsecuringfood and clothing, but also in finding shelter from harsh and unforgivingweather,animals,andterrain.Unfortunately,humanswerenotequippedwithmanyofthenaturalabilitiesof

theirlower-classedcounterparts:Theycouldnotrunasfastasacheetah,soartheheavenslikeaneagle,mastertheoceandepthslikeashark,orcrawlupthesidesofacliff likean insect, lizard,orspider; theywerenotsuppliedwith thekeenhearingofabat,thesharpeyesightofahawk,theprecisehominginstinctofapigeon,northediscriminatingolfactorysensesofadog.Evenwhenitcametocatchinghisprey,humanswereleftwithfewnaturalabilities.Withoutclawsorwebstocatchprey,humanshadtorelyontrapsandnets;withoutsharpteethorbrute strength, humans had to develop the means to kill with club, spear, orarrow;withoutnaturalcamouflage,humanshadtodeveloptechniquestoblendin with their surroundings. Humans had to use their superior intelligence toenhance those senses and abilities naturally endowed to their animalcounterparts,andtheyhadtodevelopthemeanstodothisasagroup,apair,or—mostcriticaltotheirsurvival—single-handedly.

ASHORTHISTORYThe science of tracking, I’m sure, began when early humans discovered theywere hungry and had to find an animal in order to kill and eat it. Sincemostanimals didn’t just stand aroundwaiting for the spear or club, humans had tolearnhowtofindtheirprey.Throughtrialanderror—andthelossofmanylives

—trackingwasdevelopedandfine-tunedoverthecenturies.Families,tribes,andevenentirecoloniescametodependontheTracker’sskillfortheirverysurvivalandcontrolover theirdomain.2Prehistoricart tellscountless storiesofhuntersandtheirbravery,recountingentirehuntsfromdeparturetofinalvictory.Ashumankindgrewintosocietiesandcivilizations,trackingwasexpandedto

include uses outside the basic necessities of life. The ancient Chinese andJapanese used it to wage war against their enemies. Sun Tzu described theimportanceofusinglocalnativeswhoknewthelayofthelandinordertosecurevictoryinastrangeterritory.3ThisissimilartowhattheUnitedStatesrecentlydid inAfghanistan,working closelywith the indigenousNorthernAlliance tosecurevictoryinthatcountry.Ninjaandsamuraiwarriorsalsohadtoknowthesetechniquestoinfiltratetheheartoftheirenemies’lands.4Biblicalstoriestellofancient leaders, spies, and undeserving fugitives whose knowledge of thewilderness, itsdangers, and its foodandwater sources ensured the survivalofthe Israelites.And surely, greatwarringnations likeRome,Babylon,Chaldea,and Persia, as well as renowned warriors under Alexander the Great, hadsuperior tracking knowledge to so thoroughly and completely defeat theirenemies.During the birth of the American Colonies, Native Americans were

instrumental in teaching thecolonistsancientarts,whichhelped their survival.The War of Independence was the first recorded instance of “Europeans”utilizing guerrilla tactics—which the Colonial Army learned from the nativetribes. Survival and tracking skills helped give rise to American legends likeDanielBoone,DavyCrockett, andLewis andClark,whoused their talents todiscovernewlandsandrescuekidnappedwomenandchildren.The nineteenth century saw even greater use of these capabilities.Although

slavetradersandownersappliedtheseskillstotrackdownescapedslaves,itwasthe famedNativeAmerican scoutswho snared thewonder and imaginationofgenerations to come. They used their knowledge and expertise to infiltrateenemyterritories,trailrenegadeNativeAmericanbands,andtrackdownfamousoutlawstobringthemtojustice.5Manywritingsoffrontiersmenandsoldiersattestedtothecapabilitiesofthese

scouts.Onememoir,writtenbyUSArmyofficerHomerWheeler,capturedtheskill of one such scout named Poor Elk, trailing renegade Cheyennes nearYellowstonein1874.

PoorElkfollowedaboutamiletowherethepursuedpartyhadcamped.He

brushedawaytheashesfromthedeadfiresandfeltoftheearthunderneath,examined the droppings of the animals, counted the number of fires andnoticed, by marks made by the pins, the size of the lodges; carefullyscrutinizedsomemoccasins,bitsofcloth,etc. thathadbeenthrownaway;noticedthatthemoccasinsweresewnwiththreadinsteadofsinewandweremadeastheSiouxmadethem....Asweat-lodgehadbeenbuilt,indicatingthat theyhadremainedincampat leastoneday,andthedroppingsof theanimalsdeterminedthatthestayhadbeenbutone.Thepositionofthecamp,thetyingoftheanimalsnearthetepeesandthe

wickiups,thenumberoflodges,thecaretakenbytheIndiansinleaving,allthesethingsfurnishedevidenceastothenumberofIndiansandanimalsandthenumberofdayssince theyhadcamped there.Thoughmovingsteadily,yet they were in no special hurry; were Sioux and not Cheyennes; hadrecently left an agency; had not crossed the Yellowstone at the timereported,buttwodaysearlier;wereevidentlyapartyofSiouxwhowereonthewaytojointheIndiansnorthoftheBritishline.Infact,therecordleftbytheseIndianswasascompleteasthoughithadbeencarefullywrittenout.6

Thesewarriorsweretrainedfromtheirearliestchildhoodsinthecraftoftrailingand sign reading, incorporating these skills into every facet of their lives.“Amazing deductions from such sign reading are recorded, and would haveseemed impossible if they were not so routinely faced and solved,” observeshistorianThomasE.Mails.7Inthetwentiethcentury,too,aspartoflawenforcement,militaryoperations,

andsearchandrescuemissions,trackingproveditsusefulnesstimeandagain.In the early 1950s,KenyanMauMaus advocated open revolt againstGreat

Britain. When this took the form of a terrorist campaign aimed at Englishsettlers,theBritishgovernmenthirednativeKikuyuTrackerstolocateandrootouttheisolatedbandsofrebels.8Duringandafterthe1967Six-DayWar,eliteIsraeliforces,knownasSayeret

Scouts, tracked and captured thosewho sought to destroy thenationof Israel.Today, they are still tracking Palestinian terrorists, smugglers, thieves, andEgyptianspies.9The VietnamWar was the first military conflict that saw extensive use of

SpecialOperationsForces.Between1964and1971,theStudiesandObservationGroup (SOG), the Vietnam War’s covert special warfare unit, fought withdistinction and valor, excelling in rescue attempts behind enemy lines, cross-

borderoperations,andreconnaissancemissions.Highlyskilledintracking,anti-tracking, and counter-tracking techniques, the SOG owed the success of itsLaotiancampaign tomodernTrackers likeCommandSergeantMajorFranklinMiller,wholearnedhiscraftfromtheindigenousMontagnardsandwasawardedtheCongressionalMedalofHonorforhisendeavors.10EventheUSBorderPatrolcancreditmanyofitsachievementstomodern-day

Trackers.Albert“Ab”Taylordistinguishedhimselfformorethan40yearsastheBorder Patrol’s premier Tracker, discovering and preventing scores of drugtraffickersfromenteringthecountryaswellasparticipatingincountlesssearchandrescuemissions.11IncludedamongtheremarkableTrackersofourtimeisonewhousestracking

in a unique way. Instead of utilizing his skills to harm or capture humans,SydneyPossuelotrackspeopletopreservethem.HetravelsthejunglesofBrazilalongtheAmazonRivertolocateandthereafterprotecttheindigenouspeopleofSouthAmerica,inanefforttopreservetheirculturefrommodernintrusionsforgenerationstocome.12The twenty-first-century world-famous Trackers have yet to be discovered.

Theycouldincludeaquiet,unassumingSpecialOperationssoldier,aCrocodileDundee–like character discovered by a zealous newspaper columnist in theAustralianoutback,or someonewho is justnow learning theartof tracking—someonesuchasyou.

ATRACKINGOVERVIEWBut what does it really take to be a modern Tracker? As I’m sure you’veguessed,itrequiresmorethanjustthetechniqueswritteninthisbook.First, it takesphysical stamina.Whatever your role, be it as an elite ground

forcesoldierorsearchandrescueteammember,youmustbeabletooutlastyourChase.Youmust be physically fit, capable ofwalking ten, fifty, one hundredmilesoversteepandruggedterrain,travelingfordaysonnothingbutyourowntwo feet with a forty-to ninety-pound pack on your back. Youmust have theability to carry or find your own food and water, and to pack whateverequipment you need for survival. And you must be able to do this whileprotectingyourselffromallpossibledangers.WhileIamnotacertifiedphysicaltrainer,Idoknowalittlebitaboutbuilding

bothstrengthandenduranceafter twentyyears inSpecialOperationsunits.Toputitsimply,running,biking,swimming,hiking,andskippingropeareallgood

cardiovascularexercisestobuildyourstaminaandlong-distanceendurance,andyoushouldpracticeyourexercise(s)ofchoiceatleastthreetofourtimesweekly.Weightlifting,push-ups,sit-ups,knee-bends,dips,chin-ups,andpull-upsareallgoodstrength-buildingexercisesandshouldalsobedonethreetofourtimesperweek.Ifyouwouldlikemorein-depthknowledgeonthissubject,pleaseconsultyourlocalgymorpersonaltrainer.Thenextskillyouneedisanexcessiveamountofattentiontodetail.Youmust

be able to perceivemore than the average person; youmust be able to “see”everythingpresentedbeforeyou,whethervisibleornot.Onemissedsigncouldsend you off track for a hundred squaremiles and couldmean the differencebetweenlifeanddeath—either theChase’soryourown.Andyoumusthaveagood memory to recall what you have discovered, since pencils, tablets, andcamerasmaynotalwaysbeavailable.Alsoyouneedtheappropriatetools.Aswithanyextendedtripintothewoods,mountains,ordesert,acompassis

anabsolutenecessity,asareappropriatemapsofthearea,whichcanbeobtainedfromtheUSGeologicalSurveyormostoutdoorrecreationequipmentoutlets.Youwillneed survivalgearappropriate for theclimate,weather, and terrain

conditions.Forwinterweather,thisobviouslymeanswarmandlayeredclothing,head and hand protection, nonslip boots, skis or snowshoes, dry socks, andsturdyshelter.Forhotweather,thiscouldmeanjungleboots,afloppyhatwithplentyofaeration, lightclothing,mosquitonetting,orhammockmaterials.Allfacetsofself-protectionandsurvivalmustbetakenintoconsideration.Inorder to recordyour findings,youwillneedwriting tools,a tablet,a tape

recorder, a camera and/or camcorder, and the appropriate type and number ofbatteries tooperate them.Togather evidence, youwill needplasticor ziplockbags, a digging tool, tweezers, and gloves. SomeTrackers have even found amagnifyingglasshelpfulintheirsearchesandfortheirownsurvival.Mergingthisancientskillwithmoderntechnologyhasbeenandcontinuesto

bequiteaneye-opener.Palantir,QueryTree,andAnalystNotebookareexcellentsoftwaretoolstoefficientlyandquicklydistributetheimmediatedetailsgatheredbyapersonwith trackingskills.Theseapplicationscan immediatelydistributeintelligenceinrealtimeacrossalargespectrumwithintheareaofoperationorinterest.Thisinformationcomesinhandytoensurethesurvivaloffriendlyandinnocent missing persons as well as in capturing insurgents, guerrillas, orfugitivesfromthelaw.ThesoftwarecomplementstheeffortsofaskillfulhumanTrackerswhocangatherimmediateinformationfromanincidentsite,suchasa

single tireprintorfootprintevidenceatacrimescene,bycollatingeachbitoftactical intelligence and making it available to any personnel involved in theinvestigation.Manyof these software toolsarebeingused in federaldomesticsecurityaswellasthemilitary.Finally,youwillrequireenoughfoodandwater(includingawater-purification

systemortablets)tolastatleasttheexpecteddurationofthesearchoruntilyoucanberesupplied.Asaprecaution,ifresupplyisunlikelyorunattainable,itmaybeappropriate topackenoughsupplies to lastas longas twodaysbeyond theanticipated time frame, if youhave the space and can carry theweight. Just aquicknote:SinceVitaminAenhancesnaturalnightvision,trytopackfoodsorsupplements thatcontain it togiveyourself thebestpossibleadvantageduringhoursofdarkness.Afewsafetytipsmaybeinorderhere.Wearsomesortofeyeprotection,such

assunglassesorsafetyglasses,evenifyouhaveperfecteyesight.Ihaveseentoomanycasesofpeopleneedinghospitalizationbecauseofanunseentwig,branch,or dangerous chemical injuring their eyes. If you have eyesight correctablethroughcontactlensesorglasses,alwayscarryasparesetofeitherorboth;gasmaskoptical inserts are amust. If youdependonglasses, bring along antifogdropsorspray,sinceglassestendtofogupwithverylittleeffortonyourpart;additionally,antiglare,antifog,andscratch-resistantglasseswithUVprotectionarenowon themarketandsold to thegeneralpublic.Those looking formorepermanent eyesight corrections might seek the advice of their eye doctorconcerninglasersurgery.Ifyouwillbeexposedtoloudnoises,suchasthosefromexplosives,aircraft,

orweapons,usehearingprotectionduringtraining.Fittedorspongyearplugsarebest, but I have been known to use tissue or wadded-up toilet paper whennothingelsewasavailable.Chancesarethatyouaregoingtosurvivetheordeal.Ifnot,youwillbenoworseoffforwearingtheearprotection;ifso,youwillbegladyoutooktheextraprecaution.If afforded such luxury, by allmeans use binoculars, spotting scopes, night

visiongogglesorsights,andthermalimagingdevices.Justrememberthatthereisadownsidetotheseinahostileenvironment:Opticsoftencauseareflectionthat could quickly expose your location. (Note: As a good anti-trackingtechnique,placenylonorpantyhosefabricovertheoptictoeliminate95percentof the reflection while allowing nearly unimpeded vision; there are alsocommercial“anti-reflex”devicesthatcanbeplacedovertheoptics.)While smokingor not smoking is a personal decision, there are a couple of

thingsyouneedtokeepinmind.First,nonsmokershaveakeenersenseofsmell.Ifyouwant tobeaneffectiveTracker,allofyoursensesmustbeoperatingattheirpeaks.Second,cigarettesmokeisoneofthequickestwaystocompromiseyour position in a hostile environment. If you must smoke, do it at the basecamp;onthetrail,refrainfromitforthesafetyofyourteammembers.Askyourphysicianaboutnicotinepatches,gum,orothersmokingwithdrawalaids.Whateveryoudo,takethetimetogathertheappropriategear.Thesuccessof

yoursearchmaywelldependuponselectingtherightequipmentforthetaskathand.Onceyouhavecompletedthiscrucialstep,youarereadytoembarkonyour

trackingadventure.Thefollowingpageswillbefilledwithinstructions,photos,andtrue-to-lifeillustrationsofachaseinprogress.Someofthelessonswillbeeasy to visualize; others will require practical and hands-on study to fullyunderstandtheapplicableinstruction.Ihopetoempoweryouwiththeabilitytolookbeyondtheobviousinordertoreadthefullstoryastoldbyvarioussignsbeforeyou.Goodluck,andI’llseeyouattheendofthetrail!

“PREY-LUDE”TOTHECHASE

NeartheborderbetweenthetwoKoreas,justsouthoftheDemilitarizedZone(DMZ),membersofUSArmySpecialForcesOperationalDetachment266huddletogetherinacigar-shapedperimeter.TheysitshouldertoshoulderinasecuredsleepsiteduringacombinednationtrainingexerciseinvolvingbothUSandRepublicofKorea(ROK)military forces.13 Over the past two weeks, they have proven their skills inunconventional warfare tactics to the observer-controllers overseeing the exercise.Their teamalonehassurprisedand “neutralized” two teamsofmockNorthKoreanOpposingForces(OPFOR),justinthepastthreedays.Now,nearingtheendoftheexercise,allteammembersareanxiousforthe“END-EX”announcement.WeaponssergeantFrancisco(“Frank”)BadillaandradiooperatorBobRowediscussinhushedtonesastrangemessagethathasjustcomeovertheradio.

300245LMAR02(30March2002,2:45a.m.Local)THISISNOTANEXERCISE.THIS IS NOT AN EXERCISE. BE PREPARED FOR LIVEMISSION. EXECUTIONORDERHANDCARRIEDBYMAJORKIMCHONGHEE,ATTACHEDTOTEAMASADVISOR AND INTERPRETER. EMERGENCY RESUPPLY BUNDLES TO BEAIRLIFTEDTOYOURPOSITIONVIAHUEY.ANYREQUIREDEQUIPMENTMUST

BEREQUESTEDWITHIN30MINUTES.PRE-POSITIONUNNEEDEDEQUIPMENTFORHUEYPICKUP.

“Live mission. Right,” says Rowe sarcastically. “They probably want us to thinkthat.Justlikelasttimetheypulledthatonus.”

“Yeah,maybe,”agreesBadilla.“Butwestillneedtoreportthis.”PaulO’Connor, the teammedic,crawlsupbeside them, touching theirarmsand

signaling them to be quiet. He points to a ridge on their left, where the brightmoonlightsilhouettesfourhumanfiguresagainsttheskyline.Thefiguresaremovingeastwardandappear tobecarrying thedistinctive-lookingAK-47 riflesof theNorthKoreanarmies.

“They’vegottobeOPFOR,”O’Connordeclares.“We’d better tell Samoa,” Badilla says. “Wemay have anotherOPFOR team to

knockoff.”Badilla quietly approaches their team leader, a large master sergeant from the

islandofSamoa.“Radiotransmissionjustcamein,”hesays,handingtheSamoanthetranscribed piece of paper. “Something about a livemission and resupply bundlesbeingairliftedtoourposition.”

Samoareadsthetransmission,hisexpressionserious.“Oh,bytheway,”Badillacontinues,“IthinksomeOPFORpassedbyontheridge

abouttenminutesago.TheylookedliketheywerecarryingAK-47s.”Samoa turnshishead towardBadilla,a frowndarkeninghis face. “Thereareno

ROKorUSOPFORworkinginthisarea.AndAK-47sareusedbytheNorthKoreanPeople’s Army—our OPFOR teams don’t have any. As soon as those emergencybundlesarrive,IwantyouandO’Connortocheckoutwhotheheckdidpassbytheridgeearlier.”

Bythistime,therestoftheteammembersarewide-awake,sensingtheurgencyofthe situation. Samoa looks around at the gathering group ofmen. “Better get yourgearpackedupandreadytomoveout.Lookslikewe’regoingintoaction.”

Inthenightsky,darkandthickwithfog,twoHueyhelicopterssoonannouncetheircoming,theirdistinctivewhump,whump,whumpmuffledas theyapproachfromthenorthwestattreetoplevel.Thechoppershoveroverthemakeshiftdropzoneonefootabovethetreeline,onehoistingdowntheemergencyresupplybundlewhiletheothersimultaneouslydropsafastropetoallowaKoreanpassengertoslidetotheground.The visiting team evaluator and unneeded equipment are lifted up and quicklyremovedfromtheareaofoperations.

Samoa approaches the Korean officer, extending his hand. “Welcome, sir. I amMalupaTumera.MymencallmeSamoa.”

The Korean officer returns the handshake with a smile. “Hello, I amMajor KimChongHeefromtheRepublicofKoreaArmy.Yougotourmessage?”

Samoanods.“Yes,sir.Idon’tsupposethishasanythingtodowiththefourpeople

wesawearlierthismorning,carryingAK-47s?”MajorKimstraightensquickly.“Yousawthem?Here?”“Yes,sir.Abouttwohoursago.”“Didyouseewhichwaytheytraveled?”“Itwasdark,buttheyappearedtobeheadingeastward.”MajorKim looksaroundat the tiredbut steely-eyedGreenBerets standingnear

him.“Iunderstandyouarethebest.Theysayyoutrackanyone.Isthiscorrect?”TheSamoannodswithconfidence.“Sir,justtelluswhentostart.”

CHAPTER2

GettingtoKnowYou

Ikeepsixhonestservingmen(TheytaughtmeallIknew):TheirnamesareWhatandWhyandWhenAndHowandWhereandWho

—RUDYARDKIPLING

Ourquarryinthisbookisknownbymanytitles,dependingontheagencyusingtheterms.Inlawenforcementcircles,thisindividualisknownasthe“suspect”or “fugitive,” sheriffs of the Old West named them “outlaws,” and bountyhunters today refer to thisperson inall sortsofunprintable terms. Intelligenceorganizations chase “rabbits.” In search and rescue operations, the individualsought isknownas the“victim.”Huntersuse the term“quarry,”while thebiggameitselfmayseethehuntersasits“prey.”Regardlessofthesemantics,Iwillrefer to thisparticular individualas the“Chase,”definedbyWebster’sas“onebeingchased.”Thisword,Ibelieve, is themostappropriate termfor thisbookbecauseitcoversnearlyeverypossiblecharacteristicofthepersonbeingsought.SowhoisthisChase?Whatdoeshelooklike?Howwillweknowhimwhen

wefindhim?Ormoreimportant,howdoweknowhowtofindhim?Sincehumanbeingsarecreaturesofhabit,ourfamiliarizationwiththeChase’s

habitswill enableus, theTrackers, to easilybeginandmaintain thepursuitofthisindividual.Knowledgeinthiscaseistruepower.Everypossibledetailmustbeexploredandweighedforrelevance.ThemoreknowledgeableweareaboutourChase’sphysicalcharacteristicsaswellashispeculiarities,thebetterchancewehaveofusingthatinformationtoouradvantage.Knowing,forexample,thatachildlostinthewoodsalwayswearsNikeshoescouldleadyoustraighttoherjust by following the unique imprints in the dirt and/or low-level “top signs”because of her height. Armed with information that your Chase is a militantinfiltratorhighlyskilledindesigningboobytraps,youcouldalertyourteamtosuch,preventing anyofyou fromstumblingblindly into a concealedbombor

tripwire.Itisextremelyimportantthatweabsorbagreatdealofinformationasquickly

aspossible.Delaysingatheringthisinformationcouldmeanthedisappearanceofvaluable tracesandsignsandthewasteofpreciousminutes,hours,ordays.Sometimes,thecollectionoffactsmustbeweighedagainstthepossiblelossofcritical physical details, and sometimes this judgment callmust bemade in amatterofminutes.So,wheredoyouget such information? Itdependsonwhyyouneed it and

howmuchtimeyouhave.Theobviousplacetostart iswiththoseclosest toyou.Inmilitaryunits, that

meansdebriefingandaccumulatingreportsfrompreviouspatrols,trackerteams,reconnaissance teams, intelligence organizations at all levels, native peoples,prisonersofwar,andcivilianauthorities.Tothoseinlawenforcement,itmeanssearchingthenationalcrimedatabasesortheDepartmentofMotorVehiclesandconferringwith undercover agents and informantswith possible knowledge ofthe Chase. Search and rescue teams understand the importance of consultingwith the Chase’s family members, friends, coworkers, witnesses, or campingbuddies.Natives,peoplelivingintheareainwhichhewaslastseen,andanyoneelse with possible knowledge of the victim can also be good sources ofinformation. Other possible sources include private investigators, the locallibrary, and the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (theirwebsiteiswww.missingkids.com,andtheirtwenty-four-hourtoll-freehotlineis800-843-5678).And ifyouhave Internet resourcesavailable,byallmeansusethem!Once you know where to go, what information do you need? Absolutely

everythingyou canget, fromhis favorite color to thenameof his dog!Don’tforget his birthday (or his children’s birthdays), his family’s address, andinformation about his close friends. If family members are in the hospital,determine which hospital and the estimated length of stay. These significantdates,times,andplacesmayleadyourighttoyourChase.Obtainclearevidenceaswellasmerehintsabouthislifestyle.Althoughitmayseemelementary,whatarehisphysicalcharacteristics,such

asheight,weight,skincolor,haircolor,eyes,nationality?Is theChaseamale,female,homosexual,orbisexual?Doeshecross-dress?Isoneleglongerthantheother, thereby causing him to walk with a limp or a cane? Does he havedistinctivebodymarks,suchasbirthmarks, lacerations,scars,or tattoos?Whatwashewearingwhenhewaslastseen?Thereisanoldbuttrueadagethatsays,

“A picture paints a thousand words.” Obtain a recent photograph and thenimaginethedifferenceif theChasehasgrownabeardormustache,shavedhishead, or is wearing glasses or contacts. Is he on foot or in a vehicle? (SeeappendixA,“HumanProfileCard,”andappendixB,“VehicleProfileCard.”)What does he like to eat? Are there ethnic dishes he is most likely to

consume?What are themost common foods he eats on a daily basis? Is he avegetarian,meat-and-potatoes fanatic, or junk food lover?Doeshe consumealot,ordoesheeatonlywhatheabsolutelyneedstosurvive?Whatishismedicalhistory?Findoutifhehasanyinjuries,medicalproblems

orconditions,allergies,intolerancetoheatorcold,oranythingthatyoucanusetoyouradvantage.Doesherequiretheregularuseofprescriptiondrugs?Isheasthmatic, needing inhalants for his condition? If he is diabetic, does he useinsulinortakemedication?Doeshewearglasses,contacts,ahearingaid,falseteeth,orawig?Whatcolororstylearethey?What are his daily,weekly,monthly routines and hygienic habits, including

flossingandbrushinghisteeth?Doesheperformreligiousorotherrituals?Whatkindofhabitsdoeshehave(smokingcigarettes,bitingfingernails,chewinggumortobacco, takingillegaldrugs) thatmayleaveresidueor implementsofsomekind,givingcluestohiswhereabouts?Isheaheavycaffeinedrinker,undergoingsevere caffeinewithdrawal and the associated headaches?Does he lay on hisbackwhenhesleeps?Don’tforgettoinquireabouthismentalabilities.Isheanadultorchild?Ishis

mindstable?Doeshegeteasilyfrustratedorangry,causinginterferencewithhisreasoningskills?Ishelearningdisabled?DoeshehaveAlzheimer’s?Habitat is alsokey togetting a full pictureof and thoroughlyunderstanding

theChase.Knowing theenvironmenthe isaccustomed toand/or familiarwithwill tell you his capabilities in the present environment. What is his currentresidence or his last-known address? In what type of area is he comfortable?Obviously,ifheisa“cityslicker”whohasknownonlyurbanorsuburbanlife,heisgoingtobeatagreatdisadvantageinthemidstofanationalforest.Ifheisarecluse,usedtolivingbyhimselfinamountaincabin,hewillprobablyhaveabetterchanceoftoleratingthewildernessandeludinghispursuers.Thoselivinginruralorcountrysettingsmaybeaccustomedtokillingandeatingwildanimalsto survive; those living in or on the streets of the citymay be accustomed toscrounging,hustling,stealing,orfightingothersfortheirnextmeal.Regardlessoftheenvironment,anyoneofthesepeoplemayhavethepotentialtokillothers—especiallythosetheyfeelareathreattotheirsurvivalorwell-being.

WhatabouttheChase’slifephilosophies?Doesheregularlyobserveethnicorpersonal customs?What traditions did he grow up with and still holds on totoday?Whatarehispoliticalbeliefsandviewpoints?Whattypeoftrainingdidhehave?Isheamemberofaterroristgroup?Ifso,whichgroup,andwhatdotheybelievein?Aretheylikelytouseriflestoadvancetheircause,oraretheymorelikelytomakeastatementwithexplosivesorboobytraps?IstheChaseasurvivalist,awhitesupremacist?Whotrainedhim?Whatarehislikelycoursesof action if pushed or trapped? How does his religious faith influence hisactions?Willhekillinordertoensurehisentranceinto“heaven”orseekpeaceatallcost?Hashealignedhimselforswornloyalty/allegiancetocults,terrorists,orMafia-typeorganizations?Aloyaldisciplecanbesodevotedtoacausethathe,withoutconscience, iswillingtokillordiefor it,blatantlydisregardingallreputablelaw.(Warning:Leavesuchmatterstotheproperauthorities!)The answer to all of these questions, and more, may mean the difference

between success and failure. Itmayalsomean thedifferencebetween life anddeathwhen coming face-to-facewith a desperate fugitive or enemy insurgent.Learn all you can about yourChase, as quickly as you can, in order tomakeintelligentdeductionsanddecisions,bothbeforeandduringyourpursuit.Duetotimeconstraintsorlimitedresources,gatheringsuchinformationmaybelessonsinfutility. In thosecases,useyourbest judgmenton the informationyoucan’tget. Take what you’ve got, hope that it’s enough, and request updatedinformationwhileonthemove.Just remember, the clock is ticking, daylight is limited, and time cannot be

turnedback.Taketheinitiativeandgo!

OPERATIONCHASE

BadillaandO’Connorscrambletosecuretheirgearfromtheemergencybundle,astherestofthegroupfollowsMajorKimtoseethedetachmentcommander,awarrantofficertheteamaddressessimplyas“Jordan.”Aftertheformalitiesandintroductions,Radio operator Rowe, who is also the recorder, pulls out a waterproof tablet andpencil from his BDU pockets. Major Kim speaks to the gathered team members,describingtheincidentsandtheintelligencereportsgatheredthusfar.

•••

On27March,intheterritorialwatersoftheJapaneseSea,threemilessouthandfour

mileseastof theDMZalong theSouthKoreancoast,aRepublicofKoreawarshipseizedamidgetsubmarine(1stIncidentoftheInfiltration).Intelligencefilesindicatedthat similar submersibles had been used primarily to transport infiltrator spies orinsurgentswhohadcauseddeadlyharmandhavocto localcommunities.Theyhadalsobeenusedtoconductcoastalsurveillance.

Thewarshipwas towing the submersible to the nearby port along theKangwonProvince,inordertopryopenthehatch.Alongtheway,thesubmarinesank;thefateofthecrewwasunknown.

After the submarine was recovered on 28 March, the hatch was explosivelybreached,anditwasdiscoveredthattherewasbutonepersoninsidethewatercraft,founddead.Thedeathhadbeencausedbycyanidepoisoning (2nd Incidentof theInfiltration). The discovery of only one person caused instant alarm, triggering theplan for an immediate and extensive search; normally, there would be four or fivepeopleaboardsuchsubmersibles.

Themorningof28March,acorpsewasfoundinashallowgravebyacuriousdogdigginginthefreshdirt(3rdIncidentoftheInfiltration);thebodywaslocatedtenmilesfromthecoastinadrawnearthesmalltownofKansong.TheunknownvictimwasofKoreandescent,withAdidas-brandclothing,military-styleboots,andabulletwoundatthebaseofthehead.Hislefthanddisplayedanunusualblister,whichimmediatelyprompted the airlift of a pathologist/communicable disease expert, along with aforensicballisticsexpertandanintelligenceofficer,tothethirdincidentlocation.

Theballisticsexpertconcluded that the roundat thebaseof theheadhadbeenfiredbya7.62Type64pistol,shotatcloserange.Thistypeofpistol,specificallyofthesilencervariety,wasknowntobecarriedbyNorthKoreaninfiltrators.

The intelligenceofficer indicated that theAdidasclothingwornby thevictimwassimilar to that found on three infiltrators killed four months earlier on 9 NovemberwhileattemptingtocrossoverintoSouthKorea.

Thepathologist/communicablediseaseexpertusedhisportablefieldlabtoconfirmthe fears thatpromptedhisarrival.The fluid-filledblister, surroundedbyswellingatthesiteof infection,characterizedskinexposure toa formofanthrax. [Anthrax—orBacillus anthracis—is a bacterial, zoological disease that can be easily mass-produced on a small budget with low overhead. The bacterium is odorless andmicroscopic,unable tobeseenwith thenakedeye; itsdelivery isnoiselessunlesscombined with an explosive such as a bomb or mortar. Anthrax, and its resultingdisease,fallsintothecategoryofoneofthetopstealthkillersofhumanity.]

Onthemorningof29March,fifteenmileseastofDetachment266,alocalfarmergatheringmushroomswasreportedmissing.Localinhabitantsreportedthat“thedogsweregoingcrazy”thatmorning(4thIncidentoftheInfiltration).

Basedon these four incidents, the closeproximity of the detachment to the lastknown incident, and the detachment’s reputation for expert tracking, Operational

Detachment 266was brought into themanhunt. TheRepublic of Korea asked thisSpecialForces team,alongwithaKorean representative, to terminate the intentoftheinfiltrators.

TheKorean government did notwant the infiltrators spooked.With the enemy’sclose proximity to the long Tae ’Baek mountain range, they could easily evade amassive manhunt in the numerous hills and ridges which proliferated andcrisscrossed in every direction. The fact that they could be carrying biologicalweaponswasfurthercauseforconcernsince theycouldactivate thecontaminants,which could possibly include cholera, in anywater source they pleased if they feltcompromisewasimminent.

The US National Command Authority was in agreement with the South Koreangovernment to allow the infiltrators to believe they had successfully and withoutcompromise infiltrated the area, so that theywould not be forced into an irrationaldecision. Higher headquarters believed the team could, with stealth, bring on thesurprisecaptureor,ifneedbe,theeliminationoftheseinfiltrators,therebypreventingabiologicaldisaster.

•••

“Okay,gentlemen,”Jordanaddressestheteam,summinguptheinformation.“You’vegot the picture. It has been confirmed that all our OPFOR have been out of theexerciseboxforthepasttwenty-fourhours.Therefore,whatwesawthismorningwasfour suspected North Korean infiltrators passing by on the ridge, carrying AK-47s.You’ve just been told that they also have Type 64 pistols, possibly with silencers,whichtheyhavealreadyusedononeoftheirown—probablyadefector.TheymaybewearingAdidas clothing, military clothing, or a combination of both; and theymayhaveahostagewiththem.Ifspooked,theycouldcontaminatethewaterinthewholefriggin’countryside.”Hepasseshiseyesalong theassembledgroup. “The last twoweekswerejustpractice.Theseguysareforreal.Let’sbeefficient; let’sbecareful;butlet’sgoget’em!”

CHAPTER3

MyCommonSensesWillFindYouIntheactofhunting,amanbecomes,howeverbriefly,partofnatureagain.Hereturnstothenaturalstate,becomesonewiththeanimal,andisfreedoftheexistentialsplit:tobepartofnatureandtotranscenditbyvirtueofhisconsciousness.

—ERICHFROMM

AnastuteTrackermustbeabletolocate,identify,andpursue“signs,”whichcanbeanythingalteredfromitsnaturalstate.Pertinentsignsarethoseinflictedonasingle geographic location or object by means of the Chase’s body or hisassociated equipment. By combining these with intelligence and deductivereasoning,wewillgainsensibleandaccurateinformationabouttheChase.Signsleft behind, however, are not always apparent to the naked eye. The Tracker,therefore,mustuseallsensestoidentifysignsmaskedbytime,weather,ortheChasehimself.Many of our senses have become deadened, suffering from lack of use,

misuse, or self-abuse, and the purpose of this chapter is to encourage theirrevitalization.Thereasonissimple.Withoutaccesstosophisticatedscopesandelectronicdevices,oursensesmaybetheonlymeansavailabletoobtaincluesofthe Chase’s whereabouts. Ancient humans, hunters, and natives of yesterdaypossessed finelyhonedsenses, sharpenedby theirconstantuseandcontinuoustraining.Inordertoattainsimilartrackingexpertise,wemustdothesame.Trackersuse fourof their senses to identify signs: sight,hearing, smell, and

touch, with a good dose of the sixth sense—intuition—thrown in when theothers have been exhausted or diminished. And unless you are a CanadianMountienamedBentonFrazierfromtheNorthwestTerritory,we’llleavetastetothose schooled in its usage.14 Of course, proper use of these physical toolsrequiresnotonlyintellect,butalsooptimumhealth,iftheyaretobeexertedtotheir fullpotential.All factors—senses, intellect,anddeductivereasoning—areofequalimportancefortheexpeditiousrecoveryofyourChase.

SIGHTSight is the most commonly used of all senses for those of us blessed withnatural or corrected 20/20 vision. But for the purpose of tracking, even sightneedstobebrokendownintodifferentcategoriesforspecificpurposes.

VisualTrackingVisual tracking is the ability to identify marks and signs left by your Chase.Without a doubt, this is the primary means by which Trackers gatherinformation.Before we get into the specifics of using sight, let me offer a simple

explanation fromDavidLeVay’sHumanAnatomy and Physiology of how theeye “sees,” so that you can better understand the principles of night visionthroughadaptationandapplication.

The cup-shaped retina has two different systems of receptors: rods andcones.Therods,with theirvisualpurple,areforblacks,whites,andgreysundertwilightconditions.Theconeshaveotherpigmentsforcolourvisioninbrightlight;whenthissystemisdefective,theindividualiscolour-blind.In darkness the retina becomes more sensitive to the available light, thephenomenonofadaptation.15

It takes the human eye thirty minutes to adapt to the night. Most peopleexperiencethisphenomenonwhenenteringadarkenedmovietheater.

Adaptation to Darkness. As previously stated, the retina, in darkness, becomesreceptive to ambient light by producing sufficient visual purple rod cells. Theresultistheabilitytodifferentiateobjectsinlowlightwithinthirtyminutes.

Application: Off-Center Vision. In order to adequately see objects in dark orsemidarkconditions,youmustnot lookatanobjectdirectly,or itwillseemtodisappear.Lookingatobjectsdirectlyutilizestheconeareaoftheretina,whichisnotactiveduring timesofdarkness.Rather,youmust look to the left, right,above,orbelowanobjectyouareobservinginordertomosteffectivelyutilizethatareaof theretinacontainingtherodcells,whicharesensitive indarkness.Continually move your eyes around your target, pausing at various points toascertainandverifytheidentityofthetargetobject.

•••

Likeanartstudentlearningthespecificsoflightandshadow,theTrackermustalso understand the fine points of visual perception, in order to exploit thissense’snaturalability.WhileIamnotaprofessionalpainterorphotographer,Icanpresentthosetechniqueslearnedthroughcarefulstudyandmytwentyyearsofexperience.There are six primary factors that make objects visible: shape, shadows,

silhouettes,movement,spacing,andsurfaces.

Shape.Every object on this planet has a shape unique to itself.A tree is easilydistinguishedfromafactory;adiscardedsoupcanisjustaseasilydifferentiatedfrom the short-cropped grass on which it lies. The human body has a verydefinitive shape, as does equipment associated with certain vocations orprofessions, and both can be recognized precisely when compared with theirsurroundings.Unless specifically concealed, distinctive shapes can be seen instantly. A

soldierinthefield,forexample,canbeeasilyrecognizedbyhisKevlarhelmet,M-16 rifle,backpack,orequipmentbelt loadedwithammopouches,canteens,andfirst-aidkits.Awell-camouflagedsoldier,ontheotherhand,blendsinwithhis surroundings, eliminating theunique shapes that canexposehim toenemyfire.

Shadows.Thesecanbeplacedintwocategories:castandcontained.Castshadowsarethoseextendingfromstill,moving,orsuspendedobjectsor

substances,duetosomeformofilluminationfromtheoppositeside.Thesetypesof shadows are caused by either artificial light, such as that from a flashlight,streetlight,orheadlight,ornatural light from the sunormoon. In somecases,theycanbecausedbyothernaturalsourcesliketheauroraborealis,ornorthernlights, in Canada or Alaska. Even stationary objects can be compromisedthroughtherotationofthesunormoon.Whatiswellhiddeninthemorningcanbewidely exposedby noon and casting a long shadowby early evening. In asimilar manner, differing seasons can expose and illuminate that which wassafelyintheshadowsearlierintheyear.Containedshadows,ontheotherhand,arejustthat,containedwithinabody

or cavity, such as a cave or darkened room. They can be easily distinguished

fromother typesof shadows, since they arenormallydarker, larger, andmoreuniformthanothertypesofshadows.

Silhouetting.A silhouette occurswhen a light object is contrasted against a darksurface, suchasan individual inwhite snowgearwalkingalong theedgeofaforest. It also occurs when a dark object can be distinguished from a lightbackground, suchasapersonstandingorwalkingalonga ridgeline in the fullmoonlight.

Movement.Moving objects have always been known to attract attention. In fact,manyspeciesintheanimalkingdomhavebeenprogrammedtoinitiateaheatedchase after the sudden movement of prospective prey. Even with its keeneyesight, an eagle cannot locate a fieldmouse that is sittingquietly in a field,openlyexposed.Letthatsamemouseskitteracrossasmallpatchofground,andit quickly becomes the predator’s dinner. People living on the outskirts ofwildernessareasareoftenwarnednottorunfromabearormountainlion,sincethisoftenprovokestheanimaltopursuewhatitperceivesasprey.Justwatchahouse cat follow this samepattern.Lying lazily in apatchof sunlight, the catwilldozeoff,boredwithitsenvironment.Jerkasmallobjectonastring,andthesame cat is upright and alert in a split second, clawing and playing with themovingitem.People have also been programmed with this same ability. A well-

camouflaged person is extremely hard to identify; but let him move in anobviousway (likestandingup),andhebecomes targetpractice foranysniper.AsTrackers,wecanalsouse thisasameansof locatingourChase. Ina still,quietearlymorning,theslightestmovementcanattractourattention.Itmaybethe Chase himself, extricating himself from his sleeping area, or it may be arope,pieceofcloth,orantennawireinadvertentlyleftswingingfromatreelimb.

Spacing.ThespacingofobjectsisoftenoverlookedbytheamateurTracker,anditis rarely if ever considered by those who regularly hunt big game or fowl.Naturalobjects are rarely systematicallyplaced.Humans, as creaturesofhabit

andorderliness,aretheonlyknowncreaturesthatpurposefullylineupobjects.Hence, orchards and cornfields are precisely laid out, with perfectly straightrows thatcrisscrossevenly ineverygeometricdirection. In themilitary,where“dressrightdress”isawayoflife,evenindividualfightingpositionsareevenlyspacedacrossalineoffire,inordertopreventexposingsectorsofweaknesstoanattackingenemy.Therefore,whenapproachingsmallhillsorbusheslinedupsystematicallyacrosshispath,aTrackershouldbeontheimmediatealertforthecombatantsandweaponsthatcouldbehidingbehindorwithinthem.

Surface.Differences in surface should also catch the Tracker’s attention. If theface and texture of an object differ from its surroundings, it will be plainlyexposed and subject to closer scrutiny. An old and rough split-rail fence postwouldnotnormallycausealarmorattractattention.Butabrightscratchagainstthegrayingwoodcertainlycallsforacloserlook.

ScanningandSearchingOnceyouknowthesixfactorsthatmakeobjectsvisible,youwillbeabletoseethoseobjects,whichmaybesurroundedbyaseaofgreenvegetation.Inordertoeffectivelypickoutthoseobjects,therearetwomethodsIusetosystematicallysearchanentiregeographicarea.Scanning.Scanning isamethodicalandgeneraloverviewofanarea. Itdoesnotinvolveanin-depthsearch,atleastnotinitially.Thepurposeistosweepalargeareaentirely,ensuringthatyourwholeviewpointhasbeenexposedtoyoureyes.To effectively scan an area, divide the areahorizontally into thirds. Imagine

the territory in front of you is a two-dimensional canvas of a painted naturescene.The topboundary is thehorizon; thebottomboundary is theground infrontofyou.Nowdividethatcanvasintothreeequalparts:theforeground,themid-distance,andthefarground.Theforegroundistheareadirectlytoyourfront.Itcanincludethedirtbeneath

you and extends up about a third of the way from your feet to the horizon.Depending upon the type of terrain you are navigating, that distance could betwenty-five feet or a quarter mile. If you are in a heavily wooded area, thentwenty-fivefeetinanydirectionmaymakeuptheentireforeground.Inabarrendesert,theforegroundcouldcoveraquartermileormore.Themid-distanceisthemiddlethirdofthecanvas,andagain,itcouldconsist

ofanywherefromtwenty-fivefeetinfrontofyoutoamileormore.Thefargroundisthetopthirdandcanstretchasfarastheeyecansee.In order to “see” everything in such a vast area, it must be scanned

systematically.Withahorizontalmovementofyoureyes,sweeptheforegroundfromlefttoright,righttoleft,andlefttoright,movingyourlineofvisionupjustenoughtoslightlyoverlaptheareaabovethelastsweep.Inthisway,workyourwayupwardtothefarground.

Searching.Atanymomentduringyourscan,youcanbegintosearch,whichisanin-depthanalysisofanareaorobject.Anysuspectedmovement,disturbance,orobject should call for an immediate and careful search for signs left by yourChase.Since you should always have a partnerwith you, have himor her visually

mark and watch the area(s) of disturbance while you continue to scan the

remaininggroundtoensurethereisnoimmediatethreatofdanger.Ifnothreatisimminent,gototheclosestdisturbancefirst.Ifathreatisdiscovered,avoiditifpossible;ifathreatisidentifiedasyourChase,proceedtothatareaimmediately.Iwillcoverin-depthanalysisandsearchofanareainchapter4.

AUDITORYTRACKINGAuditory tracking is theability to identify soundsmadedirectlybyhumansorindirectly through their activities.Andyes, even thiscanbebrokendown intofurther categories, to which I have assigned the values of vocal (direct) andmechanical(indirect)noises.

VocalNoisesVocalsoundsarethosethatproceeddirectlyfromaperson’srespiratorysystem.They are formed by the mouth and convey a message, such as talking,whispering,shouting,screaming,whistling,laughing,andcrying.Theycanalsobe made up of intentional or unintentional mouth, nasal, and throatreverberations, such as gasps, hiccups, coughs, sneezes, and actions such asspitting,vomiting,andblowingthenose.

MechanicalNoisesMechanical noises, on the other hand, are those that result from a person’sinteractionwithhisbody, equipment,otherpeople, animals, foliage, inanimatematter, and other natural objects within his local environment. This categorycoversthegamutofnearlyeveryotherpossiblesoundtheChasecouldmake.The Chase can interact with his own body by clapping hands, cracking or

poppingjoints,orsnappingfingers(asiftomusicorasasignal).Whathecan’tcontrolisnoisybodilyfunctionssuchasgurglinghungerpangs,passinggas,andburping.Contactbetweenapersonandhisenvironmentcouldcausethesnap,crunch,

splash, and squish made when stepping on dry leaves, twigs, broken glass,gravel,water,andmud.AnastuteTrackercandistinctlyhearapersonbrushingagainstlow-hangingbranches,pullingawayfromthornsandblackberrybushes,oropeningadoororgate.TheChase’sinteractionwithhisownclothingandequipmentcanalsoexpose

himtoauditorydiscovery.Hemaybedoingamundanethinglikepullingupazipper,unbucklingastrap, lightingamatch,pulling looseaVelcrofastener,orremovinghisbackpack.Orhemaybethrowingcautiontothewindbychoppingwood,clangingmetalonmetal,orreleasingandslammingtheboltofaweaponinpreparationforuse.But be on the “hear-out” (as opposed to lookout) for other mechanical,

electric,orelectronicnoises that theChasemayormaynotbeable tocontrol.Thebeepingofadigitalwatchorpagerisagoodexample,asistheringofacellphone or the “low battery” signalmade by a laptop or portable phone. If theChasehasaradio,listenforthequickbeepfollowingtheendofatransmission,orthebriefsecondofstaticbeforethesquelchtakesover.Each person can add to this list, based on his or her own unique life

experiences.Thenexttimeyouareoutinthewoods,payattentiontohowlouditis, especially in thedarkorona cold, crispmorningwithnocloudsor fog todeadenthevibrations.Evenwhenyouaretryingtobequiet,thenoiseoftenringsclearlyinyourears.Through a combination of sight and sound, you will be able to estimate

distance.Sound travels at a speedof720milesperhouror350meters (1,100feet) per second. If you suddenly see a bright flash, a puff of smoke, or dustrising,startcounting,“Onethousandone,onethousandtwo,onethousandthree...”untilyouheartheaudiblesignaturefromthatarea.Everyonesecond(“one

thousandone”) counted, the sound travels 350meters.Therefore, if you see aflash and start counting, then stop at “one thousand four”when you hear thenoise, thedistance from the target area toyour locationwill be approximately1,400meters,orajustunderamile(asthebirdflies).AlthoughIamnoexpertonthedistanceoverwhichsoundcarries,Idoknow

thatatnightitcarriesmuchfartherthaninthedaylight.Thisispartiallybecause,atnight,lessnoiseismadethatcaninterferewithyournormalhearing—atleastin an urban setting. In a wooded, forested, or jungle environment, greaternumbers of predators and vociferous insects are active at night; therefore,distinguishingbetweenanimalandartificialsoundscouldactuallysaveyourlife—oratleastsaveyouagreatdealofembarrassment.Theotherfactorsinvolveatmospheric conditions, including cooler, damper night air.Normally, you canclearly identify and even estimate the direction of the originator, unless thesoundisaffectedbyrefractionorreflectionofsomekind.Any exterior obstacle that blocks ormuffles soundwaves causes reflection.

Someoftheseobstaclescanbeanimateorinanimateobjects,suchastrees,rain,hail,runningwater,andbuildings.Theycanbeintangibleentitiessuchaswind;thunder;vibrationsorrumblingfromtrains,heavymachinery,andaircraft;ortheswooshofvehiculartrafficonaroadorhighway.Yourownteam’slackofnoisedisciplinecouldmakeithardtocorrectlyidentifyandeffectivelylocatecriticalsounds.On the other hand, your own clothing couldwork against you. Loud,rubbing cloth such as Gore-Tex, vinyl, or rubber could easily distract you ormasknoisesmadebysomeoneorsomethingelse.Andprotectivecoveringssuchashats,helmets,hoods,earmuffs,orearplugswillmostdefinitelymakethejobmuchmoredifficult.No matter what geographical area you live in, it is equally important to

become familiar with the sounds that indigenous animals, birds, reptiles, orinsects make, especially when threatened by a human or natural predator.Familiaritywiththeanimalsintheirnaturalhabitatsallowsyoutobeawareoftheirstateofserenityaswellastheirdistress.Theymayalertyoutothepresenceof an individual near you; they may just as easily assure you that no one isanywhere close to your position.Dogs barkwhen alerting to someonewho isdisturbing thestillnessorapproachingtheir territory; theyemitamuchhigher-pitched bark or near-yelp when scared or defending their terrain. Birds maybegintofranticallychirp,caw,orhoottowardoffunwantedvisitorsaroundtheirnests. Insects, on the other hand, may grow quiet when approached by aprospectivepredator.

Differentiating between themyriad tones resonating from all directionswillhelpyoutolayasideunprovedtheories.Themorecertainyouareofthesoundsyouarehearing,themoreconclusiveyourevidencebecomes.ThetrueTrackerknowshissurroundingsandeliminatesmuchof theguessworkduringhisfact-findingmission.Byreducingtheassumptionsandguesswork,hecanconcentratefullyonthefactsandtheconclusiveevidencebeforehim.Just remember, in the same way that noise can reveal your Chase’s

whereabouts, it can just as easily betray your position.Whenever possible, besuretoutilizenaturalorexternalman-madenoises(suchasanearbyairplaneorartillerybarrage)toconcealyourownmovements.

SCENTTRACKINGWhenwe thinkof “followinga scent,”wealmost alwaysassociate this actionwithdogs.Howdotheyfollowascent?Howdotheydifferentiatebetweenonepersonandanother?BillandJeanSyrotuck’sextensiveresearchansweredmostofthesequestions

about airborne scent, which was featured in the American Rescue DogAssociation’sSearchandRescueDogs.

Humans constantly shed small cornflake-shapeddead skin cells knownasrafts,whicharediscardedattherateofabout40,000perminute.Eachraftcarriesbacteriaandvaporrepresentingtheunique, individualscentof theperson.Thisisthescentsoughtbythetraineddog.Theseraftsarepickedupandcarriedbyairandwindcurrents.Theyaredisperseddownwind inaconelike shape that isnarrowandconcentratedat its source (theperson),butwideningasthedistancegrows.Traineddogscanbeobservedliterallyworkingtheconeinopenfieldsastheyzigzagbackandforth,inandoutofthescent.16

Humantrackingbysmellisverysimilartothetechniquecommonlyusedbydogs.Althoughtheseanimalshavebeenbroughttobearveryeffectivelybecauseoftheirnaturalgiftsinthisarea,awell-trainedTrackercanalsofollowaChasebyhisscentorotherodorshehasemitted.Scenttrackingisadifficulttaskforahumanbeing.Oursenseofsmellisnot

as keen as an animal’s, and a human’s maximum capacity to smell has beengreatly diminisheddue to lackof use in ourmodern civilization.Nonetheless,there isawholearrayof familiarodors thatcanbe recognized, identified,andused as clues throughout the course of a mission. The trick is to sensitizeyourself to any andall of these,whilequickly identifying thepossible source.Theyincludethefollowing:

SmokeSmokeiscomprisedoftinyparticlesofsootorashesthatarelighterthanairandtake on the appearance of a vapor or mist. Wood smoke is usually whitish,dusky, or gray in color and ranges in clarity froma thin transparent haze to athick opaque cloud, depending on the amount of pitch or moisture containedwithinthewood.Smokecausedbypetroleumproductsorchemicalstakesonablack,thickappearance,andcancontaintoxinsthatcandisableorkillwhoeverinhalesit.I’msurewehaveallexperiencedthesmellofcigar,cigarette,andpipesmoke, aswell as that from a burningwood or charcoal fire in a fireplace orcampsite.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthestrongerthesmell,thecloseryoumaybetoyourChase.

CookingDependingonthecultureinwhichyouwereraised,cookingcanleaveeitherapleasant or unpleasant aroma that can easily assist you in your search. Just asyourmother’s blueberry cobbler lured you to her kitchen, so can the smell ofcookinginawildandnaturalhabitatleadyoutoyourChase.Knowing ethnic differences between various cultures’ food, flavors, and

cookingstylescanalsoprovidecriticalcluestoidentifyingyourChase.Inorderto learn these varied aromas, spend a little time in the international district ofyour closest large city. Learn to identify the differences between garlic andonions,kimchee,sauerkraut,Cajunjambalaya,sushi,andchitlins.CanyoutellthedifferencebetweenItalianandMexicanfood?ChineseandJapanesespices?Cajun and Indian seasonings? German and Russian dishes? Korean andVietnamesepreferences?EnglishandAustralianstyles?IfyouareinKorea,canyoutellifthedinneryousmellisKoreanorCambodian?You’dbetterbeabletotell the difference. During the Vietnam War, many American soldiers weretrackeddownbasedonthefood,deodorant,scentedsoaps,andshavingcreamsthat theyused.(Onepassivedefensiveactionis toeatwhat thenativeseatandbathewithwhatthenativesuse.)

FuelSmellsemittedfromcooking,lighting,ortransportationfuelsarequitedifferentfromsmoke.Inmostcases,theemissioniscolorlessandcompletelytransparentunless improperly trimmed(as related tocookingor lightingfuels),choked,orsealed(asrelatedtoengines).Thisisanotherareainwhichexperienceisthekeytoproper identificationandcluecollection.Youshouldknowthedifference insmellbetweenfreshandburnedleadedgasoline,unleadedgas,diesel fuel,andjet fuel;you shouldbeable todifferentiatebetweenpropane,kerosene,Sternofuel,andnaturalgas;andyoushouldknowwhatburningcandlewax,lampoil,whaleblubber,orvariousfishoilssmelllikewhenusedforlightingpurposes.

BodyOdorsEveniftheChasedoesnotslipupandexposehimselfthroughcarelessfiresandcooking,hewillalmostneverbeabletocontrolhisownbodyodors.Eventhecleanestindividualwillemithygienicsmellsrelatedtosoaps,powders,shavingcream,deodorant,andcolognes.Anyonewhohaseverparticipated inphysicallabororasportingeventknowswhatahumanbeing’ssweatsmellslike,andit’snot thatmuchharder todifferentiatebetweensweatemittedfromacleanbodyand that emitted from an unclean, unkempt body. And while we are on thesubjectofsweat,animalsweatisalsoeasytodifferentiate.IfyourChaseisonarunninghorse,forinstance,horsesweatisveryeasilyidentifiedandfollowed,ifwithinacertaindistance.Othertransportationmeanshaveothersmells.Canyoutell the difference between a donkey, a camel, a goat, or even a llama—all ofwhich can be used for transporting humans or their equipment? (I suppose Ishouldalsoincludeelephantshere,althoughI’msureyouwouldmostlikelyseeorhearonebeforeyoueversmelledit!)Otherbodyodorsshouldalsobeconsidered.Anuncleanbody thathasbeen

outinthewoodsforaweekormore—evenwithoutstrenuousactivity—isboundtoproduce a rather potent smell.Awoman’sunattendedmenstrual periodwillalsoproduceastrongandparticularodor,aswillhumanandanimalurineandfeces.Thestrongest(andmostrepulsive)ofallnaturalodorstoahumanbeingisthatofadeadanddecomposingbodyofapersonoranimal.Many factorswill affect the scent of your Chase. One of these variables is

winddirection in relation toyourdirectionofmovement. Is thewindblowingdirectlyintoyourface,oris itcomingfrombehindorfromeitherside?If it iscold andwindless, the odorwill linger in a low areawhere the scentwill bemoreconstricted. If it ishot andhumid, andperhapswindy, the scent ismorelikelytospreadacrossawiderareawithgreaterpotency.Anysuspiciousodorshouldputyouimmediatelyonthealert.Inmanycases,

whenyouarecloseenoughtosmellyourChase,youarecloseenoughforhimtoseeyou,andappropriatedefensiveactionsshouldnotbedelayed.

TACTILETRACKINGTactile tracking refers to touch, one of the least used of our senses. Even intracking,wedependmostlyonoureyes,ears,andnosetolocateourChase,buttactile senses provide valuable clues that could furnish that elusive piece ofinformation—regardlessofwhetheryouareinbrightdaylightorzeromoonlightconditions.The senseof touch encompasses awhole arrayof subcategories, just as our

othersensesdo.Eachofthesemustbeexaminedtocompletethefullpicture.

Moisture.Compare the wetness or dryness of the sign you are examiningagainstthatofitssurroundings.Shape.Whatistheoutlineoftheobjectyouaretouching?Doesitconsistofaregularorirregularpattern?Isitflat,lumpy,square,orcylindrical?Size.Thiscategoryincludesthequantityoftheobjects(howmanyarethere?)andthecapacityormeasurementoftheobject:itslength,width,andheight.Temperature. This again is measured against the sign’s surroundings. Is itcoolerorwarmerthantheground,objects,oratmospherethatsurroundsit?Isitfire-hot?Isitabnormallyice-cold?Texture.Isthesignorobjectsmooth,orisitrough?Whatkindoftexturedoesithave?Istheobjectrubbery?Glassy?Jagged?Sticky?Prickly?Vibration. Is the ground shaking? If you place your hand on the proverbialrailroadtrack,canyoufeelitrumble?Istherearhythmtothevibration?

Thefollowingcouldeasilybeasensorytrackingscenario.Thetimeis0400(4:00a.m.).Illuminationiszero(nomoonlight).Youcome

upon an abandoned campsite, and neither your flashlight nor night visiongogglesareavailableorfunctioning.Betteryet,let’ssaybothitemsareworkingandavailable,butitistacticallyunsoundtousethemforfearofcompromise.Asyouapproachthecampsite, theslightestsoundofcracklingwoodcatchesyourattention,andawhiffofsmokedrawsyounearertothecenterofwhatwasonceacampfire.Whenyouarewithin six inchesof theglowingcinders,youplaceyourhandabovetheremnantsofthewoodandcoals,lettingithoverforafew

seconds(temperature).Placingyourhandatasafe,lowlevelfromthecenterofthe dim, flickering embers, you begin a circular uncoiling movement todeterminethediameter(size)ofwhatseemstobeasmallcampfire.Youdirectyour hand to examine the border of the campfire—and it touches a metal(texture)cup(shape).Afootawayfromthedyingcampfire,youlocatea largepair (size)ofdamp(moisture)boots (shape).Adjacent to theboots, suspendedonabranch,isawet(moisture)setoflarge(size)cotton(texture)briefs.Whileprobing around some tall (size) elephant grass (texture), you feel three large(size) areas that have been pancaked; the flattened areas are cool to the touch(temperature),similartothesurroundinggrasses.Youthenuseyourpreviouslygatheredinformationtodeducewhatthispicturemaybetellingyou.

•••

Trainedandhoned,our senses are themost important factors in thepursuit ofourChase.Ifyouusethemproperly,you,too,canturnyoursensesintoscientificevidence-gatheringmachines.Inthenextchapterwewilldiscussthefinepointsofwhatmakesasignasign,

andthefactorswhichinhibittrackingability.

THEPURSUIT:DAYONE

AsRowepreparestheCacheReport,SamoaapproachesBadillaandO’Connor.“Therestoftheteamwilldepartinthirtyminutes,afterwefinishcross-loadingequipment,pyro,andammo.Wewillrendezvouswithyouatorneargrid334863,tenmetersthissideoftheridgeline.Go!”

BadillaandO’Connorquietly inserta fifteen-roundmagazine into theirsecondaryweapon,a9mmBeretta,andthenlockandloadathirty-roundmagazineintotheirM-4carbine rifles, adjusting thePVS7night visiongoggleson their heads.Theystarttoward the area of the ridgeline on which they saw the infiltrators not two hoursearlier,thefrozenfogliftingevenasthenightgrowseverdarkerwiththeapproachofearlymorningnauticaltwilight,thedarkestperiodbeforesunrise.

Badilla, the team’sprimaryTracker,andO’Connor, thecovermanandsecondaryTracker,areatwo-personteamuntothemselves,havingworkedcloselytogetherforthe past six years. The two know each other’s roles, thoughts, and expectedmovementswithoutwords,theirtrainingtakingoverinstinctively.

Badilla leads the way up the steep and rugged hillside toward the ridgeline,

applyingstrictnoisedisciplineandweavingaroundelephantgrass,shortevergreens,anddeciduous trees.Fivemetersshortof thecrest,he liftshisnon-shootinghand,fingers extending upward, givingO’Connor the hand and arm signal to halt. As hedrops to one knee, he simultaneously pulls out his camouflage stick and rubs itagainst his face, reapplying what had worn off during the night. Without a word,O’Connorassumessecurity,ashescanstheperimeterwithhisnightvisiongogglesandsweepshislineofsightwithhisM-4,mountedwithaninfraredilluminator.JustasquicklyasBadillaadoptsthesecurityposture,O’Connorapplieshisowncamouflage.

For fifteen minutes, immediately after sunrise, this two-person team remainsmotionless,intunewithnatureandalertforanysound,smell,orsightoftheenemybeforecommittingthemselvesoverthecrestoftheridge.Sensingnothing,theymoveslowly,methodically,thewindintheirfavorastheymufflethesoundsoftheresidual,crispleavesridgedwithfrostfromthecoldnight.Thefoglingersinthelowlands;theonlysoundtheyhearisthesoundoftheirownheartbeats.Withtheindexfingersoftheirshootinghandsfullyextendedalongtherifles’triggerguards,theyarereadyforwhatevertheymayfaceontheoppositesideoftheridge.

One meter before they reach the crest, they crouch as low as possible, takingcover behind two opposing trees. With one full harmonious sweep, they smoothlydominate their perimeter without a sound. Since they approached from the south,O’Connor dominates the position to their right, from east to north, while Badilladominates thearea to their left, fromwest tonorth.Theyonceagain remainstill tolook, listen,andsmell.Fromfarbelowinthevalleytheyhearthefaintestsoundsofcowbells,andnotfarfromtheirlocationthedistinctivearomaofmanurewaftsintheirdirectionfromtheridgelinetrail.

Badillaholdsuphishand—5...4...3...2...1.Carefully,theystepoverthecrest.Badillascanstheforeground, liftshiseyestosweepthemiddledistance,andsquints toward the far ground, looking formovement, smoke, glints ofmetal in theinfantsunlight,anythingthatmightgiveawaytheirChase’slocation.Fromhispositionandvantagepoint,O’Connordoesthesame.Theyseenothingoutoftheordinary.

Without a word, they move eastward, encountering their first sign—a series ofpartialprintsinapatchoftrailthatexposesthebrownsoil.Theyappeartobedeepprints, as if from a boot or from an individual with a heavy weight, but they wereindistinguishable. Continuing down the trail, they encounter their first obstacle, aHappyMound, a traditionalKoreanburial site.There, on the far sideof theHappyMound, is an unmistakable pointer sign, a freshly broken branch indicating recentmovementtowardtheeast.

The voice of Gunnery Sergeant Kimble, Badilla’s first tracking instructor whoservedthreeyearsinVietnamasaTracker/sniper,echoesinhishead:“Nevertakeacarrot inplainsight. ItcouldbeanElmer’sbooby traporambush.Openyourears,nose,andeyesthroughandaroundyoursign.Whatdoesyourgutfeelingsay?”

Hisgutfeelingtellshimitisavalidsign.Thetwomenturnandmaketheirwaybacktotherendezvouspoint, immediately

south of the ridge in an area just large enough for the team to circle up in a tightmeeting. Near-and far-side recognition signals are exchanged at Grid 334863. Asuccessfullinkuphasbeenmade.

BadillaandO’Connordisseminate to the teamwhat theyhavediscoveredso far,concluding that the infiltratorsmost likely did continueeastwardalong the ridgelinetrail past the point where the team observed them earlier in the morning. Jordanconfirmsfromcontactmadewithhigherheadquarters that therewillbeother teamsshadowingandflankingtheirmovementsatapproximately500meterstoeithersideandtotheteam’srear,withbiohazardmaterialsexpertsstandingbyatahelostagingarea thirty kilometers from their location. National Special Forces teamssurreptitiously guard major dams and intersections. With all team members fullyinformed, they move out in the direction Badilla and O’Connor traveled minutesearlier.

Becauseofthesteepterrain,theneedforspeed,andthelowriskofencounteringthe enemy at this early stage of the pursuit, the team forms up in a file formationalongtheridgeline.BadillatakestheleadTrackerposition;O’Connorthecoverman;Jordan,asteamleader,positionshimselfinthecenterwithRowe,theradiooperator,immediatelytohisrear,followedbyMajorKim;Samoaassumestheresponsibilityforrearsecurity.

As they approach the partial footprints, Badilla holds up the halt signal, and theteam immediately takesaknee, rifles ready to the right, left, front,and rearof theirlocation. Positioning himself behind the footprints, he flips open his compass andtrains it in the direction of the Happy Mound, whispering the azimuth reading toO’Connor,whorelays it toJordan.Lookingpast theHappyMound,hekeys inonarockformationtwentymetersbeyondandsignalstheteamtomoveout.

Eyessweepingtothefront,right,left,up,down,near,andfar,Badillasearchesforanysignsleftbytheinfiltrators.Here,hestopstoexamineaclumpofelephantgrass,bladesbentoverandpointingeastward.There,hepeersatabranch fromawaist-high woody plant, its leaves bottom-side up with the dew disturbed. And fartherbeyond,hemakesmentalnoteofaspider’swebtornfromitsmoorings,itsinhabitanthidingwhilewaitingforthesuntosignalatimeforrebuilding.Thepursuitleadsthemofftheridgeandintothewoodedvalley.

Paralleling the Nonsan-Chon River, the team continues eastward. As theyapproachasplit intheriver, thetrailstartstowidenintoafordingareacrossingtheriver, and thereare locals fillingupwater jarsandbucketsnot fifty kilometers fromtheirlocation.

Badillasignalsahalt,andtheteamcrouchesinadefensiveposture,straddlingthetrail. Bringing O’Connor with him, he moves forward toward the stream, trying to

balance the need for caution against causing unnecessary alarm among thosegatheringwater.

Manyfootprintscrisscrossthroughthearea,includingcivilianfootwear,boots,andhoofprints. Badilla smiles. The infiltrators have used smart strategy to ensure thattheirprintswouldbecoveredoverbythemanytravelerscrossingthestream.Thenhestopsandbendsover,whileO’Connortakesakneeandmoveshisgazeacrossasweepingarctotheirfrontandflanks,keepingasharpeyeonthecivilianstohisright.

There,infrontofthematthewater’sedge,isabootprint,clearlyimprintedintothemuddy,pebbleddirt.There isnomistaking the tire-like tread, themediumwear, themilitarynatureoftheprintbeforehim.Badillalayshisriflebesideit,measuringitfromheel to toe and side to side at thewidest part and the heel. Pulling out his digitalcamera, he quickly snaps a picture of the imprint while O’Connor records themeasurements,andthenhelooksathismaptonotethegridcoordinateofitslocationandthetimeofitsdiscovery.

Badilla examines the print closely, looking for indicators of the passage of timesince the print wasmade. The print is not filled with water, and the impression issharp, indicatingpassageas recentlyas threehoursearlier.Theprint isalsodeep,displacing the dirt on the edge—a clear indicator that the owner of this boot wascarryingaheavyload.Asthisisafavoriteplaceforlocalcivilianstogatherwater, itwould not be surprising for the infiltrators to use this for the same purpose. Thepossibilitiesswirlaroundhishead.

AfterconductingathoroughsearchusingtheTrackerObservationProcedures,heandO’Connorreturntotheteamandbrieftheirleader.

“Militaryprint, clearasday,”Badilla reports, showing thedigital photo to Jordan.“There appears to be possible remnants of other prints, but they were pretty wellcontaminatedbythelocaltrafficcrossingthestreamhere.Therealsoseemedtobeevidenceofsomeonebeingdraggedforashortdistance,butagain,itwashardtotellunderneaththemorerecentprints.Frommyobservation,Iwouldsaythepersonwhomadetheprintwascarryingaheavyload,mostlikelyalargepack.Iftheyusedthisasawaterresupplysite,theymostlikelyhavesomekindofwaterpurification.”

MajorKimagreeswiththeassessment,confirmingthattheinfiltratorswillbewell-suppliedandwell-trainedveterans.

“Howoldistheprint?”Jordanasks.“Judging by the partially dried edges, I’d say pretty close to four hours,” Badilla

answerswithconfidence.“We’lltakeaquickbreak,thenkeepgoing.”With the teamat50-percentalert,O’Connormakesquickworkofhishastymeal

andmakeshiswaytotheobservationarea,assumingthepositionofprimaryTracker.Hescouts thegroundaround theperimeterof thesite,searching for the infiltrators’pathupontheirdeparture.Afterashort,circularpattern,hefindsatrailofbentgrass

leadingtowardyetanotherlogfallenovertheriver,thisonebeyondtheintersectionofthetwostreams.Whileheisshootingtheazimuthandidentifyinghisnextcheckpoint,therestoftheteamcomesupbehindhimandfallsintotheirappropriateplacesintheformation.

Theymaneuver around a fallen log serving as a bridge over theNonsan-Chon.Theycrossthelogoneatatime,hastilymovinginandoutoftheopendangerareaontopofthefast-movingriver.Thetrailleadsthemupthehillsidetoanewridgeline.Theymovequickly fromcheckpoint tocheckpoint,encouragedbythepositivesignstheyhadcomeacrossandnotwantingtolettheirChasegainanykindofalead.

Throughout the afternoon, the teammoves steadily along, stopping for unusualnoises,signs,checkpoints,andnote-taking.O’Connorfindsandpointsoutindicatorsthat would be indistinguishable to the untrained eye—an overturned rock, bentbranch,andscratchedmoss—andBadillarelaysallrelevantinformationtotheteamleader.

Late in the afternoon, O’Connor halts. The infiltrator team appears to havebranchedoff thetraildownhill totheirright.Theteamclosesranksastheycarefullypicktheirwaythroughthevegetationtowardasmallareaofclearing.Ontheedgeofthe glade,O’Connor andBadilla sharpen their gazes and their senses toward anysound, smell, ormovement. Teammembers take staggered security positionswithriflesreadyasO’Connormovesforward,heartpoundingasheenterstheopenarea,hopingandprayingfornopeeringeyesother thanthoseofhis team.Noshotsringout,andhesearchescarefullyaroundhimfordisturbeddirt,possibleboobytraps,orothersignsleftbytheinfiltrators.

Somethingcatcheshisattention,andhesignalsfor360-degreesecurity.Whentheteam is inplace,bothheandBadillamove forward, the latterprovidingsecurity forthe pair’s immediate surroundings. In front of him, O’Connor sees four areas offlattenedgrass,smaller thanthoseofasleepsite,withcirclesofwhatappeartobeburntareasinfrontofthreeofthem.Withthepancakedareasashisstartingpoint,hetakesonecarefulstepatatimeinacircularpattern,attentivelysearchingthegroundashispathtakeshiminanever-wideningcoil.

Aroundtheflattenedimprints,heseescrackercrumbsandkernelsofsmallwhiterice. He reaches out his hand over one of the burnt areas, circling it palm downtoward thegrounduntil it touches thecharredgrass. It iscold. In fact,all thesignsappear to be hours old. Satisfied with his and the team’s safety at this point, hesignalstotheteamtocomeforward.

“Lookslikeamealhalt.Theflattenedgrassissmallerthanwefoundearlierandinacircularpatternindicatingall-aroundsecurity.Thereareburntareasonthegroundoutside thecircle that look like theycouldhaveusedsomekindofheat source forcooking.Andtherearericeandcrackercrumbs.”

Major Kim examines the rice and crumbs. “This looks like rice that could have

come from the northern region, but the crackers could be fromanywhere, north orsouth.”

Samoa offers his assessment. “These are professionals. Look at how they aresittinginacirclefacingoutward.Andyoucanbarelyseeanysignthattheyevenateanything.Theyareobviouslycarefulintheirsecurity.”

Jordandoesnotlikewhatheishearing.Ateamofprofessionalscertainlyputshisownteamingreaterdanger.“Youguysknowwhatweareupagainst.Doyour jobsbutdon’ttakeanyunnecessarychances.”Helooksupatthesun,noweasingbehindthemountainridgelines.“Let’skeepitgoing,butkeepaneyeoutforaplacetolayupforthenight.”

WithBadillaatthepoint,theteamcontinueseastwardforanadditionalhourorsobeforeJordancallsahalt.Withthesunsettingandtherestoftheteaminadefensiveposture,JordanandSamoamoveouttolocateanappropriatesleepsiteoffthemaintrailandawayfromcuriouseyes.Withinthirtyminutes,thesiteisfound,theperimetersetup,andthescheduleforsecuritywatchisdiscussedandunderstood.

DayOneisover.

CHAPTER4

WhatHappenedtoMySigns?NeitherinbodynorinminddoweinhibittheworldofthosehuntingracesofthePaleolithicera....Memoriesoftheiranimalenvoysstillmustsleep,somehow,withinus;fortheywakealittleandstirwhenweventureintowilderness.

—JOSEPHCAMPBELL

Inthelastchapter,wetouchedonthesubjectofvisualtracking,carriedoutbythe most common of the human senses, sight. What we will discuss in thischapter are the substances thatmake up visual tracking—visible “signs.”Youwill learn how to recognize the various signs and become familiarwith thosefactorsthatinfluencetheclarityofthetracesorindicatorsleftbyyourChase.Again,wewillbreakthesedownintoseparatecategories:ground,middle,and

topsigns.Theimaginarylinethatdifferentiatesagroundfromamiddlesigncanbefoundatanklelevel.Agroundsignleavesanimprintorotherdisturbanceonthe earth,while amiddle sign affects that area above the ground that starts atankle level and extends to the height and width of the Chase (including hisequipment)andbeyond.Atopsign,then,isanythingaboveeyelevelandcouldincludeanythinginorontrees,caves,orcliffs(likesnipers.Yikes!).

GROUNDSIGNSThepotential listofall thepossiblegroundsigns isobviously tooextensive tocovercompletelyinalimitedvolumesuchasthis.Thefollowing,however,areexamplesofthetypesofsignsyoucanexpecttoencounter.

FootprintsThe most common example of what one might consider a ground sign is afootprint, whether left by a bare foot, shoe, sneaker, boot, or other kind offootwear.Itcouldeitherbeaclearlydefinedprintinmudorclay,oritcouldbemuddropped fromabootonto ahard surface in a formless residue.Theprintcould also be a vague mark or scratch on the surface that follows along thepredetermined stride of the Chase (more on that later) and can be reasonablyassumedtobeafootprint.Whatisincludedherewouldbebruisedor“bleeding”roots, crushed ground vegetation or leaves, or other disturbances of grass,vegetation,rocks,ortwigs.

Figure4.1Personatrest—sitting.

OtherPrintsAnotherexampleisadifferentkindofprint,leftbysomethingotherthanafoot.Thiscould includean imprintofone’sbuttocks (see figure4.1),otherpartsofthe human body, or equipment placed on the ground in irregular patterns.Usuallythiswouldindicateaplaceofrest,sleep,ormeal-taking.

Figure4.2AAnthill—undisturbed.

Figure4.2BAnthill—disturbed.

DisturbancesYet another kind of ground sign is a disruption of nature. This includes adisturbanceofinsectlife,suchasahighlyactivebeehiveorscatteredanthill(seefigures4.2AandB).Anotherexamplewouldbeagitationofwater,suchasmudswirlinginanotherwiseclearpuddle,pond,orslow-movingstream(seefigure4.3);splattermarks(seefigures4.4AandB);orripplesinsmallbodiesofwaterforwhich there is noother apparent cause (such aswind). It also includes, asmentionedearlier,otherdisturbancesofgroundvegetation,rocks,ortwigs.Of course, some of the most noticeable ground signs are those left by a

carelessChase.Thesearesignsthatareobviouslynotofanaturalorigin,suchasdiscardedcigarettebutts,trash,wire,orfoodparticles.

Figure4.3Waterdisturbance.

Figure4.4ASplattermarks.

Figure4.4BSplattermarks/watertransfer.

MIDDLESIGNSLookingaboveanklelevel,onecanoftenfindclearsignsleftbytheChase.Asdescribedabove,middlesignscanalsoincludedisturbancesofinsectlifebutatahigher level, such as overactive beehives or torn spiderwebs (see figure 4.5).Vegetationmaybediscoloredorleftinanunnaturalposition—mostlikelyinthedirection ofmovement. Theremay be cuts or scratches on trees, or youmayencounterbroken twigsand leaves.Bent tree limbsor leaveswillalso identifythedirectionoftravel(seefigure4.6).

Figure4.5Tornspiderweb.

Figure4.6Leafidentifyingdirectionoftravel.

Ifyouareatagoodvantagepointandseetheswayingoftreesormovementofgrass or bushes, you can reach two different conclusions. One, the wind iscausingthemovement;ortwo,ifthewindisnotblowingorifitisblowinginadirectionatoddswithwhatyouareseeing,youcandefinitelysaythatapersonoranimalismovingthetreesorbushes.Manytimes,apersonwillusetreesorbranches to help him ascend or descend a steep area (see figure 4.7),makingsuchmovementobvioustoanastuteobserver.

Figure4.7Ascendincline.

WindSpeedFormany reasons, a goodTracker should be able to estimatewind speeds.AgunnerysergeantintheMarineCorpstaughtmetolookatmysurroundingstoestimate the speed of the wind (see figure 4.8). Now, all of our teams mustcommit these facts to memory. By combining the senses of sight and touch(feeling),naturecantellyoumuchofwhatishappening.Inarid,hotdesertland,windestimateisbasedonthewind’sactualeffecton

the“mirage,” theglassyorwater-likeappearanceof theheated terrain,asseenthroughthenakedeyeorbinoculars(seefigure4.9).

MPH Effects0–1 Smokerisingstraightup(flaglyingflatagainstthepole)1–3 Leavesandsmokeinmotion4–7 Windsensationfeltonface;leavesfluttering

8–12 Abilitytoviewundersidesofleavesremainingontrees;groundedleaves(deadfall)and/orloosepaperlifted

13–18 Smallbranchesswaying;fallenleaves(deadfall)andtrashedpaperblownandsweptalongtheground

19–24 Largebranchesandsmalltreesswaying;dustcloudsrising

Figure4.8Estimateofwindspeedbasedonthewind’simpact.

MPH Appearance Effects

0–1 Mirageorsmokerisingstraightup(flaglyingflatagainstthepole)

3-5 Mirageorsmokeinmotiontotheleft

3-5 Mirageorsmokeinmotiontotheright

5-8 Mirage,airvaporsareclosetogetherandhorizontal;windsensationonskin;movinggrounddebris

8-12 Mirage,airvaporsarewidelyspacedoutandhorizontal;loosedebrisbeinglifted;smallamountsofshiftingsand

Figure4.9Estimateofwindspeedbasedinhot,ariddesert.

TOPSIGNSPerhaps one of the greatestmistakesmany noviceTrackersmake is failing tolook up. Themost dangerous objects are often just above eye level, in trees,cliffs,orcaves.Thatiswhereyouwillfindsomeoftheworld’sdeadliestsnakes,predatory cats, and dangerous human beings—with spotting scope and sniperrifleaimedinyourdirection.Fromthosehidingorescapinginahurry,thisistheareathatmayyieldthemostvisiblesigns,suchasscrapesonbranchesorrocks,or gouges in hillside soils. There, you may find cave or tree dwellers of theharmless variety (bats, squirrels, monkeys), but pay close attention if thesedwellersareagitatedordisturbed.Whilelookingupisespeciallyrecommendedfor those seeking life’s most profound answers, it is also beneficial—andpotentiallylife-saving—fortheordinaryTrackerinthefield.Whatever the category, some signs are easier to locate than others. Certain

placesaremorelikelythanotherstoeithercauseorexposesigns.Thesearethepointsatwhichweneedtobethemostalert,especiallyifwehavetemporarilylostthetrail.Areaswheresignscanbeeasilyfoundincludesteephillsides,thickundergrowth or tall grass,muddy or sandy patches, embankments or rivers orstreams, edges of clearings, firebreaks, or any other location where obstaclesneedtobecrossedortheChase’srouteiscanalized.Intheseplaces,theChasecannot help but leave distinguishingmarks, tracks, or other evidence of beingthere.

MEASURINGBeforegettingintothenutsandboltsofmeasuringprintsandstrides,onemustunderstandthemechanicsbehindthehumanstep.Whenwalking,ahumanbeingtendstocontactthegroundwithaheelfirst,rollingthentotheballofthefoot,then to the toes. If there are no physical problems, the weight is evenlydistributed along the entire foot. If the Chase is disabled in some fashion orinjured,youmayfindthathedragsafoot,distributesmoreweightonhisrightorleftleg,orwalksonthesideofhisfoot.Aswithafingerprint,notwoshoeprintsarealike.Evenwithoutdisabilityor

injury,somepeoplejusthaveatendencytoplacemoreemphasisontheballsoftheir feet, while others walk “pigeon-toed,” slant their toes outward, or placemoreweightonthesidesoftheirfeet.Anindividual’ssize,weight,andposturealso have a lot to dowithweight distribution.Likewise, attitude plays a largepart.Oneprintmaybemadebya“coolcat”or“dude”dippinghisheadwhilewalkingandthinking,“Yeah,man.I’mbad.I’mcool!”Anothermaybemadebyaphysicallyfit,mentallydisciplinedindividualsmoothlystridingdownthepath.Yetanothermaybeleftbyanolder,moretentativeindividualshufflingalongtheroad.ThatiswhyIhavealwayssaidthateverysignfitsintoaspecificcategory;every sign is distinctly characteristic and leaves me with a direct reflectionand/orimpressionofmyChase.Onceyouhavebeentrackingsomeoneforanhourorso,youshouldbeableto

drawsomeconclusionabouttheChase’sstride,sizeofprint,andpatternofshoe(see figure 4.10). Even in the midst of other human tracks, such as in acontaminated tracked area (see figure 4.11), you should still be able todistinguishyourChase’sprintfromanyotherhumanprint.In order to do this conclusively, however, you will need to scientifically

analyzeyourChase’sprintandstride.

Figure4.10Distinguishingprint.

Figure4.11Contaminatedprints.

Of course, the first thingyouneed to do is to sketchor photograph (with adigitalorPolaroidcamera)theactualpatternoftheChase’sshoeorboot.Keepinmindthatprintscanbeconcaveduetoverysoftsoil—likeloose,drysand—or they can be pancaked due to patternless undersoles without heels. On theother hand, prints can also be very well defined with an abundance of solepatterns, leavinga regularityof clear characteristics thatmayeven include the

brandnameoftheshoe.This,naturally,dependsonthecompositionanddensityofthesoil.Themaintenanceandsustainabilityofapatternarealsototallyatthemercyofanimalsigns,otherhumansigns,terrain,climaticconditions,andtime.Once you have established the distinct characteristics of your Chase’s

footprint, thenext logical step is todeterminehis stride. In1981,aMalaysianmajor—whoheadhuntedmanyinsurgentguerrillasinhisnativecountry—taughtme tousemyM16A1rifle tomeasure thesizeofaprintand thestrideofmyChase. Those on a search and rescue mission can just as easily use a sturdywalkingstickorskipoleatleastfourfeetinlength.Stride is defined as the distance between the left and right footprint of an

individualwalkingnormally.Measurethestrideheeltoheel,placingthebuttofyour newly converted measuring instrument (weapon, stick, or pole) on therearwardedge(heel)oftheforwardshoeprintandworkingyourwaybacktothemost rearward edge (heel) of the rear print.Mark yourweapon or stick. ThismeasurementwillgaugeyourChase’sstride(seefigures4.12AandB).Thismayseem likewe aremeasuring theprint backward, from front to rear rather thanfromreartofront,whichisthedirectionoftravel.Butremember,atrackerteammust constantly look from the farthest point to the nearest point in order tomaintain security. Likewise, these measurements must follow the sameguidelines.Youcanalsouse theweaponor stick to locatea secondprint ifonlyone is

visible.Byusingitasapivotpointfromtheknownimpression,youcanestimateanaveragestrideandsweepitfromsidetosidetolocatethesecondone.

Figure4.12AStrideandSaddlemeasurement—tape(seeappendixA“HumanProfileCard”).

Figure4.12BStrideandSaddlemeasurement—weapon(seeappendixA“HumanProfileCard”).

Thelengthofanyoneshoeprintisthedistancebetweentherearwardedgeorheeltothemostforwardedgeortoeofthesameprint.Iwouldadviseusingthesamestickorweapon thatwasused tomark theChase’s stride.Aftermarkingthestrideattheheeloftheforwardprint,keeptheweaponorstickinthesame

positionandmakeanadditionalmarkattheprint’stoe,measuringitslength(seefigures4.13AandB).

Figure4.13APrintmeasurement—tape.

Figure4.13BPrintmeasurement—weapon.

The width of the shoe print should be measured in two areas: the widestportion,orballof thefoot(seefigures4.14AandB),andthenat theheel(seefigures 4.15A and B). These marks should also be made on your weapon orstick,continuingfromthepreviousmarkontheshoelength.

Figure4.14ABalloffootmeasurement—tape.

Figure4.14BBalloffootmeasurement—weapon.

Figure4.15AHeelmeasurement—tape.

Figure4.15BHeelmeasurement—weapon.

To mark your weapon, stick, or pole effectively, you can choose from anumberofmarkers,basedonwhatyouhaveavailable.Somepeopleuseaknifeto mark their measuring stick; others may prefer a permanent bright marker,greasepencil,orrubberband.Justkeepinmindthatwhateveryouusemustbeable towithstand the normal usage of your “measuring instrument.”A rubberbandwillmostlikelymeltonthebarrelofariflethathasbeenfiredrepeatedly;ifa rubberband isallyouhaveavailable,consider turning theweaponaroundwhen measuring, starting with the tip of the weapon and working your way

towardthebutt.Thestridewillmostlikelybelongerthantheriflebarrel,andthefirstrubberbandwillbelocatedclosertothetriggerassemblyorhandle.Ontheotherhand,ifyouarehighinthemountainsonskisandneedtouseaskipoletomeasure, amagicmarkermaynotwriteon a frozenpole.A rubberbandmayfreeze,move,orbreakduringthepole’snormalusage.Ifyouareveryfamiliarwith your instrument of measure and have an excellent memory, making amentalnotemaybejustaseffective.

FACTORSAFFECTINGSIGNSTherearefourfactorsthatcanunfavorablyaffectyourtrackingability.TheyarethesignsleftbythoseotherthanyourChase(forinstance,byotherhumansoranimals), terrainoverwhich theChase ismoving,climaticweatherconditions,andtimesincethesignwasleft.Allofthesefactorsarecloselytiedtogetherandcaneitherinhibitoraidinyoursearch.

OtherHumansandAnimalsUnlessyouareinatotallyuninhabitedareaoftheworld,otherpeoplewillmostlikely affect your search. Hikers, hunters, forest rangers, farmers, or arearesidentsmaycontaminatesignsleftbyyourChase.Theymayleavetheirownfootprints or unnatural disturbances, whichmay be indistinguishable from theChase’s.Ontheotherhand,whileincidentalprintsandsignsmayaffectthoseofyour

Chase,otherpeople in theareacanalsoaid inyoursearch.Talk to thepeopleyourunacross.TheymayhaveseenorheardsomethingthatcouldputyoubackonthetrailorleadyoumuchclosertoyourChase.Animalscanbeusedinmuchthesameway.Nowobviously,ananimalcannot

speak. But they can give us other indicators that can bring us closer to ourChase.AsIpointedoutinchapter3,manyanimalsandinsectswillwarnusofotherhumansorthepresenceofdanger.Birdswillflockawayinapanicwhenapproached by a person or predatory animal; insectswill become silentwhensomeonetramplestheirarea;andmonkeyswillsoundoffwhenhumansorotheranimals invade their territory. Again, to become a successful Tracker, it isnecessarytofamiliarizeyourselfwiththeindigenouswildlifeinyourarea.Yet, just as humans can contaminate or otherwise affect a trail of signs,

animals can, too—and they do itmuchmore often. There aremany excellentreferencebooks that cover the specificsof animal tracks, so Iwill notgo intothat subject here. But keep in mind that all animals, whether they fly, swim,slither,walk,orhop,havetheirowndistinctimprints.TheChase, inorder todeceiveaTracker,mayreplicateananimal’s imprint,

butitwillneverbeexact.AskilledTrackercaneasilytellthedifference.

TerrainInorder toeffectively trackpeople throughwildernessareas, theTrackermustbecomeintimatelyfamiliarwiththeterrainandfoliageofthetrackingarea.And,as Imentioned inprevious sections, the terraincanassistordetract fromyourefforts,dependingonyourknowledgeofvariouslandfeaturesandyourtrackingexperience. Most likely, you will be confronted with one or more of thefollowingterraintypes:grassland,rainforest,wetlands,rockyground,andsand.

Grassland. The condition of the grasses over which the Chase is traveling willdeterminetheeasewithwhichyoucanfindhim.Ifthegrassisgreen,resilient,and short, the grasswill spring back up to its normal state quite rapidly oncetrampled on. If the grass is wet from the previous night’s dewfall, any travelacrossthisgrasswillbequicklyandeasilynoticed;youwillseeadifferenceinthe grass colorwhere the dewhas been rubbed off (see figure 4.16). In someinstances,youmayfinddirtclumpsorsandinplaceswheretheChasesteppedafterpickinguplooseormoistdirt.

Figure4.16Printsinmorningdew/frost.

Ifthegrassyareaissparseandthesurroundingsoilismoist,youshouldfindaclearimprintinthedirtaswellassoilresiduefartherdownonthegrasswhereithasbeentransferred(seefigures4.17AandB).

Figure4.17APrintsinsparsevegetation.

Figure4.17BPrintsinsparsevegetation,closerview.

Tallgrass,higher thanafootandahalf,willgreatlysimplify the locationofyour Chase. Tall grass, when trodden, will not spring back to its originalposition.Ontheotherhand,itinterlacesandpointsinthedirectionoftravel(seefigure 4.18). If the grass is green, the undergrowth is lighter, showing a

discoloration; if the grass is dry, the result will be choppy, broken, and/orcrushed stems (see figures 4.19A and B). You may also notice more printsaroundthedrygrass.

Figure4.18Tallgrasspointers.

Figure4.19APrintandtallgrasspointers.

Figure4.19BTallgrasspointers.

Rain Forest. The foliage and terrain features of a rain forest provide ampleopportunity toeffectively trackyourChase. In triple-canopyjunglesorheavilywoodedevergreenforests,thereislessundergrowthbutbettervisibilityoftracksorprints.Secondary jungles,on theotherhand,produceaheavyundergrowth.

Not only is there a great deal of tall, full-leafed trees and dense underbrush,including thickblanketsofplants,bushes,briars,vines, andmoss,but there isalsoanabundanceofgeologicalfeatures,suchasrocks,streams,mud,andsand.Youwillalsoencountermuchdeadfall.Deadfall includesallmannerofdeadplant life,andeachspeciespresents its

ownuniquemeansofidentifyinganindividualwhohascrosseditspath.A tree fallenacrossapathwayprovidesanexcellentopportunity todiscover

signs.Mostlikely,youwillfindprintsordisturbancesoneithersideofthetree(seefigure4.20).Ifitisalargetree,youcanexpecttofindaprintorscuffmarkonthebarkoradisturbanceonthemossgrowingonthetreetrunk.Similarly,atreefallenoverariverorstreammayrevealnotonlysplattermarksandprints,butmayalsorevealtheChase’sdirectionoftravelashecrossedoverthewaterobstacle(seefigure4.21).

Figure4.20Disturbeddeadfallpointerandprint.

Figure4.21Printsonlogcrossing.

Leavesandbranchesprovideotherexcellentopportunitiesforsigns.Drytwigsandleavesbecomeveryfrailandwillcrackandbreakunderthepressureofanyindividual, even that of an infant. An aged leaf lying on the groundwill stillshowsignsofwetnessfromdew,althoughithasnotrained.Ifdisturbed,theleaf

maytear,disintegrate,orsimplydiscolor;itmayjustshowaslickwetnessintheareaofdisturbance,whichcanbeeasilydistinguishedfromthetranslucentbeadsofdew.Live leaves on bushes and trees, when turned over, bent, or twisted, will

displaya lightershadeofcoloras theundersideis turnedsidewaysorupward.Some turned leaves look almostwhitewhen comparedwith the same type ofundisturbedleaves.TheseleavesarewhiteflagstotheastuteTracker(seefigure4.22).

Figure4.22Undersideofleavesexposed.

Let’s not forget the tiniest inhabitants of the rain forest. Insects can beinvaluabletotheobservantTracker,especiallythe“creepycrawlers”—antsandspiders.Disturbedanttrailsorhillsandbrokenspiderwebs(referbacktofigures4.2and4.5)are indicators that someoneor someanimalhaspassedalong thissamepassage.Inasimilarway,deadgrasshoppers,bees,orothertypesofinsectsmayalsoprovidepertinentclues.Wetlands.As theword indicates,wetlandsaremore than justswampyormarshyareas.Theyincludeanymovingorstationarybodyofwater,suchasriversandstreams,lakesandponds,aswellastidalflats,mangroves,swamps,andbayous.WhilepresentingobviouschallengestothenoviceTracker,manycharacteristicsofthevariouswetlandsactuallyassisttheTracker.

Scoresofmovieshavereliedupontheclichédandever-presentriverorstreamtohelp the film’s hero shake his pursuers. Itwould appear that once a personentersthewater,hehassuccessfullyshakenthebestofTrackers.Whilethismaybe an effective anti-tracking technique, it is not a method that makes itimpossible to findor followaChase’s trackorsigns (see figure4.23). In fact,therearemanyareas—notonlyaroundriversorstreamsbutalsoaroundlakes,ponds,andotherwetlands—thatareprimelocationsforsigns(seefigures4.24AandB).

Figure4.23Printsinwater.

Figure4.24APrintsnearwater.

Figure4.24BPrintsnearbodyofwater(sand).

Lookcarefullyaroundtheedgesofbanks,wherethesoil isconstantlymoistand the rocks are often loose. Here, footprints are most likely to stand outclearly.Takeacloser lookat theshallowwater just inside thewater’sedge. Isthere an obvious print or disturbance in the silt, pebbles, or sand? Is themud

stirredup? If there are rocks lining theedgeof thewater, are there scrapesorscuffmarks,whichmight indicate a sudden jumpoffor exertion to climbup?(Seefigure4.25.)Aretheredriedwatermarksordropletssplashedontherocksnearthewaterorincrevicesfartherfromthewater?(Seefigure4.26.)

Figure4.25Scuffmarksonmoss.

Figure4.26Wateronrocks.

Marshygroundpresentsamoredifficultchallenge.Becausesuch“ground”islow,wet,andsoft,distinctpatternsofaprintwillnotbesoevident.Nonetheless,the stride will still be clear and measurable, and the print-like impression orconcavefilledwithwatercaneasilybenoted.AwiseChasewhodoesnotwanttobefoundlikelyknowsthis,too.Hemaythenchoosetoleapnearthebaseoftrees, where the ground is “terra firma.” An equally wise Tracker will alsoexaminethebaseoftreesforscratchesortransferredmud.

RockyGround.Whilepioneersandmodern-daymoviegoersmarvelattheeasewithwhichNativeAmericanscantrackpeopleoverrocks,thefeatisnotasdifficultasonewouldthink.Infact,itissomewhateasytotrackpeopleoverthistypeofterrain.When referring to rocky ground, most people first think of mountainous

terrain. In fact,much of our earth consists of this type of terrain. There existthreeclassesofrock:igneous,metamorphic,andsedimentary.Anyonewhohasever studied rocks in their various forms will notice distinct differences,dependingupon the climate and terrain inwhich theyhavebeen found.Somerocks are extremelyhard and relatively immovable;others areverybrittle andbreakoffattheslightestdisturbance.

Stones or rocks, when moved either deliberately or inadvertently, leavedefinite impressions in thesurroundingsoil.There isalsoadistinctcontrast incolor.Ifthegroundismoist,theundersidesofthestonesandrockswillbedrierandthereforelighter.Incontrast,ifthegroundisdry,theundersideswillremaindampandthereforedarker.Unless the Chase is wearing moccasins or soft-soled tennis shoes, he will

likely leave scratcheswhenmoving across large rocks. If stones are crumbly,theywill chip or crumble evenmorewhen trodden upon. Stones and pebblessitting on soft soil are easily pushed down, leaving an indentation whilesimultaneouslysqueezingoutthedisplacedsoil(seefigure4.27).

Figure4.27Printnearwater.

Sand.While rockygroundseems tobeoneof themostdifficult terrain featuresoverwhich to track aChase, sandy soil, at first look, seems to be the easiest,withnofoliageorwatertohidetheprints.Thereare,however,manythreatstothe integrity of a sand print, and these include thewind, rain, and—along theocean shoreline—flood currents. Sand is a very fragile substance, and theseelementsshowitnomercy;anysignsleftbyyourChasewillberapidlyerodedanddefaced. If the sandy surface is hot, dry, and soft, youwill see a concaveimpressionwhereafoothasstepped,andyoucanmeasurethestrideandrelativesizeoftheprint.Yet,eventhemostdetailedpossibleimprintislefttothemercyofclimaticfactorsthatwillrapidlyobliteratethesign.

ClimaticWeatherConditionsDirectsunlightormoonlightcanchangethecharacteristicsofasigntothepointthat it appears to revert back to its natural state.Where there are no shadowspresentorcontrastsevident,itisextremelydifficultforaTrackertomakeoutadefinitive shape of an imprint. Similarly, direct sunlight causes the rapidevaporationofapurewaterprintonarockorotherhardsurface.Insnow,also,ashallowprintwillquicklydissolveandturntoslush,leavinglittleornotrace.Underotherconditions,sunandmoonlightcanaidyou.Let’sjustsaythatthe

snow-turned-slushourChasewaswalkingacrossearlierstartedtofreezefromadropintemperature.Atthispoint, theChasehasleftbarelyconcaveprints.Aseveningapproaches,afullmoonrisesandaninchofsnowcovershiscrossing.Theshadowscastbythemoonintotheconcaveprintswillclearlyshowhistrail.Forthissamereason,earlymorning,lateevening,moonrise,andmoonsetare

thebesttimestoclearlyidentifyaprint.Whenthelightsourceisdirectlyontopoftheobservedobject,suchasafootprint,itisextremelyhardtoseeduetotheshortenedshadow.Ontheotherhand,lightcastfromthesideoratanangletothe print (by the sun, moon, or artificial source) will cast a longer and moredefinitiveshadow.Trackerscantakestepstoaidinshadow-casting,evenindirectmoonlightor

sunlight.Duringtheday,Trackerscanshadeasuspectedprintwiththeirbodyorothermeans,usingamirrororsimilarobjecttocatchthesunlightanddirectitatanangletowardtheexaminedarea—creatingacastshadow.Similarly,atnight,Trackerscanuseflashlights,vehiclelights(althoughnotinatacticalsituation),or night vision goggles with infrared optics to define an otherwise invisibleimprint.ANewZealandTrackertaughtmetoutilizeavarietyofcoloredlightsfor this, since any light other thannatural light is compromising.Blue light isbestforsnowyareas;yellowlightisbestforaridsandyareasand/ordrygrass;redisbestinforestedordarkareas.Snow creates a unique set of both challenges and opportunities.One of the

firstthingsIlearnedaboutsnowwasnevertoeatyelloworbrownsnow.Whilethismayseemano-brainer,yelloworbrowndiscolorationscanalsoindicatethatthe snow has been contaminated by human or animal urine or defecation.Dependingupontheconditionofthesign,onecanmakeassumptionsabouttheconditionoftheChase,asIindicatedinchapter3(whatcoloristheurine,andwhatistheappearanceofthefeces).Wet snow, with temperatures averaging thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit, will

alloweasy trackingofyourChasebecause the snownaturallycompressesandholds that impression indefinitelywithsteadyconditions.Take thatsamesnowwithshiftingtemperaturesandaddedsnowfall,andyourChase’strackscouldbenearlyobscured.Dry,powderysnow,on theotherhand, isasbadorworse thanfine,drifting

sand. It does not have the cohesiveness of wet snow and will not allow adiscernibleprinttoform,especiallyduringshiftingwinds.Strongwinds,heavyrains,andsnowfallarethethreeclimaticconditionsthat

willcauseyouthemostsevereproblemswhile trackingyourChase.WindandheavyrainsarethemostdestructiveenemiesoftheTracker,causingdirectandirreparabledamagetosignsyouaretryinghardtofollow.Strongwindswillhastenthereturnofdisturbedvegetationbacktoitsnatural

state.Theystirupdeadleaves,swaytreesandbushes,andcauseripplesalongbodies ofwater, covering up similar signs caused by theChase.They concealgroundsignsimprintedinsand,snow,water,ordrysoil.Theycanalsoproducesandstorms,sanddunes,andlargesnowdrifts,whileshiftingsandandsnowcanthreatenTrackerorChasewithseverevertigo.Anyonewhohaseverbeeninthesoftdesertplainsormountainwhiteoutconditionscaneasily identifywith thiseffect.They can alsoproduce collateral noise from swaying trees, bristlingbushes,

andswirlingleavesandbranches,whichcoverupnoisemadebytheChase.Butwinds can also work in the Tracker’s favor. If the Chase is upwind and theTracker downwind, it can carry the Chase’s noise toward the Tracker whilesimultaneouslycloakingthenoisetheTrackermaybemaking.Itcanalsocarrysmells in the direction of the Tracker, giving him a strong indication of theChase’sactionsandlocation,allowinghimtotrackwithease.Rainisoneelementthatwillwashoutnearlyanygroundsignnotshelteredin

somemanner.InCentralAmerica,Ihaveseentorrentialrainsfallsohardthatittakes onlyminutes to create impromptu streams four feetwide and three feetdeepwherebeforetherewerenone.Theforceofthesestreamswillcarryawayanything in their path, including people, animals, homes, and large trees, andwillmostdefinitelywashoutanypreviouslyimprintedsigns.Buthere,too,evenraincanassisttheTracker.Afteraheavyorprolongedrain,

theground in low-lyingareas—suchasdrawsor flatplains—willbecomesoftandmoist.Anyindividualwhowalksonthisverysoft,moistgroundwillleaveclearly defined prints, sometimes as deep as two or three inches. Ifwater hascollected in theprint, leavingapuddle thathasnotyetdrained,onecan fairly

certainly conclude that theprintmayhavebeen leftwithin approximately twohours.(Seechapter5ondeterminingtheageofsigns.)Ofcourse,allof theaboveelementswillunfavorablyaffect thesignsleftby

theChase, but the degree towhich theywill affect themwill be basedon theintensityandforceleviedonthesigns.Ifimpactedonlybylightrainfalls,mildwinds,andsubtleamountsofsunlight,oriftheywereshelteredbyacanopyofsomekind,thesesignscouldstillberecognizableforuptothirtyorfortyhours.

TimeOneofthehardesttasksTrackershavebeforethemisdeterminingthetimelapsebetween when the sign was made and when it was found. Because of theinherentdifficultyandcomplexity,Ihavedevotedthenextchaptertoexploringthissinglefactor.

THEPURSUIT:DAYTWO

Stand to:ThemembersofDetachment266,at50-percentsecurity,quietlypackuptheirgearinthelightmorningdrizzle,asthedarknessofthenightsoftenstoamistygrayness.Theweatherhaschangedovernight,theincreasingcloudsgivingwaytoasoft,steadysprinkle.

BadillaandO’Connorgiveeachotherknowinglooksofsatisfactionandeagerness,for they know,asdoes the rest of the team, that sucha rainwill onlyhelp in theirpursuit.

As they hoist their fifty-pound rucks onto their shoulders, Badilla takes the leadposition, having already scouted and reestablished the Chase’s path from thepreviousnight.He leads the teambackonto themain trailanduphill,until theyareonce again just short of a ridgeline. He signals the halt and points to himself,O’Connor,andtheridgeline.

Whiletheteamautomaticallyassumesasecurityposture,thetwoTrackersmovecautiouslytowardthecrest,pausing,examining,listening,andlookingforanysignsofhostile intent.Onceon the trail, the twostarteast,Badillaalternatelysweeping thelandscapearoundhimandexaminingthetrail,vegetation,andterrainnearby.

After proceeding for about tenmeters, Badilla halts. AsO’Connor takes a kneebesidehim,rifleready,Badillawhisperstohim,“IseenosignsoftheChasethisway.Let’s trywest for twentymetersandseewhat thatgetsus.Wemayneed todoaninitialsearchprocedureoraprobingsearchtopickupthetrail.”

Badilla andO’Connor reverse directions, themedicmuchmorewatchful behindthemsincetheremainderoftheirteamisprotectingtheirfront.Astheypasstheplacewhere the team is waiting, Badilla signals their intention to Jordan, who nods anacknowledgment.

TheTrackerandcovermanproceedwestfromtheteam,Badilla’seyesdartinglefttoright, far tonear.Heseesmanyfootprintson thewell-worn,damptrail,butnonethat indicatea recentpassage—at leastsince the rainbegan falling.Many imprintsseem to be deeper than others, and Badilla makes amental note of the possibleheavy load that may have caused the deeper print, the gouges in the otherwise

smoothgrass.Henotices leaves torn frombrushand treesat chest-high levels, inareas thatanunburdenedpersoncaneasilypasswithoutdisturbing thevegetation.Satisfied,hesignalstherestoftheteamtojoinup.

Theycontinueatafasterspeedalongthecresttrail,thesignsfoundensuringthemthatnoinfiltratorshavepassedbythatwaysincetherainbeganhoursbefore,intheearly morning darkness. As they travel along the trail, they begin to see localresidentswithvariousfarmanimals.Inahastyyetcarefulhurry,theteamdisappearsintothewoodline,allowingtheresidentstopasswithoutnotice.Badilla,forhispart,isbeginningtostraintoseefoot-relatedsigns,astheyarequicklyhiddenbeneaththemanyfarmers’bootprintsandtheiranimals’hoofprints.

Aftermovingrapidlyfornearlyonekilometer,Badillasuddenlyslowswherethetrailbranchesdownhilltohisleft.Thedeeperimpressionshehasbeenfollowingseemtotake a left at this point. Foliage at the edge of this trail contains broken branchpointersandoverturned leaves.Healsonoticesadeepscarandoverturned rocks,whichmayindicateapersonslippingonthesteepterrain.

Badilla sends O’Connor and Rowe, as temporary Tracker and coverman, 10meters fartherdowntheoriginalcrestlinepath toensurethat there isno longeranyevidence of deep impressions or pointer signs that may indicate people carryingheavyequipment.Inminutes,theybothreturnwithanegativereport.

Convincedthattheinfiltratorshavetakenaturndownthehill,Badillaalsoturnsleftandstartsthedescentwhiletheteamfollows,tryingwithsomedifficultytokeepfromslippingonthenowdamptrailgrass.Withinafewhundredmeters,thetrailbeginstoleveloutasitapproachestheYongChiangStream,andthefoliagebeginstothickenastheteamnearsthewater’sedge.Badillasignalsahalt.

The team once again assumes the security position, as Badilla and O’Connormove forward. In front of them are distinct areas of flattening, about the size of aperson lying down. Carefully picking their way around these areas, Badilla closelyexaminestheground.Hepicksupwhatappearstobesmallrubbershavings,whichareblackandwhiteand tubular in shape.Upon further examinationof the site, hefindstheclearandunmistakableprintofariflebutt—onethatcouldnotbeanM-4orM-16oftheUSandROKforces.

Aftershootingadigitalpictureandmakingnotesofhisobservation,hesignalsfortherestoftheteam,whichmeetshimjustoutsidetheobservationarea.

“Itappearsthatwehaveasleepingsite,”BadillaexplainstoJordanandtheteam.“Overtheretotheleftarethreeflattenedareas.Accordingtothepattern,theyappeartohavebeenusedassleepinglocations.Rightoff tothesideoverhere,”heshowsthemthesignontheground,“isanimprintofariflestock.”

MajorKimtakesacloserlook.“ThisisAK-47.Forcertain.”Jordan nods. “They aren’t feeling very secure if they are leaving one person to

standguardwhiletheysleep.”

Badillashowstheleadertherubbershavings.“Thisappearstoberubbercoatingstrippedoffofsomekindofcopperwire—Icanonlyguessatthispointwhetheritwasusedforcommunicationsoranexplosivedevice.Notethecleancutsonthepiecesofrubber.”

Rowepickedupa tiny rubbershaving. “There isnometallic residueon this,so Idon’t think it was cut or strippedwith a pocketknife. Theymust have cut this withprofessionalwire-cuttingpliers.”

Jordan sums up the findings. “We’ll have to assume either communicationsequipmentoranimprovisedexplosivedevice.ItappearsthattheydefinitelyhaveAK-47sattheirdisposal.”

Badillamakesadditionalnotesinhissmallnotebook.“Anythingelseweneedtoknow?”asksJordan.“Yeah,”Badillaanswers.“Wearecatchinguptothem.Thatrifleimprintisnomore

thanthreehoursold.”Jordanturnstotheteamsergeant.“Samoa?”“It appears to me from what we’ve seen so far that we have four, maybe five

people who are good at hiding their tracks and are well equipped, with possiblecommunications or explosives devices. The fact that we saw four flattened sittingareasandthreeburnspotsrightnexttothemmaymeanthatthefourthisacaptive,since he didn’t get to cook. Thatmay explain the draggingmarks in themud thatBadillasawyesterday.”

O’Connor adds his observations. “Maybe that’s why we’re catching up. Eventhoughwe’re following trained professionals, a civilian captivewould certainly slowthemdownquiteabit.”

Jordanturnstohisradiooperator.“Rowe,letmehavethatradio.I’dbettercallthisin,justincase.”

Higherheadquartersordersthemtokeepupthepursuitandclosethegap,whileremainingoutof sightandsound from theenemy. Intelligence reports indicate thatlocal civilians have indeed seen what appear to be armed Adidas-clad Koreansoldierswithaboundindividualwholookstobeafarmworkerofsomekind.Theteamistouseextremecautiontonotharmthenoncombatant.

Updatedorders inhand, the teammovesout, crossing thestreamand followingthemuchclearertrailtothesouth.Thesoftrainhascontinuedtofall.

O’Connorisnowintheprimarytrackingposition,leadingtheteambackuphillandalongterrainthatfallssharplytowardastreamatleast800feetbelowthem.Heisnottheonlyonewhowarilyeyesthedrop-offonhisleft.Ashortdistancealongtheridge,theycomeacrossa knollwithaHappyMoundon it.O’Connor circles it andagainpicksupthefamiliartrail,nowdescendingtowardtheBagdoeChonRiver.

Alongtheway,henoticesaslightincreaseintheamountofmiddlesignsatwaistand shoulder height, most likely due to the increased thickness of the vegetation.

“Makesmyjobmucheasier,”hethinksashecomesacrossanotherpointer.As the teamgetsclose to the river, themenseea large tree lyingacross it, the

deadfall serving as a makeshift bridge over the fast-moving water. O’Connor andBadilla carefully approach the tree, the former examining the bark while the latterscanstheirsurroundings.Thereappeartoberecentcutsandscuffmarks,obviouslynotmadebythenativefootwearofthelocalsandmostlikelycausedbymilitary-styleboots.O’Connorcan’teasily tell theageof themarks, theconstantdrizzlemaskingthe age-defining evidence. He sniffs at the overturned moss, the fresh dirt smellindicatingitwasrecentlyshifted—nomorethantwohoursearlier.

Once across,O’Connor and Badilla wait for the others to join them before theycontinuetheirtracking.WhenO’Connorroundsatreeonhisright,hecallsahaltanddrops to a knee. In front of him is a small glade in which there is evidence offlattening.

He immediatelyembarkson thegridmethodTrackerObservationProcedures tosearch the entire area.What he finds is four definite areas of flattening in an all-arounddefensiveposture,withapossiblefifthareaof flatteningnearwhatcouldbetheirperimeter.Hedocumentsthesignsandreturnstotheteamtofillthemin.

“Thecompressionof the flattenedsites indicates thatwemayhavegainedevenmoreground.Myestimateismaybetwohoursold.”

Badillaoffershisestimate. “Theyaren’teven lookingbehind them foranyone,orthesignswouldbemuchmorepronounced.Withacivilianslowingthemdownandnoreasontohurry,wecaneasilygainanotherthirtyminutestoanhouronthemtonight.”

Samoagiveshisopiniontothewaitingcommander.“Theweatherreportindicatesafullmoonandplentyofcloudbreaks,soIsaylet’skeeppushingonuntilwecan’tseeanymoreandthenalittlefartherwithnightvisiongoggles.Ifwekeepgainingonthemlikethis,wecanhavethosesuckerssometimetomorrow,beforetheyreachanyinhabitedareas.”

Jordannodshisagreementandallowstheteamtocatchaquickmealbreakwhilehecalls inanotherreportandinformsheadquartersoftheir intent.Thatrequirementoutoftheway,theteammovesoutagain,followingBadillaastheTracker.

Badilla’s abilities are stretched to the limit as he feels themounting pressure oflocatingdefinitivesigns,watchingforboobytraps,andkeepingtheteammovingatarapid pace. His extensive training and experience extend his ability to do thiseffectivelyoveranyothermemberoftheteam.

Heleadsthemalongtheedgeoftheriveruntil thetrailonceagainascendsontothe ridgeline.Withnight falling rapidly, themenpauseonly todon theirnightvisiongoggles.Theysteadilypushthemselvesuntil thecloudscover the light fromthefullmoon.Theynowstopforthenight—orwhatfewhoursremainofit—atopasmallhill.In themorning, theywill be able to see far andwide in all directions, hopeful of asmallglimpseoftheChase.

Asthefirstmanpreparestostandguard,DayTwocomestoaclose.

CHAPTER5

HowLongHasItBeenSinceWeLastMet?

Timepresentandtimepastarebothperhapspresentintimefuture.Andtimefutureiscontainedintimepast.

—T.S.ELIOT

In chapter 3,we learnedhow touse all of our senses to fully “see”whatwasalready before us. Chapter 4 taught us how to differentiate between differenttypesofvisualsignsandhowtotellthedifferencebetweenanaturaloccurrenceandanactualsignleftbyourChase.Identifyingasignisgreat,butidentificationalonecannottellusmuchabouttheChase’scurrentlocation.Canyoujudgethesign’sage?Canyou tellhowlong it’sbeen thereandhowlongago theChasepassedthisway?One of the most difficult things a Tracker must learn is to determine how

much time has elapsed since a sign was made. This is perhaps the mostmysterious element to thosewho are unschooled in tracking, the one elementthat elicits thegreatest awe from thenon-Tracker.But, like the sights, sounds,andsmellsspokenofearlier,onemustsimplylearntoreadandinterpretwhatisalreadythere.EvenanoviceTrackershouldbeabletomakeareasonableassumptionabout

theageofanysign.Andaswithanythingelse,practicewillgiveyoutheedgeyouneedwhenitreallycounts.

HUMANANDANIMALEXCREMENTIn chapter 3,wediscussed various odors, including that of human and animalurineandfeces.Let’stakethatastepfurtherandusethatexcrementtohelpusdeterminethepassageoftime.Chapter1includedanexcerptinwhichaNativeAmerican Tracker examined horse droppings and determined not only thespecific grasslandswhere the animal had grazed but also howmuch time hadgone by since the droppings had been left. While not an exact science,determiningtimepassagecanbeaccomplishedwithafewclues.Takeacloselookattheexcrement,eitherurineorfeces.Themoisterandmore

fly-congestedit is,withahighconcentrationofsmell, thelesstimehaspassedsince itwas left.Conversely, themoredehydratedand less fly-congested it is,with lessconcentrationof smell, the longer ithasbeensince theexcretion.Toobtainamoreexactknowledgeoftherangeofdetails,timeitandanalyzeitinyourlaboratory(laterinthischapter).Incoldtofreezingconditions,cutinhalforopenthefeces.Theinnermoistureandheatwill tellyouitsfreshness.(Yes,it’sadirtyjob,butjustremember:Ifitsmellslikeitandlookslikeit,yousurelydonothavetotasteit!)LIVINGCREATURESANDPLANTLIFEHere,again,knowledgeoftheflora(plantlife),fauna(wildlife),andinsectsofyour immediate surroundings is paramount to success. In your climatic andgeographicregionoftheworld,knowingwhencertainspeciesofanimalscomeouttofeedandatwhattimeinsectsarethemostactivewillcertainlyprovideaclueastothetimeaChasetraveledthroughthearea.For instance,most deer travel towater to drink during the late evening. If,

duringthedeadofnightorthecrackofdawn,younoticeafreshdeer’shoofprintin themiddleofyourChase’s shoeprint,youcanconcludewith fair accuracythat the deer arrived after the Chase. If, however, your Chase’s shoe print issuperimposedonadeer’shoofprint,youcanalmostconclusivelydeterminethattheChasewas there after the deer. If the deer of the area normally go to thewater source between approximately 8:00 p.m. and 9:00 p.m., and your teamnoticesafreshhumanfootprintover thedeerprintat11:30p.m., the teamcanprettysafelyassumethattheChaseisamere2.5to3.5hoursahead—orless.Anotherexampleisaspider,whichconstructsawebduringthelateeveningto

capture late-flying insects (see figure 5.1). Thesewebs are often strung alongnarrow trails that are wide enough to capture flying insects yet close enoughfromoneside to theother tomakethewebconstructionquickandeasy.If the

Chase’s prints are discovered in the early morning below a newly createdspiderweb, theTrackercanassume that theChasehadpassed through theareapriortothelateeveningofthedaybefore.

Figure5.1Spiderweb.

Earthwormcast is another clear indicator of recent travel.Now, I ambynomeansawormexpert.IcoulddazzleyouwithLatinnamessuchasOligochaeta,Lumbricusterrestris,andLumbriculida,allpartofthewormpopulationknownas “segmented worms,” but unless you are a pathologist or biologist, all youneedtoknowisthatwormsareslimyandsoft.Someearthwormsareshort,somearelong,someareskinny,andsomearefat.Ihaveyettoseeaprettyone.

Figure5.2AMoundofwormcast—undisturbed.

Figure5.2BSamewormcast—crushedbyboot.

A fact well known to many anglers, worms appear on the surface of thegroundafter rainfallor atpredawn for air.As they travel, they simultaneouslyleaveamoundor trailofmoistmudpellets,called“wormcast.” In tropicalorsubtropical regionsofSoutheastAsia,wormcast takesplacebetweenoneand

six o’clock in the morning, climate determining the exact hours it appears.Earthwormsarenottoofondofsunlight;therefore,beforedawn,theyreturntotheirsweet,coolmotherearth.Atrailofwormcast thathasbeencrushedbyahumanbootwasmostlikelydisturbedafterthosehours,indicatingamorerecentpassage (see figures 5.2A andB).Conversely, footprints covered by a trail ormoundofwormcastmostlikelyoccurredbefore1:00a.m.(seefigures5.3A,B,and C). Formore information about these creatures, ask your local hard-corefishers.Theywillbeabletotellyoumostanythingyoucaretoknow—andsomeinformationyouwouldrathernot—aboutearthwormsinyourneckofthewoods.

Figure5.3AWormcast—beginningtraces.

Figures5.3BWormcast—closerview.

Figure5.3CWormcast—fullnight’swork.

InthePacificNorthwest thereareparticularspeciesofbelly-crawlersknownas slugs. They are similar to snails except that they have no shell and areextremelyslimy.Duringthenightandpredawnhours,theycomeouttofeedonnew, tender plants, much to the dismay of area gardeners and florists. Slugs

leaveaverydistincttrailofgelatinousoozethatdriesandhardenswiththesun.Whendisturbed,theappearanceofthetrailwilltellyouifitwassmeared(whilestillmoist)orbroken(afteritdried).Thisclue,ofcourse,willgiveyouagoodindicationofwhentheChasetraveledthroughthearea.Thepossibilitiesofthesekindsofexamplesarenearlyendless,limitedonlyby

one’s knowledge of the animals, plants, and insects of a geographic area.Becausethisbookismerelyanoverview,Idonothavetheluxuryofexaminingthe habitat and living habits of every possible living creature. There are otherways,however,todiscoverforyourselfhowthepassageoftimeaffectsobjectscommon to inhabitants of certain regions, while giving you the firsthandobservationrequiredofthemostexperiencedTracker.Onewayis togooutwithaseasonedTracker,watching,smelling, touching,

andlisteningasheorsheexplainsthevariancesofsignsaccordingtotheamountoftimethathaspassed.FewnoviceTrackershavethatkindofopportunity.Anotherway to learnabout thepassageof time ismuchmore scientific, for

thoseofyouwhoareanalyticallymindedand/orhavethepatiencetowatchtimeunfoldbeforeyoureyes.Thismethodhasgreatlyaidedme indetermining theageofvarioussignsandhasenabledmetobuildadetailedandhighlyaccurateTracker Analysis Database. It consists of an actual controlled laboratory testconducted in the outdoors over a predetermined period of time, duringwhichyou can actuallywatch, observe, andnote the changes that affect bothnaturalandobjects.

CONTROLLEDLABORATORYTESTAcontrolled test is a systematic or logical procedure for judging the age of asign. Itwill allowyou to see firsthandhowcommonobjects andnatural signsageandchangeovertime.Thesetupisquitesimple,andtheexperimentfollowsmethodsnormallyusedinatypicalscientificstudy.The first andmost important requirement is to find a secluded location that

will not be disturbed by people or by animals outside the range of theexperiment,suchasdogs,cows,orotherdomesticatedanimals.Selectaspotinanareawhereyouwouldmostlikelybetrackingsomeone,butprotectitinsuchamannerthatitwillnotbevictimtoactsofvandalism.Ifyouwanttobeabletoreadthesignsoftheanimalsnaturaltothearea,however,thenavoidhighfencesor barriers that cannot be jumped or breached by native animal and insectinhabitants.Thesecondrequirement is tofinda locationthathasbothexposedandcoveredareas.Dependingonwhichtypeofclimateyoulivein,dividetheareaintosections

thatequalthenumberofseasonsyouexperience.Ifyouliveinanareathathasonly awet and dry season, divide the area into two sections; if you live in atemperate climate with four distinct seasons, divide your laboratory into foursections. Then further divide each section into two compartments. Onecompartmentshouldbeexposedtotheelements,topermitthefullimpactofsun,rain,snow,wind,andotherweatherphenomena.Theothercompartmentshouldbeunderthenaturalcoveroftrees,bushes,orotherplantlife(seefigure5.4).

Figure5.4Combinedtestarea.

Dependingontheabundanceorlackofwide-openspacesornaturalcover,youmay find it easier to cordon off the exposed and covered areas first and thendividethoseareasintothetwoorfourseasonalcompartments(seefigure5.5).

Figure5.5Dividedtestarea—shelteredandunsheltered.

The contents of each compartment will hold a wide variety of natural andman-madeobjectsandshouldcoverthespectrumofwhatyouwouldexpecttofind during the course of a routine hunt or search and rescue operation. Theyshouldcontainanythingyouwouldliketoobservethroughouttheagingprocess,includingbutnotlimitedto:avarietyofcutplantsabundantforeachseason;cutandscratchedtreesofmanyvarieties;brokentwigs;acampfire;shoeand/orbootprintsmadebyadultsandchildren,maleandfemale,withaheavypackandwithno load at all; feces and urine; trash, such as newspapers, candy wrappers,food/soda/beer cans, cigarette butts, toilet paper,matchsticks; and food. Everyattempt should be made to secure items that could be blown away, either bytackingthemortyingthemdown.

ConductoftheExperimentFor each season, you will be setting up two compartments at a time, onesheltered,theotherexposedtotheelements,eachcontainingidenticalitems.Theshelteredcompartmentshouldutilizeanaturalcanopyoftrees(buildingashelterwould defeat the purpose of observing the items in a natural setting). Puttogether the compartments during the peakof each season. InNorthAmerica,throughout themajority of theUnited States, for example, the peak of springwould be May 10; summer would be July 10, and so on. For the tropics ofSoutheast Asia, the wet season is May to October, while the dry season isNovembertoApril.Thepeakswouldbehalfwaythroughbothseasons.Build each individual sign in its most natural state, as it would naturally

happen. Create a genuine atmosphere for your items, including, as I alreadymentioned,anatural canopy foryour sheltered items. If replicatingaChaseatrest,don’t just siton theground foroneminuteand thenuse thisasanactualillustration of a resting person. You would be wasting your time and foolingyourself.Takeoffaheavypack,dropittotheground,plopdownbesideit,andstretchyourfeetout,munchingonacandybaroreatingamealfortentothirtyminutes.Orrearrangethepackanduseitasapillow,thenliedownandtakeanap for an hour or overnight.Crumple the candywrapper and throw it down.Walkthroughsometallgrass,mud,andsand;runthroughsometreesorbrush,breaking,tearing,orscratchingbark,leaves,branches,orexposedroots;climbashortrise;splashacrosssomewater.Evenwhenurinating,dosoasyouwouldnaturally,withmalesstandingandwomensquatting.Let your imagination, time, and area of availability be your guide. Just

remembertodoeachofthesethingstwice,onceforthecoveredareaandoncefortheexposedareaineachseasonalcompartment.I have already mentioned that one of the things that set early American

Trackers apart was their ability to tell the race, tribe, or home region of anindividualbyexaminingtheirexcrementortheirhorses’droppings,asdidPoorElk in chapter1.Thisnext sectionwillhelpyou recognizecharacteristics thatwillletyoudothesame.

WhatYouEatIsWhatYouLeaveAnimalsthatliveinaparticularhabitatormigratefromonegeographicareatoanother on a seasonal, instinctual, or survival basis can be identified by their

scat. Itcanalsobesaid thataparticularnationalityor regionofpeoplecanbeidentifiedbytheirexcrement.Nowthattheworldisa“smallerplace,”importsandexportsoffoodallowan

individual tomaintain anear exact diet to that of hishomecountryor region,thoughhemaybehalfwayaroundtheworld.Inthesameway,foodfromothercountriescanchangetheeatinghabitsofdomesticpeople,aswilltravelingtoaforeigncountryandeatingthefoodsofthelocalnationals.IfyouweretotraveltoThailandandeatethnicThaifood,yourexcrementwouldbethesameasthatofnativeThaipeople.Ifthreepeoplefromthreedifferentcountriesweretoeatthe exact same food and beverages in proportion to their capable intake, theexcrementofeachwouldbethesame,aslongasthethreehadbeenacclimatedtotheregioninwhichtheywereeating.Hence,ahuman’sexcrementisadirectreflectionofdietafterdigestion.Inordertogetagoodfeelforwhattheexcrementofthreedifferentdietsmight

look like, I have devised an experiment that you can utilize within thecompartmentsyouhavealreadysetup.Ifyouconducttheexperimentcorrectly,yourownwasteproductsshouldlookverysimilartothephotosIhaveincludedhere.

WeekOne

Diet: Primary—Salmon,venison,nutsFruit—Black/blueberriesBeverage—water

Excrement: Residueofundigestednuts,berryseedsColor—midtodarkbrownAppearance—moistyetrigid,segmented(seefigure5.6A)

WeekTwo

Diet: Primary—Trout,sardines,smallgrainriceFruitandVegetables—Tropicalfruit,consistingofpartiallyripemangoes,ripepapaya,ripebananas,kiwi;mushroomsBeverage—Coconutmilkwithwater,tea

Excrement: Residueofundigestedpapayafiber,mango,andmushroomColor—lightbrownAppearance—moistandsoft(seefigure5.6B)

WeekThree

Diet: Primary—Chicken,oil,vinegarFruitandVegetables—tomatoes,carrots,celery,cucumbers,lettuce;peaches,oranges,nectarinesBeverage—water,carrotjuice

Excrement: ResidueofundigestedcucumberseedsColor—darkbrownAppearance—moist,veryrigidandsegmented(seefigure5.6C)

This diet should be followed exactly for three straightweeks.To obtain thesameresultsIhaveshownhere,youmusteattheexactsamefoodsanddrinkthesame beverages. Start each new diet at dinner/supper time, drinking plenty ofwater to flush out the last diet’s excrement.Wait until the third result of yourexcrementorjustpriortocommencingthenextdiet,togetthebestresultoftheentireweek’sintake.Thiswillallowyourbodytofullyprocesswhatyouhaveeatenduringtheweekandwillgivethebestreflectionofyourdiet’sexcrement.Enjoy yourmeals, and don’t forget to deliver your “product” into your test

area(s)toexaminetheeffectsoftimeandweather.

Figure5.6AWeekOne(humanwaste).

Figure5.6BWeekTwo(humanwaste).

Figure5.6CWeekThree(humanwaste).

Onceyouhavesetupyoursites,analyzethemoveraperiodoffivedays,andthenweekly thereafter until the peak of the following season.Youmustmakecopiousnotes,takepictures,and/ordrawdetailedsketchestoaidyourrecallofwhatyouhaveobserved.Initially,youmaywant tomakenoteofhourlychanges:Howsoondoes the

trampled grass stand back up?Atwhat point does the sap of scratched or cuttreesstarttoooze,stopoozing,andchangecolor?Whendotheleavesofbrokenbranchesstarttowither?Howsoonisabitten-intoapplecoveredinantsand/or

flies?Whatdoesamuddyprintlooklikeafteranhourofsun?Atwhatpointdotheedgesstarttodryoutandlosetheirsharpness?Dowhateverisnecessarytoaidyourmemory.As your senses are aggressively probing the area, make note of the sticks,

twigs,leaves,andgrassesthathavebeenbent,broken,crushed,bruised,orcut,thus making nature bleed as a rubber tree does. In the area of impact wherenature’s“flesh”hasbeenexposedtotheoutsideelements,discolorationwilltakeplace. A good example of this is an apple after it has been bitten into. Theexposedarea turnsbrown fromoxidation.Ableeding tree is comparable toanindividual who has been cut. Assuming the person is not a hemophiliac, hisbloodbeginstocoagulateanddarkenincolor,soonbecomingascab.Arubbertreebleedsawhitesubstancecalledlatex.Latexstopsleakingwithintwohours.Eight hours later, it hardens. After an additional twelve hours, the originallywhitelatexchangestoadarkbrown.Fallenlatexleaves(deadfall)willbegintoturnbrownwithinthreedays.How does understanding the cause and effect of flora breached from its

serenityaidyou?Let’staketherubbertreeasanexample.Youhavebeenonachasefortwodays.YouhavenoticedthatyourChasehassetapatternofusingasharpobjecttocuttrees.Onthisoccasion,youhavecomeacrossarubbertreethathasbeencut;thelatexiswhitish-beigeincolorandsemi-hard.Basedontheabove information or experience, you can safely assume that it has beenapproximatelysixhourssincethecutwasmade.Priorknowledgeofhowflorarespondstovarioushumandisturbanceswillbe

advantageous forcomparison,butevenwithout thatknowledge,youcanmakeanon-sitecomparison.Ifa tree issecretingsap,attempt tomakeamirror-typeincisiononthesametypeoftree.If theflowofthesapisofequalspeed,thenyoucansaythatithasnotbeenlongsincethisincision.Butiftheflowofsapisslowerthanthenewlybruisedorcuttree,youcansaythattheoriginalincisionhasnotbeenrecentlymade.Someflowers releaseanodorwhen tornorbroken. Ifyouencounteraplant

thathasrecentlybeeninjuredandtheaffectedareahasnotchangedcolor,goandsmelltheplant.(Note:Itisimportantthatyoublowyournosebeforesamplingthesmellsofvariousitems.Youneedtoobtainthegenuinepotencyoftheodororfragrance.)Ifthereisanodororpleasantfragrance,attempttocreatethesamebruiseorabrasiononthesametypeofplant—thensmellit.Thedullertheodoroftheoriginalspecimen,theoldertheinjuryandviceversa.One example of this is a plant I have often encountered in the Caribbean,

CentralAmerica,andSoutheastAsia.Mimosapudicaisoneof1,700speciesofthe Leguminosa family. This particular plant can be found in tropical andsubtropicalenvironments,anditusuallyflourishes inopenfields. Ithasshootswith sensitive, bipinated leaves with four secondary stalks and auxiliary tightclusters of flowers (see figure 5.7). The leaflets of this plant close during thenightandopenatsunrise,muchlikethemorningglorydoesintheUnitedStates.Very sensitive to touch, it closes whenever it comes in contact with humanfingersorotherforeignobjects(seefigure5.8);lightrainwillnotcloseit.Onlythe portion that has been affected will actually close. If touched during thecoolnessofthemorning,betweenthehoursof6:00and8:00,itwilltakeuptothirtyminutesforthebipinatedleavestoopen,dependingontheheavinessofthedew.Betweenthehoursof8:00a.m.and10:00a.m.,itwilltakeapproximatelytwentyminutesfortheleavestoreopen.Iftouchedduringtheheightofday,withthe dryness and heat, it will be only three to five minutes before the plantreopens.Andastheeveningcomestoaclosewithnodewinthecoolnessofthetwilight,ittakestentotwentyminutestoreopen.Thoseplantsgrowingunderacanopywillexperienceaslightdelayintheprocessofopening.

Figure5.7Mimosapudica,open.

Figure5.8Mimosapudica,closed.

Therefore, knowing such things about the flora in your area will help youbecomemuchmorecompetentinestimatingthepassageoftime.Back at the lab site,watch various activities come to pass as time goes on.

Notewhen the animal life feeds, sleeps, and travels throughyour sites.Watch

andlistenfortheinsectsandspiderstomaketheirpresenceknown.Recordthetimeswhenthedewfallstartsandends.Andpaycloseattentiontotheweatheranditsimmediateandlong-termeffectsontheobjectsinyourlab.Thisanalysis,carefully studied, will give your senses a full flavor of how time and theelementsaffectyourlabitemsinanaturalsetting.Atthepeakofthefollowingseason,setupthesecondpairofsites(covered,

uncovered).Carefullyanalyzethefirstsetofsites,andthenconstructthesecond.Repeat this process for every successive season until all seasons have beencoveredandallseasonalsiteshavebeencompleted.Mostimportant,onceyouhavesetupthesites,donottouchorsanitizethem

inanyway throughout theentireobservationperiod. Ifyouforget to includeacertainitem,besureandinsertitatthesecondlocationduringthenextseason’ssetup.At the earliest stage, it is important that you develop a systematic Tracker

analysis report, using the art of observation and comparison. A criticalcomparisonofaspecificobjectmustbeperformedindetail.Carefullyobservethechangesinindividualobjectsastheychangeovertime;noticethedifferencesbetweenthetwosetsofsignsfromoneseasontothenext,notingthesimilaritiesand differences between the same objects in the two different sections.Whatcolor is the candy wrapper? How much did it deteriorate? Did the applecompletely decompose, did it simply dry out, or did animals and/or insectsacceleratethedecomposition?Howbadlydidthefoodcanrust,ifatall?Isthereeventhesmallestindicationofafootprintortravelthroughthesite?Whataboutthecuttree?Whilesometreessimplybruise,othertrees“bleed”

somekindofsap,latex,orothersubstancesimilartosyrup.Notethelengthoftime it takes for the tree to stop bleeding or leaking.How long did it take tocoagulate?Todarken in color?Howmuch timepassedbefore it scabbedoverandhardened?Whatdoesabrokenreedlooklike?Doesacutorbrokenfloweremitanodor

or fragrance?How longdoes it lastor remainpotent?Does the juice from thestem sting the hand or eyes and for how long? If a skunk has defended itsterritory with its strong spray, how long does the odor linger, how great aterritorydoesitcover,andwhichplantsholdontotheodorthelongest?Justkeepinmindthatforeachgeographicalarea,youwillneedtocommita

fullyeartostudyitthoroughly.

DatabaseYoumustnowcreateyourdatabase.Thisinformationwillbesuchthatyouwillreferback to it timeand timeagain,especiallywhenyouarehavingdifficultyjudging the age of a particular item. It is imperative that it be as accurate ashumanly possible. Remember, however, that the database is only good in thegeographic region inwhich itwascreated.Don’t expect thedata fromanaridregiontobethesameasthatfromawetorcoldregion.Thelookofthedatabasecanbewhateveristheeasiestforyoutoworkwith.

Every timeyoumakeanobservationofeachAgingStancemakeaLaboratoryObservationReportforyourdatabase(seeappendixE“LaboratoryObservationReport”).Don’tbeshyaboutcomingupwithyourownscenariosonceyouhavestarted

analyzingyourfindings.Remembertheexampleoftherubbertree.Ifithasbeencutandsecreteslatexthatiswhitish-beigeincolor,weknowthatthistreewascutapproximatelysixhoursearlier.IhavespentagreatdealoftimeinSoutheastAsia.IfIfindfreshwormcastwithintheconfinesofashoeprintat8:00a.m.,Ican generally say without reserve that the shoe print was made between thehoursof1:00a.m.and6:00a.m.Similarly, in North America, you have noted that the majority of wildlife

moves at night. If awhite-tailed deer’s print is superimposed over a person’sfootprint,youcanassumethattheindividualmovedthroughtheareasometimepriortothepreviousnight.Betteryet,comeupwithamultifactorscenario,suchastheonebelow.Thehouris7:30a.m.,youarewalkingonatrail,andyounoticethefollowing

signs:

1. Spiderwebsataman’sheighthavebeentornapart;theyareyellowincolor.

2. Freshflowingsapofawhitish-beigecolorisoozingfromarubbertree.3. Freshwormcasthasbeencrushedbyashoeprint.

What does this tell you? The torn spiderwebs could indicate that someonepassed through the area between late evening and early morning (the yellowcolor indicatesanewweb); theflowingsapfromtherubber tree indicates thattheincisionwasmadewithinatwo-hourperiod;andthecrushedwormcast(laid

between 1:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m.) indicates the shoe printwasmade after thebreakofdawn.All three indicators taken together conclude that the shoe print was made

abouttwohoursearlier,atabout5:30a.m.BetterkeepyoureyespeeledandyourriflesloadedifitisadangerousChaseyouareafter.

ALESSONINFORENSICSCIENCEThere is yet anotherway to determine the passage of time, but it is not one Irecommend that you include in your outdoor laboratory. Here, book studiesand/or college classes will have to suffice. This, of course, is the study offorensicpathology,orthestudyofdeadbodies.Corpses tellusmuchabout theamountof time thathaselapsedsincedeath,

becauseeachonepassesthroughverydistinctstages.Thepostmorteminterval,orPMI,involvesapredeterminedsetofstepsthatadecayingbodyexperiencesfromthetimeofdeathtocompletedecomposition.Thishappensinfourphases:rigormortis,orstiffeningof thebody;putrefaction,which is the rottingof thebody tissue; swellingorbloatingof the entirebody; anddecompositionof theflesh,tothepointatwhichallthatremainsareprimarilybones.There are threenaturalprocesses thatoccur in thebodyafterdeath, and the

extent of their development are clues to the estimated time of death. Algormortis refers to the change in body temperature. The body temperature of acorpse will drop, equilibrating with the environment and reaching its peak inapproximatelytentotwelvehoursatnormalroomtemperature(aboutseventytoseventy-fivedegreesFahrenheit).Intheoutdoors,highertemperaturesmayslowdown cooling, and cold weather may speed it up. Livor mortis, also called“lividity,”isthediscolorationofthebodythatdevelopsaftertheheartstopsandno longer pumps blood through the body. You can see livor mortisapproximatelyonehourafterdeath,butitisoftenapparentearlier,withintwentytothirtyminutes,usuallybecomingfixedinabouteighttotenhours.Thisisthedark,deoxygenatedbloodpoolinginpartsofthebodyclosesttotheground,anditisclearlyevidentasapurplecolorinalight-skinnedperson.Ondark-skinnedindividuals, it will appear darker or may not be visible at all. Loss of bloodbeforedeathwillalso lessen theappearanceof lividity,whilecertaincausesofdeath,suchascarbonmonoxidepoisoning,cyanidepoisoning,andhypothermiaoftencausetheskintoappearbrightredorpink.17Rigor mortis, as mentioned above, refers to the stiffening of the body that

begins shortly after death and sets in approximatelyonehour after death.Theprocessstartsatthehead,movesdownthebody,andfinallyactsuponthelegsand feet last, causing boardlike stiffness. This timeline, however, can besomewhatmisleading,according toDr.DungXuanNguyen.Though it iswellaccepted that the jawstiffenswithinanhourafterdeath,completerigormortis

could take as long as twelve hours. The process starts to occur within thirtyminutesandtakesuptotwelvehourstoreachitsfullterm.18AmoreexactPMItimelineofthisfirststagecanbefoundinTimeofDeath,

DecompositionandIdentificationbyJayDixandMichaelGraham.Althoughtheexact time of death cannot be determined unless witnessed, there is normallysufficientevidenceonthebodyitselftoreachacloseestimate,especiallywithinthefirsttwelvehoursafterdeathhasoccurred.Beyondthese initialstagesofdecomposition, the timeintervalbetweeneach

successivestagedependsentirelyupon theclimaticconditionssurrounding thecorpse.Isitlocatedinanaquatic(water)orterrestrial(land)environment?Isitssurfacecompletelyexposed,orhasitbeenburiedpartiallyortotally?Whatkindofcarnivore,insect,orrodentactivityhastakenplacesincedeath?Howlargeisthebodyandwhattypeofclothingwaswornbytheindividual?

DecompositionBy far themost influential factor on decomposition is temperature.19Tropical,subtropical,and/orwarmclimatesexpeditethegrowthofthebacteriathatcausedecomposition. In the South Pacific and Asia, studies give us a glimpse ofdecompositiontimeintervalsinthetropics.Forexample,inSriLanka,anislandoffthecoastofIndia,putrefactioncanoccurwithintwenty-fourhours;swellingof the whole body can happen within sixty to seventy-two hours. A bodyexposed to direct sunlight and outdoor heatmay decomposewithin a twenty-four- to forty-eight-hour period, at which time visual identification is nearlyimpossible.20Subfreezingareas,ontheotherhand,preservebodiesforlongperiodsoftime.

Noterecentdiscoveriesofcenturies-oldmammothsand“icemen.”

MummificationAncientEgyptiansperfectedthescienceofmummification,givingustheage-oldfodder for classic novels and Friday-night thrillers. But mummification canoccur naturally, too—arid deserts also preserve bodies in this way. Dix andGrahamprovideanexcellentdescriptionofthenaturalmummificationprocess:Mummification occurs in hot dry environments where the body is able todehydrateandbacterialproliferationisminimal.Theskinbecomesdark,dryandleathery.The internalorgansdesiccateandshrink.Mostmummificationoccursinthesummermonthsbutmayalsooccurduringthewinterifthetemperatureiswarmenough.Anentirebodycanmummifyinafewdaystoweeks.Astheskindriesandhardens,thesofttissuesdecompose.Afterafewweeks,anentirebodymayappearpreservedwithsomeshrinkageduetodehydration.If,however,anincision ismade through the skin, soft tissues, fat and internal organsmaybevirtuallyabsentwiththebodyresemblinga“bagofbones.”Oncethebodyisinthis state, it may remain preserved for many years unless the skin is torn orbroken. Mummification localized to certain parts of the body is relativelycommon.Mummificationofthefingersandtoesoccursreadilyinrelativelydryenvironmentsregardlessoftemperature.21

SkeletonizationCompleteskeletonizationalsodependsonenvironmentalfactors.Accordingtoastudy conducted by theUniversity of Tennessee, inmoderate climates a bodywill usuallydecomposedown to just skeletal remainswithin sixweeksduringthe summer and within four months in the winter cold. Of course, this timeinterval is significantly accelerated “when postmortem animal activity” speedsuptheprocess.22Ihaveincludedheretwomedicalexaminer’schartsthatapproximatethetime

of death according to specific bodily changes (see figures 5.9A and B). Thisshouldassistinthetimeintervalidentificationfromrigormortistoadipocere(awaxysubstancethataccumulatesonthefattypartsofthebody;itmayprotectacorpsefromdecomposition).

•••

As with other signs noted by experienced Trackers, the study of forensicpathology offers clues regarding the actual passage of time. Aging, whetherestimatingthetimeofaperson’sdeathordetermininghowlongagoafootprintwasleft,isnotsomethingthatcanbelearnedovernightorafteracoupleoftripsoutinthewilderness.Theserioustrackingstudentwilluseallavailablemeanstolearn about the age of signs, including one-on-one instruction, reading, andhands-on experimentation. As is true with nearly all factors of tracking, thisskill,too,reliesheavilyonexperiencebeforeanindividualcantrulybecomeanaccomplishedTracker.

Freshwater

Seawater

Stage

Description

Time

Time

Fresh Absenceofsignificantdiscolorationorbloating;rigormortisandlivormortismaybepresent

0–2days 38 0–3

days 22

Earlydecomposition Significantdiscolorationandearlytofullbloating 2days–1week 11 2days–1week 4

Advanceddecomposition

Beginningofadipoceredevelopment;saggingandbleachingofsofttissue;erosionofsurfacetissue

1week–1month 13 ? 2

Skeletonization Exposureofskeletalelements;oftensignificantadipoceredevelopment

1monthorlonger 1 ? 1

ReprintedwithpermissionfromForensicTaphonomy:ThePostmortemFateofHumanRemains,CopyrightCRCPress,BocaRaton,Florida.Figure5.9ATable1StagesofDecay,CriteriaforClassification,DurationofTimeintheWaterandSampleSizeforSeawaterandFreshwaterCases

TimeafterDeath

PostmortemChanges

Modifiers

Category

Stage

0minutes

Circulationandbreathingstop

Pallor

Earlylividity

Muscularrelaxation

Sphinctersmayrelax

Temperature

Humidity

Outdoorlocation

Indoorlocation

Submergedinwater

Earlychanges

2hours

Vascularchangesineye

Rigormortisbegins

Algormortisbegins

Lividityeasilyseen

Latechanges

4–5hours

Coagulationofblood

Fixationoflividity

24hours

Dryingofcornea

Reliqueficationofblood

Putrid

Tissuechanges

II

48hours

Rigordisappears

Intravascularhemolysis

III

72hours

Lossofhairandnails

96hours

Skinslippageandbullaformation

Bacterialovergrowth

Insectactivity

Animalactivity

Bloated

IV

V

Days-months

Greendiscoloration

Bloating

Releaseofgases

Releaseofliquifiedinternalorgans

Graduallossofsofttissues

Partialskeletonization

Completeskeletonization

Mummification

Adipocereformation

Destruction

Skeleton

VI

VII

VIII

XI

X

ReprintedwithpermissionfromForensicTaphonomy:ThePostmortemFateofHumanRemains,CopyrightCRCPress,BocaRaton,Florida.Figure5.9BTable2PostmortemChanges

THEPURSUIT:DAYTHREE

Before leaving the relative security of the hilltop, the team members reapplycamouflage;eject,retrieve,andwipedrythechamberedroundsfromtheirweapons;reload new rounds to prevent possible misfire; double-check their equipment; andmakesuretheyarereadyforanyencounterthatmaytakeplaceduringtheday.

MajorKimapproachesJordan.“Pleaseensurethatthecivilianisnotharmed.”Jordanaddresseshisconcern.“Major, thecivilian isnotmyworry.Mymenknow

the difference between combatants and noncombatants. Target recognition is wellingrainedintheirtraining.It’syouIamworriedabout.I’msureyouareagreatsoldier,but we have never trained together. Follow our lead. Once we have dominated,captured, and/or neutralized our targets, then you can safeguard and reassure thenoncombatant.”

Samoa takesa fewminutes topeer throughbinoculars inalldirectionsonce thefirstraysofdawnlightenthesky.Heneitherseesanyonenorhearsanythingfromtheteam’s hill to surrounding ridges or down into the valleys, except the sights andsoundscommontothesmallfarmsdottingtheregion.

O’ConnortakestheprimaryTrackerpositionthismorningtogiveBadillaa longerbreak and to ensure that the teammedic is not on pointwhen eventual contact ismade.Followingasuddenchange indirection, theyheadsouthwest,goingdownafinger,andthencrossingtheHunChiangStream.Theycontinueinthisdirectionforanother half kilometer, when O’Connor comes across fresh pointers, indicatingdownhillmovement.

HeleadsthemacrosstheYeongChiangStream,andshortlythereafterhenoticesa quick change in direction up the hill to their left. He signals a quick halt andimmediate silence, as the team drops and takes cover. Their Chase may havediscovered the pursuit of their detachment and taken to the hill to put up a strongdefense.Although thesignsarestillat leasteighthoursold, there isnoway to tellwhetherornottheinfiltratorsarestillthere,indug-inpositions,readyforafight.

Badilla immediately takesoverasbothpointmanandTrackeras the teamusesthe bounding overwatch to advance up the hill. The detachment splits up into twoteams,oneoneithersideof the trail, taking turnsmovingasBadillastayswith theleadteamtoidentifyanyboobytrapsorpossibleambushsites.

At the topof thehill, the first teamdiscoversno infiltrators, and thedetachmentcomes together as Badillamoves into an area dotted with four flattened sites. Heseesthesamepatternofpancakingashedidthedaybefore,indicatingfourpeoplesitting inall-aroundsecurity.Nearoneof the flattenedspots, thereappears tobeacookingarea.Withinahalf-meterpatchofground,hediscoversthreesmallercirclesof heat-yellowed grass, small amounts of rice, and garlic skin. But here he findssomethingelse—ropemarksonsixof thetrees in the immediatevicinityof threeoftheflattenedsites.Uponcompletionofhispattern,hemakeshisnotesandreturnstotheteam.

“I think it’sprettyclear that thereare fourpeople in thisgroup,”Badillaexplains.“Fourclearlydefinedsittingareasandwhatappearstobeacookingarea,withonepersondoing thecooking. I foundpiecesof riceandgarlicwithin that zone, somyguessisthattheyareofAsianorigin.”

MajorKimcautionsthattheycouldbemakingitappearthattheyareAsian.TheycouldjustaseasilybeMiddleEasternprofessionalseatingnativefoodtobetterblendinwiththelocalpopulace.

“Eitherway, three of them are using hammocks.” Badilla smiles. “Theymust bepretty comfortable in their security if they feel they have the luxury of stringinghammocks.Ofcourse,ourunfortunatecivilianappearstohavespentthenightontheground.The ropemarksarevery fresh,as if theywerepulledoff the trees inabighurry.AndIfoundanumberofsmallsignsthatmayindicatetheyleftratherquickly.”He points toward the trail they have just come off. “It looks like they headed backtowardthetrailnomorethananhourago.Wecouldhavecomeclosetoasurprisemeetingifwehadn’tcomeupthisway.”

Jordan immediatelycallsback to thebasecampto report theirwhereaboutsandpossibleimminentcontact.Herequeststheteamsthathavebeenshadowingthemoneithersidetomoveincloserforpossiblesupportduringthefirefight.Thenheturnstotheteammembersandrelaysrendezvouspointsandcontingencyplanstobeusedforthenextthreehours.

In a careful hurry, the team follows the fresh trail downhill, Badilla noting freshwaist-high pointers on the way down and fresh boot prints near the stream. Uponcloserexaminationofoneoftheprints,Badillaconcludesthatitisthesameprinthesaw the day before at the Yeong Chiang crossing. He relays to Jordan throughO’Connorthattheprintisthirtyminutesorlessold.

Jordanordersaparallelpursuit,andtheteammovessouthofthetrailinimminentcontactformation.MajorKimmovesclosertothedetachmentcommandertoprovideimmediatetranslationofwhateverissaid.

In front, Badilla drops to his knee. Instinctively the other teammembers drop inunison,asiftheywerenotfive,butoneperson.Withhisnon-shootinghand,hepointswithhisindexfingerfullyextended,histhumbpointingdowninthesignalofenemyat

hisdirectfront.Hethenfollowsthatbyholdingupthreefingers,thenfive,indicatingthree infiltrators five meters away. Without a noise, they move into covered andconcealedpositions.

Thetallest,adistinctKoreaninanAdidasfleecesportsoutfitandappearingtobethe person in charge, stops suddenly and looks in the direction of the team,apparentlyseeingnothing.Hebeginsbarkingorders,and theKoreansscatter.Onegrabsaslightlybuiltlocalciviliandressedinjeansandaheavysweaterandpullshimbehindatree.Anotherdivesbehindarock,whiletheleaderdashesawayfrombothgroups,pullingwirefromhisequipmentbelt.

In an urgent whisper, Major Kim translates what he hears to Jordan. “They aregoingtokillthecivilianandsetaboobytrap!”

Jordansignalsastaggeredattackwithindividualimmediateactiondrills.Badilla rises and emerges frombehind a pine tree,when three rounds are fired

from a silencer weapon. Two whiz by his left ear, and the other grazes his rightforearm.Withouthesitation,O’ConnoravengesBadilla’sfleshwoundbydeliveringa“Mozambique”—twoshotstothechestandonetothehead—attheonewhoinjuredhispartner.

AstheNorthKoreanfallslimp,threecanistersofhighlyconcentratedwhitesmokefilltheareabetweenthetwogroupstocovertheinfiltrators’breakincontact.AssoonasthedeadKoreanfalls,themushroompickertakesadvantageofthedistractionandstartsyellingintheHangulMalKoreanlanguage.

MajorKimshoutsatJordanasshotsfireintheair.“Don’tshootattheyellingman!Hesaysheisbutafarmer!”

“Ifhe’snotathreat,hewon’tbeshot!”Jordanassureshim.O’Connorturnshisheadslightlyandyellsback.“Samoa,move!”Toprotecttheinitialassaultteamandkeeptheenemy’sheadsdown,bothBadilla

andO’Connor layaheavyvolumeofsuppressive fire,whileSamoaand therestofthe teammove forwardquickly by fire andmaneuver, remainingever awareof theenemy’sboobytrapsandtheirowninterval.

AsRowecrosseshissectorandapproachesthecivilian,theoldmancontinuestoyell,hishandsstillboundbehindhim.Hisfranticmovementsindicatethatthereisnoboobytrapattachedtohisbody.Rowegrabshimandtellshimtobequiet,histoneofvoicecrossingalllanguagebarriers.TheKoreanfarmerimmediatelyfallssilent.AfterRowe finishes sweeping the small objective, Major Kim approaches the old man,cuttingthetightropes,whichhavealreadydiscoloredhishands,andreplacingthemwithplasticflex-cuffsonhishandsandfeet.

Samoawhistlesasignal forO’ConnorandBadilla tomakethecross-sweepoverthedangerarea.Halfwayacross,Badillanearsthefalleninfiltrator.Inanervetwitch,theKorean’s handmovesas if towardhisweapon.Badilla double-taps himon thechest,immediatelyseeingtheignitedfuse.“Boobytrap!”

O’ConnorrushestoBadilla’sside,yanksopenhisfirst-aidpouch,andcutsthetwo-minute fuse with his surgical scissors, amazed that the North Korean soldiermanagedtoignitethefusebeforehisdeath.

Badilla and Rowe search the dead body as the rest of the team consolidates,reorganizes, and gives Samoa the ACE (Ammunition, Casualty, and Equipment)report. Jordanorders that thebooby trapbeblown inplace tomake the infiltratorsthinktheclaymoreminewentoffasplanned.Thentheycontinueonwiththepursuit.Whiletheboobytrapisbeingdetonated,RowecallsinaSALUTEreportwithdetailsaboutthelocationofthefarmer,stillanunknown,andthebodyofthedeadinfiltratorforfollow-onsecuritypatrols.Bythistime,theentireteamhasinsertedafreshthirty-roundmagazineintothemagazinewelloftheirM-4carbines.

Theunknowncivilianisstillpleadingthatheismerelyafarmer,buttheteamhasnochoicebut to treathimasapossible infiltratordisguisedasa farmer.MajorKimbelieves in the old man’s innocence and pleads his case to Jordan, but thedetachmentcommanderexplainsthereisnotimeandhewillbeproperlytakencareofbythefollow-onteams.Theoldmanistreatedhumanely,thoughlefttiedtoatreeastheteamcontinuestheirpursuit.

Samoa looks toward Badilla, who has already put a pressure dressing on hisforearmand isconductingtheTrackerObservationProcedures,andgivesthe latterthethumbs-upsignaltoresumethechase.

Thetrailiseasyandunobscurednow,thefleeinginfiltratorsmakingnoattempttocovertheirtrail.Withintenminutes,thesignsofrunningaretransformedtothoseofamorecasualpace, theChaseevidentlymoreconfidentafterhearing thebooby trapexplode.Theteamspreadsout,preparingforanenvelopment.

Within fifteen minutes of reestablishing the chase, Badilla again signals theappearanceof theenemy tohis front.Althoughmakinghaste, the twoarewalking,notrunning.

Jordan points to either side of the enemy, signaling the completion of theenvelopment.SamoaandRowetakeawidesweeptotherightsideoftheinfiltrators,BadillaandO’Connordoing thesameon the left.Once theyare inposition,Jordangivesthesignaltoattack.

ShoutsandgunfireeruptastheteamrushesatthestartledNorthKoreansoldiers.MajorKimyellsinKoreantosurrender.TheNorthKoreanleaderyanksapistolfromitsholsterandbegins firing towardSamoaandRowe.Jordan immediatelyendsthethreatwithwell-aimedshotstothechestandhead.AstheKoreanfallstotheground,thelastinfiltratorthrowsdownherAK-47andraisesherhands,yellingfrantically,“Noshoot!Noshoot!”Theteamsurroundsher,weaponstrainedonherlestshemakeanyfalsemoves,andsheisthoroughlysearchedbeforebeingcuffedandsecured.

“Holysmokes!”RoweexclaimsasheandMajorKimfinishthesearchofthedeadleader.“Lookatthis!”Heopenstheleader’spackandshowsatwo-foot-longcylinder

inscribedinKorean.“Tellthemwhatitsays,Major.”MajorKimnods.“Itsays,‘ChemicalproductofKanggyeandSakchufactories.’”“I’vegottruebluebugsinmyhands,brothers!”Roweshoutstriumphantly.Jordanshakeshisheadandlooksbackinthedirectiontheyhavejustcome.“They

wereheadedtowardthewaterreservoir.Goodjob.”Withinanothertenminutes,USandKoreanmilitaryforceslinkupwiththetiredbut

satisfieddetachment.Jordanrelinquishescommandandcontroltothem,turningoverthecapturedinfiltratorandrecovereditemstotheappropriateteams.[Note:Laterthatday, the detachment learns that the infiltrator has bitten off her own tongue whilebeingflownbacktoaninterrogationsite,justtokeepfromtalking.]

ThejointcoalitioncommandershakesJordan’shand,congratulatinghimonajobwelldone.Jordanrefusescredit,pointinginsteadtowardSamoa,Rowe,andtherestoftheteam.“We’rejustdoingourjob,sir.”

At1500hours,Detachment266isextractedfromthehillsofKorea.Missioncomplete.

CHAPTER6

WhatDoWeHaveHere?Whenspeculationhasdoneitsworst,twoandtwostillmakefour.

—SAMUELJOHNSON

Inthelastfourchapters,wehavediscussedtheessentialsoftracking.Wehavelearned how to identify a Chase, use our senses to find almost anyone,understandtheeffectofexternalfactorsonsignsleftbehind,anddeterminetheapproximateageofasign.Now, if we harness all we have learned, we can gather a great deal of

informationaboutourChasewith the slightest clue.Wecandiscovernotonlytheageofasign,whichwediscussedinchapter5,butalsotheChase’sdirectionofmovement;speed;numberofpeoplethatcompriseorarewiththeChase;kindof food consumed; health, morale; comfort items utilized; and types ofequipmentand/orweaponscarried.

GATHERINGTHEEVIDENCEInformation on your Chase is gathered in much the same way as a detectivewouldgatherevidenceatacrimescene.And,likewise,beforewecangatherourinformation,wemustpreserveourversionofthe“crimescene.”

PreservetheAreaThe place in which the first sign is detected is the most critical of all suchlocations. Here you will make your first determination regarding the Chase’sdirection of travel, speed, distance ahead, numerical strength, and overallcondition.YourinitialactionplanwillbebasedonwhatisdiscoveredaboutyourChaseduringthisopeningassessment—andinmanycasesyoucannotaffordtobewrong!Theinitialsearchforthatfirstsignmaybeincrediblyeasy,thesignblatantly

displayedforall tosee.Ontheotherhand, finding that firstsignmaytake thesharpest skills of the best Tracker. Either way, all team members must takeexceptionalcaretokeepfromcontaminatingtheinitialsearcharea.Preservation of this scene is essential to your success. Do whatever is

necessary to avoid contaminating the area until the initial search has beencompleted. With trained military and police Trackers, this does not normallycauseagreatdealofconcern;theseteamshavebeentaughttowatch,look,andlistenbeforesomuchastakingastepinanydirection.Youmustadoptthesamepractices,whetherbyyourselforwithateamofsearchers.Oncethefirstsignhasbeendiscovered,everyoneinvolvedinthesearchmust

stopandremaininplace.Normally,ifinagroup,thefirstpersontorecognizeasignwillgiveaverbalornonverbalsignalthatcanbeclearlyunderstoodbyallandinterpretedtomean“freeze.”Everyonemustunderstandtheramificationsofthisaction.Inahostilesituation,theteamtakesonasecurityposturewhiletheTrackerandcovermanperformtheappropriateTrackerObservationProceduretoreestablishtheChase’spath.Inanonhostilesituation,teammembersmuststillstop immediately, lest they accidentally step on a sign. Once a sign has beenobliterated or contaminated, it can never be recovered. Critical pieces ofevidencemaybelost,whichcouldhavelife-and-deathconsequences.The people who should cause the most concern are the untrained and

uninitiated. On a search and rescue mission, these may be the “GoodSamaritans”whohavecome tohelp find little Johnny.With themostnobleofintentions, they have little or no knowledge about how to conduct an initialsearch—andtheyeasilycontaminatethepointatwhichtheChasewaslastseen.Itisaclassiccaseofgoodinitiativebutbadjudgment.Thesearethepeoplewhoaremostlikelytosteponabootprintinthedirt,tositonflattenedgrass,ortocutoffabrokenbranchtouseitasawalkingstick.As aprofessional, I am frustratedby their ignorance, but as aparent I fully

understand theirdrive todosomething—anything—tofind theirchildor lovedone. They do not intentionally set out to destroy life-saving evidence, but theresultisjustasdevastating.The same can be said for outside observers in a police chase or military

operation. These may be reporters out to catch the “scoop” before theircompetitiongetswindofthestory;theymaybeexplorerscoutsparticipatinginan expedition to earn points or badges; they may be supervisors or higherrankingauthoritiesevaluatingtheactionsof theirsubordinates;or theymaybeinterpreters who speak the language of the Chase or the locals in the area ofoperation to ensure clarity of communication.Whoever these people are, theymustbebriefedontheirresponsibilitiesandbewatchedcloselythroughouttheconductoftheoperation.Ifbychancetheinitialsearchareadoesgetcontaminated,theteamwillneed

to utilize the track casting drill found in the following chapter beforecommencingtheirefforts.

DirectionofMovementOncetheinitialscenehasbeenpreserved,thefirstthingtheTrackerortrackingteammustdoisdetermineageneralizeddirectionoftravel.Aftertrackingforagivendistance,youwillbeable toestablish thedirectionyourChase isgoing,assuminghehasnoothermeansoftransportationbutmovingonthegroundbyfoot. Let us also presume that fresh shoe prints were recently found. If theseassumptions are correct, you should be able to establish a general cardinaldirection (north, northeast, south, southwest, etc.).Youhave just succeeded incuttingthesearchdirectionfromasweeping360-degreeareacircumferencetoamuchnarrowerthirty-toforty-five-degreesearchcorridor.Thisnotonlyreducesthe distance you will cover, but it also greatly reduces the time involved infindingtheChase.Directionoftravelisdeterminedanumberofdifferentways,asalludedtoin

the previous chapters. If you are fortunate enough to have a clear footprint,analyzeitcarefully.Don’tautomaticallyassumethatthedirectionoftheprintisthedirectionoftravel.Examinetheprint; takenoticeofthedeepestpoints, theweightdistribution,andthespacebetweenthestride.TheChasemayinfactbewalkingbackwardtodeceivehispursuers!(Seefigures6.1AandB.)

Figure6.1AWalkingbackward.

Figure6.1BWalkingforward.

Takeacloserlookatareasofflattenedgrassortallgrasstrails.Thetipsofthereedswill point like fingers toward theChase. Similarly, note the direction ofotherfoliagethathasbeenpancaked,brushed,bent,orbroken;thisalsopointsinthedirectionofourChase.Thesesigns,appropriately,areknownas“pointers”(seefigure6.2;alsoreferbacktofigures4.18,4.19,and4.20).Branchesbrokenandhangingdownwillstillleaveatelltalemark.Atthepointofthebreak,theportionhangingdown shouldbe at least slightly cocked to one side or lightlytwisted. See if you can tell which way the top of the leaves or needles arepointing.ThatismostlikelytheChase’sdirectionoftravel.Spiderwebscanalsoserveaspointers,sincetheytendtobreakawayfrom,butinthegeneraldirectionof, he who tore it. Likewise, brushed-off moss from rocks, trees, or vinesdisplacedfromtheirnaturalstate,orthetransferofmudfromawettoadryarea,arealsoclearindicators(seefigures6.3AandB;alsoreferbacktofigures4.4Band4.21).

Figure6.2Pointers.

Figure6.3AMudtransfer.

Figure6.3BMudtransfer.

Useyoursenses,aswediscussedinchapter3.Listenforsoundsofaradioorchopping wood; pay close attention to the cessation of or sudden increase ininsect sounds; watch for an explosive flocking of birds. Determine the winddirection, close your eyes, and take notice of whether or not you can smellsmoke,kerosene,orcookingfood.AllofthesewillexposetheChase’sdirectionofmovementortheparticularareainwhichhehassetupcamp.IftheChasehasableedingwound,hecanalsobetrackedbyhistrailofblood.

BloodTrailingExcretedbloodexaminedatthepointofimpactwilltellTrackersmanythingsbyitsconfigurationandcolor, if theyknowwhat to look for.At thispoint,bloodwillbeconfiguredinoneoffourwaysoracombinationofthefour,dependingonthevolumeofflow,thevegetation,andthespeedofthevictim’smovement.Bloodwill either bemade up of smears or blots, splatters, puddles, or drops.This configuration, in combinationwith the color, can tell you volumes aboutyourChase’scondition,typesofwounds,andlocationofwounds.

DarkRed.Bloodwithoutoxygenisdarkerthanthatfoundinarteries.Ifthecolorofthebloodatthepointofimpactisdarkred,indicatingalackofoxygen,thisusually means that the wound originated from a cut vein or a puncture. Ifuntreated, thewoundwouldemitaconstant flowofblood,andyouwouldseeconsistentsmearsand/ordropsofbloodinareasofheavyvegetation;morearidregionswouldrevealmoredropsonthegroundandfewersmears.

Red. If the blood is bright red, indicating oxygenation, the woundmost likelyoriginatedfromanartery.Thebloodwouldflowinaregular,pulsatingfashion,inkeepingwiththetimingoftheChase’sheartbeat.Withthistypeofuntreatedwound, heavy vegetation would contain a combination of smears, drops, andsplattersatregularbutseparatedintervalpatterns.

LightRed.Perhapsyouhavecomeacrossabloodsamplethatislightredincolororhastheappearancethatithasbeendilutedormixedwithotherfluids.Inmostcases,thiswouldindicateanabdominalwound,sincethebloodhasbeenmixedwithgastricfluids,intestinalfluids,bile,urine,orbowelmatter.Thesesampleswillalsoemitunpleasantodors.Thepatternofbloodfromthesewoundswouldbe inconsistent, since theymay flow irregularly. Bleeding from thesewoundsmay occur either internally, externally, or both, due to the diversion of bloodinto, say, the abdominal cavity. External flow occurs when the fluids aresuddenly released through the wound opening, either because the cavity hasfilled up and is overflowing, or because the Chase has exerted extra physicaleffort,bentover,orappliedpressurenearthewound.

Pink. Pinkish blood, which is usually foamy in appearance, indicates a chestwound resulting fromapunctured lung,and is the resultof themixtureofair,water,andoxygenatedbloodreactingwithlungfluid.(Note:Ifthechestwounddoesnotpuncture the lungs,expect toseedarkredorbrightbloodifanarteryhasbeenpunctured.)Flowfromthesetypesofwoundswouldbeslow,oozing,withthesmearsordropsundefinedandbubblyinappearance.Manytimes,thebloodfillsupthechestfirst,thenoozesfromthewound.Bloodfoundonfoliageatchestlevel,ontopofsignsfoundatchestlevel,and/orontopofgroundsignsallmayindicatethepresenceofachestwound.The pattern of the drops or droplets can also tell you the direction of travel.Because the fallofblood,asother liquids, isaffectedby themovementof theobjectorpersonitisreleasedfrom,itrarelydropsstraightdown.Ifyouweretotakeaball,walkdownthestreet,anddroptheball,youwouldfindthatitwouldbounce in the direction you were traveling, notwithstanding any rocks orirregularobjectsitmayhituponimpact.Ifyouwererunningwhenyoudroppedthe ball, itwould bounce faster in the direction youwere traveling.A similarthinghappenswithadropofbloodwhenitfallsfromaperson.Now,obviously,blooddoesn’tbouncelikeaball,soithastomakeadjustmentstoaccountforthecentrifugalforce.I’m sure everyone has seen the shape of a drop of water. In its absolutely

naturalstate(say,inspaceoravacuumbottle),itformsaperfectsphere,likeaball.Astheforcesofgravitytakeover,asinaraindropfallingtotheground,thelower end remains spherical in shape but the upper end is pulled into a coneshape.Ifthedrophitsthegroundfromanexactperpendicularangle,itspreadsoutinaprecisecircle,withperhapsafewsecondarysplashesgivingthecircleanappearancesimilartoacircularsawblade.Thehigherthedropwhenitbeginstofall,themoreruggedthecircleandthemorepronouncedthesecondarysplashesonce it hits the earth. Now release the drop of water from a slowly movingobject. The upper, cone-shaped end of the drop reacts to the movement and“flopsover,”pointinginthedirectionoftraveloncethedrophitstheground.Ifreleasedfromapersonorobjectmovingata fasterspeed, theconeendof thedropspreadsoutevenfurther.Thesamethinghappenswithadropofblood.To get a clear idea of what this would look like on a real pursuit, try this

experiment. Purchase some imitation blood. (This can be found in “goulashkits,” used by the medical profession for trauma case training, or you can

purchasetheater“blood”fromacostumeshop,whichmaybeeasiertocomebynearHalloween.)Althoughitisnotexactlythesameconsistencyasrealblood,itiscloseenoughtogainagoodunderstandingofthefallingpatterns.(Pleasedonotcutyourselftogetthe“realthing”!)Putitinaneyedropper,andfindaflatpiece of ground coveredwith a shiny, smooth surface (cement, tile, hardwoodwith no seams or cracks). Without otherwise moving, squeeze out a drop of“blood” fromvariousheights, for instance, fromankle,knee,waist, chest, andheadlevels.Noticethepatterneachdropleaves.Thendothesamethingwhilewalkingslowly,walkingatafastpace,jogging,andrunning.Again,makenoteof thepatternsyou see.You shouldnotice that the tipof thedroplet points inyourdirectionof travel;youshouldalsonotice that the tipbecomeslonger thefasteryourtravelspeed.In order to etch these patterns into your memory, take pictures or draw

sketchesof thepatternsat eachheight level andeach speedyou traveled.Youmaywanttokeepthephotosorsketchesinanotebooktowhichyoucaneasilyreferatalaterdateandtime.Forevengreateraccuracy,repeatthisexperimentondifferentkindsofterrainandinvaryingvegetation.Keep inmind,however, that actualpatternswilldiffer somewhat fromwhat

you saw above. For instance, blood from extremity wounds will not fall in astraight,preciselinebecauseoftheactionofwalking.Normallywhenapersoniswalking,heswingshisarmsbackandforth,oppositetheplacementofhisfeet.Immediately after the heel of the foot touches the ground, the foot holds thatposition for just a second. As a stride is about to take place, the foot rollsrhythmically onto the ball, then to the toes in order to maintain balance.Simultaneously,theoppositelegmakesaforwardmotion.Becauseof thismotion, swinginghandsandwalking/running feetwillcause

the blood to be tossed and scattered forward and backward, and possiblysmearedalongsidetheChase’spath.Thedropsfallingfromthebackwardswingwill have the tip pointing in the opposite direction of travel, and this couldconfusetheuntrainedTracker.Furtherobservationshouldyieldadditionaldropspointingintheactualdirectionoftravel.Comparethetwo,andyouwillfindthatthedropspointingintheactualdirectionoftravelwillhavelongertipsthantheonesdroppedfromabackwardarmswing.Ifthewoundisintheuppertorsoatchest/lungheight,bloodwillbefoundat

chestlevelorontheground,unlesstheChaseisstumblingordisoriented.Also keep inmind that blood is subject to the obstacles thatmay be in its

fallingairbornepath.Thiscouldincludebranches,rocks,equipment,shoes,and

an infinite number of other objects that will affect the fall and the resultingpattern.

SpeedofMovementThesecondelementaTrackermustdetermineistheChase’stravelspeed,whichwillgiveyouortheteamanideaofhowmuchtimeitwilltakeyoutoovercome,catchupto,orcloseinonhim.Letmegiveyousomeexamplesthatdemonstratespeedofmovementunderbothoptimumandtypicaltrackingconditions.In 1991, ArturMarrios ofMexico ran 13miles, 197 yards in one hour. In

1998, Tegla Loroupe of Kenya achieved 11 miles, 697.4 yards in the sameamountoftime.Theyaretherecord-holdersforlongestdistancecoveredinonehour.23 These are admirable feats of human speed, and I salute theiraccomplishments.Without a doubt, these athletes trained for their eventswithhardworkandstrictdiscipline.But let’sadd thirty, seventy,evenonehundredpounds to their backs, and let’s say their paths were uneven, burdened byobstaclessuchasmangroves,deepsnow,sanddunes,wadis,secondaryjungles,or mountains. One doesn’t have to be a physics major to conclude that theirtimeswoulddramaticallydecrease.Now let’s lookat theAppalachianTrail,which runs fromMaine toGeorgia

and covers a distance of 2,100 miles (supposing the hiker doesn’t go offcourse!).Thehard-core“thru-hiker”averages14.5milesperday(bothmaleandfemale)carryingaweightofthirtytoseventypounds.Onesurveyfoundthattheusualthru-hikerstartedat7:30a.m.andwalkedfortenhoursperday.Sometookafive-toten-minutebreakeveryhour;otherstookapproximatelyonehalfhourforlunchandmadethreeten-minutestops;allaveragedatotalofonehourperday break time, consumed by lunch, rest, snacking, views, and visiting withother hikers. Evenwith the steady pace and relatively light load, the averagethru-hikertook5.5to6monthstocompletethechallengingtrail.24TheaccomplishmentsoftheAppalachianTrailthru-hikersarealsoadmirable,

aswellashazardous.Butnowlet’slookattheaveragegroundforcesoldier.Agroundsoldiermustbereadytohitthegroundinwhateverplaceorclimate

he is ordered, whether acclimated or not. In his ruck (backpack) he will becarryingfiftytoseventypoundsofgearfromthePointofInfiltration(departurefromfriendlylines)totheObjectiveRallyingPoint(ORP—thelastrendezvouspoint before assaulting the final objective). He is on a route that has beendeliberatelyplannedtogivehim,histeam,andhisunitthetacticaladvantage,ata speed of movement commensurate with the climate, geographic conditions,and probability of enemy contact (possible, probable, or imminent), asdeterminedby intelligence reportsand the leader’sassessmentof thesituation.

Speedwillneverviolatesecurity;theelementofsurprisemustbemaintainedatalltimes.OncehereachestheORP,hisgeariscachedandreducedtoonlythatwhichisabsolutelynecessarytoaccomplishthemission,beitaraid,ambush,orothertacticalmaneuver.Thisusuallymeansoperationalequipment,extrameals,andwater thatwill sustainhimuntil he returns to friendly linesorperformsafollow-onmission.Let’s say he retrieves ten pounds of sustainable equipmentfrom his pack. In order to accomplish his mission, he must add his weapon,ammunition,nightvisiongoggles,twoquartsofwater,survivalgear,knife,first-aidkit,gasmask,grenades,smoke,andballisticsvest,allofwhichaddatleastanadditionalforty-fivepounds.Throughoutmycareer in theSpecialForces, Ihave learned that theaverage

soldiercarryingafifty-poundpackhasathirty-inchstepandtravelsatanormalpaceof106 stepsperminute. Ihavealsodiscovered that a typical soldier canmove cross-country, carry fifty pounds for four to eight miles per day, andsustainthispaceforfourdays.Thisincludesmeals,rest,sleep,andotherstops;itdoesnottakeintoconsiderationenemyactionorreaction.A US Army study calculated the average rate of movement on roads/flat

terrain,mountainousterrain,andcross-country,asfollows:

1. Road/flatterrain:4.0kilometersperhour(kph),daytime;3.2kph,limitedvisibility.

2. Cross-country(rollinghillsandvegetation):2.4kph,daytime;1.6kph,limitedvisibility.

3. Mountainousterrain,withextremeobstacles:ascent—300metersperhour;descent—600metersperhour.25(Note:Thiswillbeevenslowerwhendealingwithhighaltitude,snow,glacialcrevices,subzerotemperatures,deadfall,andproperequipment/clothing.)

Otherterraincanbecalculatedasfollows:Tropicalrainforest:1,000metersperhour/1kph.Deciduousforest,secondaryjungle,tallgrass(3to5meterstall):500meters

perhour.Mangrovesandswamp:100to300metersperhour.Ricepaddies:wet—800metersperhour;dry—2,000metersperhour.Plantations:2,000metersperhour.Trails:1,500metersperhour.26

Now,let’sputallthistogetherandapplyittothetrackingscenario.Usingthisinformation, calculateyour speed compared to the speedof yourChase, usingtheageof thelastsignleftbytheChase.Dothisatsucceedingsigns,andyouwillhaveaprettyclearindicationaboutwhetheryouneedtopickupthepaceorslowdown(basedonyourobjective).Say,forinstance,youaretraveling1,000metersevery100minutes(10meters

perminute);allsignsareindicatingthatyourChaseismaintainingaconstant3-hour-and-20-minute lead (200-minute lead). First, you are both traveling atapproximatelythesamespeed,buthehasa200-minutelead.Ifyoudoubleyourspeedto20metersperminutefor80minutes,youwillhaveeffectivelydoubledyourdistanceto2,000meterswithinthefirst100minutes.TheChasewillnowhaveonlyan80-minutelead.Atthatpoint,youwoulddecreaseyourvelocityasyourcontactbecomesprobabletoimminent,inordertomaintaintheelementofsurprise.(Neverviolatethenumberoneprincipleofpatrolling:security!)Other factors will also contribute to the team’s ability to close with and/or

engagetheChase.ExternalconditionswillhaveaneffectontheChase’sspeed,eitherbystiflingitoraidingmovement.Sand,roughterrain,andheavyfoliagewill slow down the Chase’s movement speed, while flat, open terrain willenhance hismovements. Likewise, theweather conditionswill also affect theChase’sspeedoftravel.Internalconditions,however,willalsoaffecthisspeed.Hisphysicalhealthor

conditioningwilldeterminewhetherornothecansustainafast,steadypace;itwill also determine the length of time he can sustain that pace. Likewise, theChase’smental statewill either assist or degrade his abilities to keep pushingahead. While anger or fear releases adrenaline, often strengthening a personphysically,depressionoranxietyfrequentlyweakensanindividual.Aperson’sspiritualstatecanalsoaffecthisabilitiestoeludehispursuers.One

whohasastrongbeliefinGod,Allah,oranotherhigherpowerwillgenerallybeable towithstand a great dealmore both physically andmentally, as has beenprovenrepeatedly inprisonerofwarcamps,prisons,andconcentrationcamps.Thosewhoexcelintheartsofmeditationand/orhypnotismcanoftenblockoutpain and fatigue, displaying an uncanny and almost superhuman ability toovercome harsh circumstances. An in-depth knowledge of your Chase (seechapter2)willprovidecriticalcluestohismental,physical,andspiritualstate.Thenumberandconditionof the signsyoucomeacrosscanalsobeagood

indication of the Chase’s speed. Numerous signs that have been blatantly leftbehindcould indicateoneof two things:either theChase ismovingextremely

fast, or he is luring you into a booby trap or ambush.Haphazardmethods ofcoveringsignscouldindicatethatyouaresoclosethat theChasedoesn’thavetimetocoverhistracks,oritcouldjustaseasilysuggestthattheChasehasnosense of discipline or knowledge of anti-tracking techniques or tactics. Aminimal number of signs may imply that the Chase is moving slowly andmethodically, covering his signs as he goes, or displaying a strict sense ofdisciplinebyleavingfewsignsinthefirstplace.Take careful note of the footprints found along the way. Shorter strides, a

deeperimprint,and/ormarksofdraggingcouldbeclearindicatorsthattheChaseiscarryingaheavyweightandismovingslowly.Wide,shallowimprintscouldlikewisesuggestthattheChaseiscarryingnoload.Longstrideswithdeepheeland toe marks as well as scattered dirt could well indicate that the Chase isrunning,butdraggingshoeprintsandahighnumberoftopsignsconsistingoftorn, broken, snapped, or bent foliage could be evidence of the Chase’sexhaustion.Regardlessoftheeaseordifficultyinfindingastride,youshouldanswerthe

followingquestions:IstheChasemovingquickly?IstheChasewalking?limping?carryingaheavyload?HowfastmustImovetofindorcapturehimwithstealth?

NumberofPeopleInordertoknowexactlywhatyouareupagainst,atleastinthecaseofahostilepursuit, you need to have an accurate count of the number of people you arechasing.Inmanycases,youmaynotknowthetotalnumberofpeopleyouarepursuingwhenyoustartout;ontheotherhand,theindividualorgroupyouarefollowingmaybejoinedbyothersalongtheway.DeterminingtheexactnumberofpeoplewhomakeupyourChaseisagaina

matter of scientific—or in this case mathematical—deduction. First note theconsistencyinthevariousprintpatternsthatyouhavebeenfollowing.Aretheseindividuals wearing boots, shoes, sneakers, or sandals?What kind of specificpatterndothesefootweartypesmake?Aretheywaffled,flat,ribbed,orcleated;dotheyhaveuniquebrand-specificcircles,squares,orothergeometricshapes?Onceyouhaveidentifiedthetypeandpatternoffootwear,youcanconcentrateoncountingthem.

Do the Math. Before you can mathematically calculate how many people havepassedthroughacertainareaorwalkedalongacertainpath,thereareacoupleoffactsyoumustbeawareof.First,youneedtoknowthattheaveragepersondoes not stepmore than oncewithin twenty-four inches on flat to rolling hillsurfaces (once for each foot). Second, you need to account for at least oneextendedstride.Thecalculationfromhereonoutisrelativelysimple.Findaplacewherethe

groupyouarefollowinghaseitherwalkedacrossatrailorareonatrailwherethe composition of the soil captures the imprint of soles.Measure off twenty-fourinches.Countthenumberofheelmarkswithinthatarea,thenaddonefortheextendedstride.Example:Ifyoucountedthreeheelprints,addonemoretoaccountforanextendedstridetoequalfourprintsandthereforefourpeople.Oneothermethodistodothemathbackward.Forthis,wemustknowthatthe

averagepersontakesafullstridewithinthirty-sixinches(recallfromchapter4that a full stride consists of two steps, one with each foot, and is measuredbetween theheelofone foot to theheelof theopposite foot). In thiscase,wewouldcounttheprintsinathirty-six-incharea(fourprints—ortwofullstrides—perperson) anddivideby two.Example: If therewere eight prints, divide thetotalbytwotogetagoodestimateoffourpeople.

Still one other technique is also fairly accurate in determining the correctnumberof people. In this case,make a note of themost prominent prints, theonesthatcatchtheeyeoftheTracker;theyusuallybelongtothelastpersonofthegroup.Measurethestrideofthisperson,markthestrideastheleftandrightboundariesoftheareayouwillbemeasuring(thetoeofthefrontprintandtheheeloftherearprintmarkthetopandbottomboundaries),countthenumberofprintswithinthisarea,anddividebytwotodeterminethenumberofpeople.Butlet’ssayyouareinaheavilywoodedareawhereyoucan’tseefootprints.

How are you supposed to count what you can’t even see? Obviously, themethodswould be different here. In this instance, patiencewill pay off.Waituntil you come across a rest or sleep site. Count the number of matted orflattenedareas(consistingof liveordeadvegetationordirt)usedforsittingorsleeping.Examinethetreesaroundthesite.Ifyouseeropemarks,indicatingtheuse of hammocks, count the number ofmarks and divide by two (hammocksnormally utilize two trees) to determine the number of sleepers—and don’tforgetthatthesametreemaybeusedformorethanonehammock.

KindofFoodConsumedIn chapter 2 we learned quite a bit about our Chase by the types of food heconsumed.By examining the food evidence left behind by ourChase,we canverify preferences, probable nationality, energy level, and even the load he iscarrying.Hisdietwillindicatewhetherheiskilling,harvesting,orcarryinghisown food. Canned foods will let us know that his load, at least in terms ofconsumableitems,isfairlyheavy.Dehydratedfoodswillindicateamuchlighterload, but they will also tell us that he needs a good supply of water to eatproperlyandkeephimselffromgettingdehydrated(inotherwords,hemaycarrythewater,followstreams,orzigzagfromlaketopondtoriver).The amount of food consumed will also provide important clues. If he is

eatinglargequantitiesoffood(say,over3,000caloriesperday),thismighttellusthatheisaverylargeperson,ishighlyathletic,orisexertingagreatdealofenergy due to heavy loads, fast movement, or both. If he is eating minimalamountsoffood(say,1,200caloriesorless),thiscouldindicatethatheissmall,carryingalightload,ormovingslowlyduetoalackofenergy.Packagesinwhichfoodhasbeensealedorheldwillalsobeimportantleads.

Wrappers, labels, or the packages themselves can tell us where the food waspurchasedor fromwhomitwassupplied. Ifweare followingColombiandrugsmugglers and observeweaponsmade exclusively in and available only fromItaly,wemayhavestumbledacrossatransnationalconnection.Ifwehavebeenchasing Burmese cross-border operatives and discover a cache containingChinesemilitaryrations,weaponsinThailandwiththemarkingsofVietnam,wemay be up against something much larger than we anticipated, such as aninternational, transnational, or national connection. At that point, we need tomark the area and immediately inform higher headquarters that we may bedealingwithnational-levelorhigheroperations.

MiscellaneousItemsandEquipmentInordertocompletethepuzzle,oratleastgiveusamuchclearerpicture,eachitemwefindmustbeevaluated.Thefollowingisalistofarticlesyoumayrunacross,alongwiththeirpossiblemeaningsorindicators.

Bandage wrappers, gauze, or strings from a store-bought adhesive strip:EvidenceofaninjuryandpossiblythetypeofinjurytheChasehassustained.Cigarettebuttsandchewing tobacco:Healthhabits. If theChase isaheavysmoker,itcouldindicatethathemayrunshortofbreathorhaveahardtimesustainingafast,steadypace.Batteries:Theuseofelectronicdevices,suchasashaver,radio,lightsource,orexplosives.Toiletries such as toothpaste, foot powder, tampons, or toilet paper: Goodhealthhabits,well-prepared,andwell-equipped.Undone traps, fishing hooks, skinned animal remains: Chase may be asurvivalist.Choppedwood:Thepresenceofacuttingtool.Disturbedordug-updirt:Thepresenceofadiggingtool,suchasashovel.Candlewaxdroppings:Lightsource,firesource,abilitytolightafuse.Odor of white gas, ether, or lighter fluid: Light source, fire starter, campstove,orheat-producingdevice.Loose dirt: Covered wire, rope, or vines, indicating a possible booby trap;alsousedtocovertrash,foodremains,feces,orothersigns.Urine:Dark color—dehydration; bright yellow—vitamin supplements; clearorpaleyellow—goodhydration.Plentifultrashandrubbish:Chasehaslittleornosenseofdisciplineorisnotaware someone is followinghim.Couldalsobeusedas a counter-trackingtechniquetolureyouintoanambushortrap.

WeaponsBeforeIevenapproachthissubject,Iwouldliketoissueasternwarning:ANY CHASE WHO IS CARRYING A WEAPON, IDENTIFIED AS A

CRIMINAL, OR CONSIDERED DANGEROUS, SHOULD NOT BEHANDLED BY TRACKERS WHO ARE NOT SUPPORTED BY THEPROPER AGENCIES. LEAVE MATTERS OF LAW ENFORCEMENT TOTHOSEAUTHORIZED.If you run across evidence of an armed criminal, soldier, or other person

known to be dangerous, stop immediately and seek professional assistance.Inexperienced Trackers or single individuals who are not supported byappropriate military or law enforcement authorities should not handle theseindividuals.Thissectionisintendedonlyfortheprofessionalmilitaryorpolicetrackerteams.

•••

KnowingthetypesofweaponscarriedbyyourChasewillbetterhelpyouwhenaface-to-faceconfrontationeventuallyoccurs. Ifyouarepartofa teamthat isexpected to confront an armed Chase, it is imperative that you recognize thesignstotakeappropriatedefensiveoroffensivemeasures.Ifyouarenotfamiliarwithvariousweaponsystems,identifyingthemwillbe

challenging.Nevertheless,thefollowingweaponindicatorsandtheirsupportingsignsshouldhelpyouintheiridentification.

Knife: Cuts on trees, shrubs, fences, rope, and other items;wood shavings.Smalltreesandbushesthathavebeencutthroughwillindicatethepresenceofalargeworkingknife,suchasamachete.Explosives:Gunpowder;explosivematerials, suchaswax, rubber,kerosene,lighter fluid, orgasoline; detonatingwire, timingdevices, blasting caps, orbatteries.Guns(pistol,rifle,machinegun,orsubmachinegun):Firedorunfiredbullets;expended ammo cases (see figure 6.4), including rimless, rebated, semi-rimless,rimmed,andbeltedcases;thesoundofgunshots;trashedmagazines(see figure 6.5) or disintegratingmachine-gun belt links; weapon cleaningsupplies(rods,oil,cottonswabs,cottonsquares,metalbrushes);bipod/tripodleg impressionsor rifle buttmarkson theground; viewingweapon froma

distance;thesoundofaboltslammingintothechamber.

Figure6.4Expendedammocasings:AK-47,M-4/M-16,9mm,12-gauge,45mm.

Figure6.5Discardedmagazines:AK-47,M-4/M-16,9mmBeretta.

Remember, never overlook or take for granted any sign. The Chase’s signs

will tellyouastory, leavingyouwithan imageofhim.YouareboundtofindsomethingthatwilltellyouatleastalittlebitaboutyourChase,andeverypieceofinformationwilleventuallycompletethepuzzleofthispursuit.Consequently,youwillbecomequiteacquaintedwith theperson(s)youarechasing.Keep inmindthatyourjobiseasierthanyourChase’s;itisverydifficultforanuntrainedpersontomovethroughanareawithoutleavingasignconspicuoustothetrainedTracker.Theeasewithwhichyoucanlocateasignwillincreaseinproportiontothe terrain’s thickness and the number ofChases going in the same direction.Conversely,thesparsertheterrainandthefewerthenumberofChasestravelinginthesamedirection,thegreaterthechallengesfortheTracker.

DOCUMENTINGTHEEVIDENCE:THETRACKINGPATROLREPORTYouhavegatheredall theevidenceyouneed,solet’sgoout thereandpickuptheChase!Notquitesofast.Whatifcircumstancesdictateachangeintheteam?Doyou

think thenew teamcoming inwillbeable to justpickupwhereyou leftoff?What if you are forced to give up the pursuit for the time being to pick it uplater?Willyouremembereverythingyouhavelearneduptothistime?Whatifyouareinvolvedinamissionormanhuntthatisverysimilartooneyouhadayearago?Fiveyearsago?Willyouwanttoreinventthewheelandrelearnyourexperiences?Notlikely.As theoldadage says: “The job isn’t finisheduntil thepaperwork isdone.”

The same is true here. Everything you see, hear, touch, taste, and smell;everythingyoupickup;everyassumptionyoumake;everypiecetothepuzzlemustbecarefullyrecordedasyougoalong.Anditmustbedocumentedinsuchamannerthatanotherteamcanreaditandpickupthetrailwhereyouleftoff.Itcouldalsohelpyourecall thedetailsofanotherpursuit,savingyourselfhours,maybedaysof time, relearning the lessonsofapreviousmission,and it couldsaveyouagreatdealofembarrassmentbyhelpingyou toavoidmistakes thatweremade the first time. Perhaps amore experienced Tracker, or onewith adifferent background, may recognize a sign that you did not or may moreaccuratelyinterpretasignyourecorded.Difficultornot,theinformationmustbegathered,dissected,andpresentedin

aTrackingPatrolReport.

OverviewUponreturnfromasearchareaorareaofoperation,aTrackershouldbeabletoprepareandpresentanofficial reportofwhat transpiredduring theconductofthe search. This information must be accurate, timely, and gatheredsystematicallyandcontinuouslyforongoingTrackerteamsandthosepersonnelwith a need to know in order to confirm, deny, or bring to light additionalinformation about theChase.Throughout history,many searches andmissionshavebeendistinguishablysuccessfulduetothereportsdeliveredbyTrackers.Thisreportmustbewrittenand/orpresentedverbally(perhapsenhancedwith

still pictures, videotape, and the like), but awritten document is preferable iftimeallows.Recordingdetaileddescriptionsoftheevidenceinanotebook,withanillustrationoftheincident,willhelptheTrackerarticulatetheincidentintheTrackingPatrolReport.Eitherway,thereportmustbebasedonundeniablefactsandhardevidencetomaintainthereliabilityofthedata.NotethatIintentionallyusedtheword“fact,”whichis“anactualoccurrence:

anevent:apieceofinformationpresentedashavinganobjectivereality.”27TheTrackingPatrolReport isbasedonfacts.Informationgatheredandrecordedasexhibits must be based on undeniable, hard evidence, which allows you tointerpretwhat is seenor sensed, thuspermittingyou todissect the factsusingdeductivereasoninginalogicalmanner(basedonyourexperienceintrackingorinlife).IncidentReportisastand-alonereportthatcanbeaddedtotheTrackingPatrolReport.TheTrackingPatrolReport isbasicallycomposedofaseriesofIncidentReports(seeappendixC“IncidentReport”).The Tracking Patrol Report is the means by which you can document and

establishastronghypothesisfirmlybasedondatathatwillanswerthequestionsof what, when, where, why, and how the signs were formed, as well as whomade them. The Tracking Patrol Report should also include an assumption,which is a conclusive statement that in its entirety conveys the facts and thencomes to a conclusion of the Chase’s task or anticipated intention. Based onthese factsand theTracker’shypothesis, theTrackershouldbeable tomakealogical, reasonable assumption, and then finally present in theTrackingPatrolReportaconclusiverecommendationabouttheChaseinordertobriefongoingtrackerteamsandotherpersonnel.Youmustseek,gather,record,andpreservethesoundnessofyourevidencein

ordertolearnandshareasmuchaspossibleaboutyourChase.ThisprocesswillultimatelyvalidateyourdeliveredoralorwrittenTrackingPatrolReportand,in

theprocess,rewardyouwiththerecognitionasacredibleTracker.Remember, a sign, like a still picture, is merely a snapshot of a onetime

occurrence.An incident is a collection of signs that describe a scene, an areawhere a person was last seen walking, standing, or camping; the place fromwhichapersonwasabducted;orthesitewhereafirefightorambushoccurred.But taken together, a collection of incidents begin to shape themselves into astory,much like the individual framesofan8mmfilmcombine into scenes tomakeafull-lengthmovie.Signsgatheredinsuchamannerthattheyaredestroyedintheprocessare,in

theend,noevidenceatall.Ifhomicidedetectivescontaminatebloodevidenceorcover the suspect’s fingerprints with their own, the evidence gathered isworthless and cannot be admitted in a criminal trial. Similarly, although notperhapstotheextentofacriminalcase,signsgatheredintheprocessofapursuitcannotbe furtherexamined forclues if theyhavebeendamagedordestroyed.Thebottomlineis,allevidencemustbesought,found,gathered,preserved,andrecorded in such a manner that maintains its integrity throughout the entireprocess.

SearchingIn order for the collected evidence to be accurate and complete, a systematicapproachmustbetaken.Itmustbecomprehensive,thorough,andefficient,andanswerasmanyofthebasicinterrogatories(who,what,when,where,why,andhow) as possible.Well-defined search patterns conducted by the lead Trackerwillnormallyaccomplishthis.Thereare three typesofpatternsIhavefoundmosteffectiveeitherasasole

Trackerorasamemberofateamwithintheincidentarea:

GridMethod.Thismethoddividesupthesearchareabywalkingaparallel,evenlymeasured, crisscrossing pattern (see figure 6.6). Start in one corner andmovesystematicallyupthelengthoftheincidentarea,thencutbackinaparallelpathuntilyoureachthenearendnexttoyourstartingpoint,andonceagainturnandheadintheoriginaldirectionuntiltheentireareahasbeensearched.Afterthat,makeaninety-degreeturnandrepeatthepatternuntilyouhavecombedthroughtheentireincidentarea.Ifonateam,theteammemberssecuretheperimeteroftheincident,whiletheTrackerandcoverman(onahostilechase)moveforwardtocarefullysearchuntiltheentireareahasbeencovered.

Figure6.6Gridmethod.

CoilMethod.Theuncoiling/coilingmethod is usedmost oftenwhen aTracker isalone,but canbe adapted to accommodate a team. In thispattern, theTrackermoves to and starts at the center of the incident area, beingmindful of boobytrapsandusingappropriatecautionsoasnottodisturbanyprospectivesigns.Hethenmovesinacircular,uncoilingmanner,creatingapatternverysimilartothatofacoiledroperugorstovetopheatingelement(seefigure6.7).Thekeyistomaintain, ideally, a distance of about three yards ormeters from the previousring—depending, of course, on the terrain, foliage, and visibility—until theperimeter of the incident areahas been reached. If he is not satisfiedwith theconductor resultsof the search, theTracker should turn aroundand recoil his

pattern.Additionally,ifthereisgreatconcernthatstartinginthecenteroftheincident

areacoulddamageordestroyvalidsigns,thereverseofthismethodcanalsobeused.Inthisinstance,theTrackerorteamstartsattheperimeteroftheincidentareawithawide,sweepingcirclethatthencoilsinwardinever-tighterringsuntilthecenterhasbeenreached.

Figure6.7Coilmethod.

FanMethod.Thismethodlaysoutapatternthatresemblesafan.TheTrackerstartsfromthecenterpointandturnsdirectlytotherightorleft.Heproceedsoutwardfromthere,makesaloopingU-turninward,andreturnstothecenterpoint.Thenext loop laysdownapattern to the interior sideof andnearlyparallel to thefirst,andsoon,untilthefaniscomplete(seefigure6.8).

Inanonhostilechase,theareashouldbecordonedoffwhiletheTrackerand/ormain investigator conduct the search. In a hostile chase, a perimeter securitymustbeemplacedbeforetheTrackerandcovermanmoveforwardtoconductthesearch.Nevermake themistake of carelessly approaching the initial, obvious sign.

Approaching the obvious can destroy evidence between you and the observedsign.Or,worseyet,itcouldbealure,intendedtodrawyouintoaboobytraporambush.

Figure6.8Fanmethod.

RecordingAseachTrackercomesacrossanotablesign,oronenotpreviouslyseen,heorshemustmakea recordof itwithdetaileddescriptions.Usingcommonwordsthatcaneasilybeunderstoodbyallteammembersandotherslikelytoreadthereport, document every possible detail about the sign or incident. List theindicators that led up to the discovery. Record the number, texture, andapproximatesizeandshapeofthesign;describetheconditionitwasinwhenitwasfound,aswellasitsfeatures,construction,andcolor(s).Makeanoteofthedate, time, location (using appropriate pinpointmap coordinates), andweatherconditionsatthetimeofthediscovery.Iremindedyouinchapter2thatapicturepaintsathousandwords.Thesame

applieshere.Nomatterhowdetailedyourdescription,therewillalwaysberoomfor inaccuracies, misunderstandings, or distorted mental pictures. Followingyour written description, therefore, make a visual image of the sign usingwhatevermeansareavailable. Ifyouhavebroughta still camera (preferablya35mmSLR,Polaroid,orhighdensitydigitalcamera),takeaphotograph;ifyouhavetheluxuryofcarryingavideocameraorcamcorder,makeavideotapethatviewsthesignfromallanglesandincludesthesurroundingarea.Ifyoumerelyhaveapieceofpaperandawritinginstrument,drawanillustrationinasmuchdetailasyourartisticabilitieswillallow.Thebestwritinginstrumenttouseisasimplewoodenleadpencil.Why?(1)It

doesn’tsmear;(2)it’seasytosharpenwithaknife;(3)brokenintwo,itprovidestwopencils;(4)itistheleastexpensiveofallpotentialwritinginstruments.Likewise, I have found that the digital camera/camcorder is tops when it

comes to photographic equipment. It takes both still pictures and video; it iscompact,versatile(someareIR/thermalcapable),andhighlyportable;itstoresahigh volume of pictures on a tiny disk. The team can immediately see orrepeatedly review the pictures taken, without waiting for lengthy, costly filmdevelopment.Inthelongrun,itisbyfarthemostcost-effective.Takingaphotoisgreatandconvenientifyoudonothavethetimetosketch

what you are seeing and note what you are smelling and experiencing. Butsketching the particular sign, track, or incident site is better because you areactually takingamorepersonalapproach.You’resensingandplacing thissignmore firmly inyourmemory.Youdonothave tobeaPicasso,as longasyouknowwhatyouaredrawingandyoucaninterpretit.Itwouldbegreattobeabletodrawa sketch so that all involvedcan seewhatyouare seeing,butwhat is

moreimportantisthatyouareembeddingtheinformationinyourmemorymuchbetter than youwould just by taking a quick photo. Inmy classes I have thestudentstakethephotoanddrawasketchtoseethedifference.Handtopapertomemoryworksbetter than justphoto tomemory.Even ifyoudonothave thetimeon-site,makeasketchof thephotowhenyoudohave timeorhavegonebacktoyoubaseofoperation(officeorcampsite).Thisreviewwillalsoaidyourrecall.

CollectingIfthesignyouhavefoundistransportable,suchascommunicationswire,byallmeansaccumulateandpreserveit.Nowobviously,abootprintontheground,ascratchonarock,oracutonatreeisnotasignyoucancollect.Eventhoughthesecanbeplastered,timeconstraintswillnotpermititunderhostileconditionsnorwould it be practical to do so.With these signs, youwill just have to besatisfiedwithwrittendescriptions,sketches,andphotographs.Sohowdoyoupickupandstoreitemsthatcouldeasilybecomecontaminated

ordestroyed?Very simply, youmust have the appropriate tools.This includescommon items that you can purchase from nearly any store that carriespharmacy and/or camping supplies. Some of the most common items aretweezers;gloves(surgical, tight-fitting,orrubberglovesinnewerfirst-aidkits,orotherlightweightclothorleathergloves);asmallretractablemeasuringtape;amagnifyingglass;ziplockbags,Tupperware-likecontainers,filmcanisters,pillbottles,orothercontainerswithtight-fittinglids.Within reason, items should not be picked up with the bare hand. Poisons,

chemical or biological agents, or acidic residues remaining on the item couldburnyourskin,damageyoureyesorthethinmembranesinyournose,throat,orlungs, absorb into your bloodstream, or gain access to sensitive body cavitiessuchasyour eyes, ears,nose,openwounds, andprivate areas.Conversely,oilfromyourhandscoulddiscolorcertainmetals,causedelicateflowerstowilt,orcontaminatesterilefields.Eventhepowderfromcertaintypesofrubberglovescoulddamagesomearticles.Therulehereis,coveryourhandsanduseyourjudgmentonthebestmeansto

collect the object. For very small items, tweezers may be the most suitablecollectionmethod; for others, fingers, vise-grips, or small garden shovelsmayprovethemostappropriate.Closelyexaminetheitemwithamagnifyingglass,makingnoteofanyserial

numbers, codes, or other marks etched, drawn, painted, stamped, or stenciledontoit.Measureitwithameasuringtapeormicrometer.Thenplaceitcarefullyintoasuitablebagorcontainer,sealit,andpackitinamannerthatwillprecludedamage.

FormattingJustasyouhavesystematicallyfoundandgatheredyourevidence,youmustalsosystematicallyrecordit.Youmayuseanyformatyouchoose,aslongasitcoversallthepointsdiscussedinthischapter.Formanyyears,IhaveusedaTrackingPatrol Report format that serves just such a purpose.A sample of this report,basedonourKoreaninfiltratorscenario,followsthischapter.AblankversionofthisreportiscontainedinappendixD.Not only does this report capture the six interrogatories and a detailed

descriptionofeachitemfound,italsocontainssummarysectionsthataddtoandmakeconclusionsaboutwhathasbeengathered.

Interpretation. All of the facts gathered along the way must be dissected,interpreted, andcombinedwithassumptions inorder tocomeupwith realisticdeductionsabouttheconductoftheChase.Inordertoconductfutureplanningor refine existing plans, youmust come up with a hypothesis regarding yourChase’sexpectedactions,soyoucanbetteranticipate,thwart,ordefendyourselfagainstthem.

Assumptions.Isaidearlierthatallevidencemustbebasedonfact.Thatisnottosayyoucannotmakeassumptions—conclusivestatementsthatarebasedonfactbutnot specifically seen or experienced.Assumptions are necessary to bridge thegapbetweentwoknownpiecesofinformationinordertoformawell-groundedconclusionaboutyourChase’smissionand/oranticipatedmovements.

Recommendation. Finally, your report should conclude with recommendations foryour possible courses of action (in ongoing operations), lessons learned fromrecentlycompletedmissions,and/orsuggestionsforfutureoperations.Completedproperly,yourTrackingPatrolReportshouldbeabletobepicked

up,read,andunderstoodbyanyotherTrackerwhoknowsyourlanguageandisatleastsomewhatfamiliarwiththeterritoryyouaredescribing.StandardizationoftheTrackingPatrolReports,whichmaybemodifiedforyourdepartmentoragency,willsimplifythetransitionorhand-overproceduresfromoneagencytoanotheracross theboard.Agood testof thismightbe togiveyour report toa

Tracker from another professional group. Soldiers can give their reports toTrackersfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA);asearchandrescueteamcanhandtheirstolawenforcementofficers;forestrangerscanturntheirsovertoasearchandrescueteam;andagroupofUSArmyRangerscanpresenttheirstoa Tracker team from another branch of service to ensure completeness,simplicity,andclarityforallwhomayfollow.Okay.Weknowhowtointerpretsigns,preservetheincidentarea,andgather

evidence.Weknowhowtocompletethepaperwork.Nowwhat?“Gentlemen!Gatherupsomemenanddeputizethem.Wearegoingtoround

uptheposse!”

TRACKINGPATROLREPORTOPERATION:CHASE

PATROLDESIGNATION:TTJERSEY266

AREAOFOPERATION:EASTERN33TO36NORTHERN83TO86

MAPREFERENCES:SERIESFRSTMISC54,SCALE1:25,000SHEET21–52,EDITION9

PATROLCOMPOSITION:

NAME&POSITION

CW3GARYJORDAN,DETACHMENTCOMMANDER

MSGMALUPATUMERA(SAMOA),TEAMLEADER

SFCFRANCISCOBADILLO(FRANK),WEAPONSSERGEANT,TRACKER

SFCPAULO’CONNOR,TEAMMEDIC,SECONDARYTRACKER,

ANDCOVERMAN

SFCROBERTROWE,RADIOOPERATOR

MAJORKIMCHONGHEE,KOREANADVISOR

1.MISSION:TOSEEK,LOCATE,IDENTIFY,ANDPURSUESIGNSINORDERTOCAPTURENORTHKOREANINFILTRATORS.

2.TIMINGS:A.INFIL:3006:30MAR02B.EXFIL:0115:00APRIL02

3.INFILPOINT:LP230GR334863METHOD:FOOT

4.EXFILPOINT:LP230GR335831METHOD:HELICOPTER

5.GROUND:KUM-GANG(RIVER)BEINGTHEMAINWATERFEATURERUNNINGFROMNORTHTOSOUTH,THEAREAHASALONGRANGEOFMOUNTAINSTHATCRISSCROSSWITHNUMEROUSHILLSANDRIDGESPROLIFERATING.MANYRIDGES,WITHSTEEPSIDES,RISETOOVER4000FEET.INSOMEOFTHESEHIGHALTITUDES,THEREAREMANYSMALLPATCHESOFFARMLANDANDAREASFORGRAZINGCATTLE.TRACKSEXISTONTHEMAINRIDGESANDAREUSEDBYLOCALSWHENPICKINGMUSHROOMSANDOCCASIONALLYWHENVISITINGTHEIRSACREDHAPPYMOUNDS(BURIALSITES)ORMOVINGCATTLEFROMONEGRAZINGAREATOANOTHER.STREAMSAREPLENTIFULDURINGTHERAINYSEASON,ANDTHEYMAINLYRUNEASTTOWEST,JOININGTHEKUM-GANG(RIVER).(SEEANNEXA)

DAYONE

FROMSTARTPOINT280WETRAVELEDEASTPARALLELINGTHENONSAN-CHON(RIVER)FORADISTANCEOF900METERSTOGRID342861.ATTHISLOCATIONWEPICKEDUPTHEENEMYSIGN,ABOOTPRINT(SEEINCIDENTONE,EXHIBITONE;ANDANNEXB).FROMTHISPLACE,WETRAVELEDEAST,CROSSINGTHENONSAN-CHON(RIVER),ONABEARINGOF1700mls,FORADISTANCEOF900METERS,WHEREWELOCATEDAPOSSIBLEMEALHALTATGRID351859(SEEINCIDENTTWO,EXHIBITTWO,ANDANNEXC).FROMHEREWEMOVEDANADDITIONAL600METERSONABEARINGOF1700mls,ANDLAIDUPFORTHENIGHT,ATGRID355859.

DAYTWO

ATABEARINGOF1100mls,WECONTINUEDUPTOAKNOLLFOR100METERS,ANDATGRID357859WECHANGEDDIRECTIONTOABEARINGOF4410mls.ATTHATPOINTWEFOLLOWEDTHERIDGELINEFORADISTANCEOF900METERS,WHEREWEDROPPEDDOWNOFFTHERIDGELINEONABEARINGOF4000mlsFOR280METERS.WECROSSEDTHEYONGCHIANG(STREAM)ATGRID346854.THEREWEFOUNDAHARBORSITE(SLEEPSITE/MEALHALT),EVIDENCEOFSOMEKINDOFCOPPERELECTRICALWIRE,USEDMOSTAPPARENTLYFORCOMMUNICATIONEQUIPMENT,ANDABUTTIMPRINTOFANAKMWEAPON(SEEINCIDENTTHREE,EXHIBITSTHREEANDFOUR;ANDANNEXD).ATTHATMOMENTWECHANGEDDIRECTIONTOABEARINGOF2410mls,FORADISTANCEOF220METERSTOAKNOLLWHEREAHAPPYMOUNDWASSITTINGATGRID347853.THEREAFTER,WETRAVELEDDOWNTHERIDGELINETOTHESOUTHEASTATABEARINGOF2120mlsFOR700METERS,NOTINGAFEWPOINTERSATWAISTANDSHOULDERHEIGHT.WECROSSEDTHEBAGDOECHON(RIVER)OVERALARGEDEADFALLANDLOCATEDAPOSSIBLESHORTHALTATGRID349847(SEEINCIDENTFOURANDANNEXE).FROMHEREWETRAVELEDONABEARINGOF2800mls,FORADISTANCEOF100METERS.WETHENCHANGEDDIRECTIONSTOABEARINGOF3880mls,250METERSTOAHILLATGRID348845.THEREUPON,WETRAVELEDONABEARINGOF2390mlsFORADISTANCEOF500METERSWHEREWELAIDUPFORTHENIGHTATGRID351842.

DAYTHREE

ONABEARINGOF3980mlsFOR400METERSWEWENTDOWNAFINGERTHENCROSSEDTHEHUNCHIANG(STREAM)CONTINUINGONTHESAMEAZIMUTHFORANADDITIONAL500METERS,WHEREWENOTICEDFRESHPOINTERS,INDICATINGDOWNWARDMOBILITY.WECROSSEDTHEYEONGCHIANG(STREAM)ANDCONTINUEDONTHESAMEAZIMUTHFOR100METERS,THENCHANGEDDIRECTIONS.ONABEARINGOF2340mlsWESEARCHEDAROUNDAKNOLLATGRID34698346.THROUGHOUTTHISPURSUIT,SIGNSWEREPRETTYMUCHOBSCURED,UNTILWEMOVEDANADDITIONAL100METERS.ATGRID34688339WELOCATEDADEFINITEHARBORSITE(SEEINCIDENTFIVE,EXHIBITFIVE,ANDANNEXF).FROMTHISPOINTWEMOVED,ONABEARINGOF4800mls,INACAREFULHURRY,KNOWINGTHATIMMINENTCONTACTWASATHAND,FORFRESHPOINTERSATWAISTLEVELWERENOTEDWHILEGOINGDOWNHILL.FRESHSHOEPRINTSWEREBYTHEYEONGCHIANG(STREAM),THESAMEPRINTFOUNDININCIDENTONE(SEEEXHIBITONE).MOVINGINAWESTERLYDIRECTIONWEFOLLOWEDTHECHASE,PARALLELINGSOUTHOFTHEYEONGCHIANG(STREAM),UNTILWEMADECONTACT.ATGRID337833AFIREFIGHTTOOKPLACEAT13:45.WITHINTHISLOCATIONWECONSOLIDATEDANDREORGANIZED.AT14:10WELINKEDUPWITHLOCALMILITARYANDBOTHUSANDSOUTHKOREANGOVERNMENTAGENCIES,ATWHICHTIMEWERELINQUISHEDCOMMANDANDCONTROLTOTHEM.WETHENMOVEDONABEARINGOF3810mlsFORADISTANCEOF210METERSTOOUREXFILTRATIONSITE,WHEREAT15:00WEWEREEXTRACTED.

*THECONSTANTOFFANDONOFTHEDRIZZLINGSOUNDOFRAINCOVEREDOURMOVEMENTFORNOISE.THERAINALLOWEDFORSIGNSTOBEMADEANDLEFTWITHEASE.YET,THERAINWASNOTSTRONGENOUGHTOWASHAWAYTHESIGNSLEFTINFRONTOFUSBYTHECHASE.THEWEATHERCONDITIONAIDEDUSAGREATDEALINTHECAPTURINGOFOURCHASE.

6.INTERPRETATIONANDDEDUCTION(INTER-DEDUCTION)

INCIDENT DAY FACTS INTER-DEDUCTION

01 ONE

ATGRID342861ALONGTHENONSAN-CHON,ATIRE-PATTERNSHOEPRINTWASFOUND(SEEEXHIBITONEANDANNEXB).THESOILSCOMPOSITIONALSOEXPOSEDAVERYDEEPIMPRINT.THISWASAGOODSITEFORAWATERRESUPPLY.

THEDISTINCTPATTERNWITHMODERATEWEAREDGEOFTHEPATTERNINDICATESTHATTHEBOOTWASWELLBROKENIN,ASIFASEASONEDVETERANWOULDHAVETONEGOTIATETHISRUGGEDTERRAIN.THEDEEPPRINTINDICATESTHATTHEYARECARRYINGHEAVYEQUIPMENT.IFTHISWASAWATERRESUPPLYSITE,THENWATERCONTAINERSANDSOMESOURCEOFWATERPURIFICATIONAREAVAILABLE.

02 ONE

WEFOUNDFOURAREASOFFLATTENEDGRASSATGRID351859.CRUMBSOFCRACKERSANDVERYSMALLGRAINSWEREALSODISCOVERED.THEREWERETHREESMALLBURNTAREASONTHEGROUND(SEE

DUETOTHEPATTERNOFTHEAREASOFFLATTENING,ITWOULDAPPEARTHATFOURPEOPLESATINALL-AROUNDSECURITY.THEWAYTHEGROUNDWASBURNTINDICATEDTHATTHECHASEHADSOMEHEATSOURCEFORCOOKING.BREAKINGAWAYFROMTHEIRPATH,SITTINGINADEFENSIVEPOSTURE,ANDLEAVINGMINIMALAMOUNTSOFSIGNSINDICATETHATTHEYAREMOTIVATED,COMMITTEDPROFESSIONALSWITHAPURPOSE.THE

EXHIBITTWOANDANNEXC).

CRACKERSANDTHERICEINDICATETHEYHAVERATIONS.

03 TWO

ATGRID346854WEFOUNDSHAVENANDTUBULARRESIDUEOFCOLOR-CODEDBLACK-AND-WHITERUBBER(SEEEXHIBITTHREEANDANNEXD).WEALSOFOUNDTHREEAREASOFFLATTENEDGRASS,THREEBURNTAREAS,ANDAWELL-DEPICTEDIMPRINTOFTHEBUTTOFANAK-47(SEEEXHIBITFOURANDANNEXD).

THEPRECISESURGICALCUTSAROUNDTHECOLOR-CODEDRUBBERINDICATEUSEOFAPROFESSIONALELECTRICALCUTTINGTOOL,FORNOMETALLICRESIDUEWASNOTED.THETUBULARRESIDUEWASNOTED.THETUBULARRESIDUESURELYSUGGESTSTHEUSEOFWIRE.THEUSEOFWIREOFTHISDIMENSIONINDICATESIMPROVISEDORMANUFACTUREDEXPLOSIVESORCOMMUNICATIONSEQUIPMENTATTHEIRDISPOSAL.DUETOTHEPATTERNOFTHEAREASOFFLATTENING,THISWASASLEEPSITE.APPARENTLY,THREEPEOPLESLEPTWHILEONESTOODGUARD.THEIMPRINTOFTHEAK-47SUGGESTSTHATTHEYPOSSESSAUTOMATICWEAPONS.THEBURNTAREASFURTHERCONFIRMAHEATSOURCEFORCOOKING.

04 TWO

ATGRID349847WEFOUNDFOURDISTURBANCESTHATHADASOMEWHATFLATTENEDAPPEARANCE,WITHAPOSSIBLEFIFTH(SEEANNEXE)

THEDISCOVERYOFMINIMALSIGNSISANINDICATIONOFADEFENSIVEPOSTURE.THESIGNSWERENOTTOOEMBEDDED,ASIFITWEREASHORTSECURITYHALTORNAVIGATIONCHECK.

05 THREE

ATGRID346834WEFOUNDFOURAREASOFFLATTENINGANDAPOSSIBLEFIFTH.THEREWASONEBURNTAREAWITHSOMESMALLAMOUNTSOFCOOKEDWHITERICEANDGARLICSKIN(SEEEXHIBITFIVEANDANNEXF).THEREWEREROPEMARKSONTREES.

THESEFOURDISTINCTIVEAREASOFFLATTENINGLEDUSTOBELIEVETHATTHEREAREFOURPEOPLEINTHISPATROLAND/ORAPOSSIBLEFIFTH.THEBURNTGROUNDANDFOODWITHINTHE1/2METERAREAINDICATEONEPERSONMAYHAVEBEENCOOKINGFORTHEENTIREPATROL.THEPATTERNOFFLATTENINGINDICATESANDALL-AROUNDDEFENSE.THEUSEOFGARLICANDRICEMAYINDICATETHATTHEENEMYISPOSSIBLYOFASIANORIGIN,MOSTLIKELYOFKOREANDESCENT.THENAGAINTHECHASEMAYBEPROFESSIONALSFROMANOTHERCOUNTRY,EATINGNATIVEFOODINORDERTOBLENDINWITHTHELOCALS.THEEXCESSIVESIGNSINDICATEARUSHTOLEAVE,DUETOTHETEAM'SCLOSEPROXIMITY.THEROPEMARKSONTHETREESINDICATETHATTHEYWEREUSINGHAMMOCKS.

7.ASSUMPTIONS:THEINFILTRATORSWEREUSINGGOODTACTICSANDLEAVINGFEWSIGNSUNTILWECLOSEDINANDBECAMEANIMMINENTTHREAT,ATGRID346834.THEYWEREUSINGROUTESTHATWEREFREQUENTEDBYLOCALS,INDICATINGTHATEITHERTHEYDIDNOTCONSIDERTHELOCALSATHREAT,ORTHELOCALSWERESUPPORTINGTHEM,ORTHEYKNEWATWHATTIMETOEXPOSETHEMSELVESWITHOUTCOMPROMISE.THISHELPEDCOVERTHEIRSIGNS,DUETOTHECONTAMINATIONFROMTHELOCALS’TRACKS.THELACKOFHARBORSITESREINFORCEDTHEFACTTHATTHEYWEREVERYPROFESSIONALUSINGDECEPTIVETACTICS.THEFACTTHATTHEYCOOKEDRICE,HADGARLIC,ANDLEFTADEEPTIRE-PATTERNIMPRINTOFABOOTINDICATESTHEYHADLOAD-CARRYINGEQUIPMENT,WATERCONTAINERS,ASOURCEOFWATERPURIFICATION,AHEATSOURCE,ANDCOOKINGUTENSILS.THEIMPRINTOFTHEBUTTOFTHEAKM47WASFOUND.THISALLOWEDFORTHEASSUMPTIONTHATTHEYWERE

CARRYINGAUTOMATICWEAPONSWITHNUMEROUSMAGAZINESLOADEDWITH30ROUNDSEACHOF7.62ROUNDS.THEFOLLOWINGOFRIDGELINESANDTRAVELINGCROSS-COUNTRYINDICATEMAPREADINGEQUIPMENT.BASEDONTHESEIZEDEXPLOSIVESANDBIOCHEMICALS,ASWELLASTHEIRDIRECTIONOFMOVEMENT,THECHASELEDUSTOBELIEVETHATTHEYWEREGOINGTORELEASETHEBIOCHEMICALSINTHEANDONGCHOSUJI(WATERRESERVOIR).

8.INFORMATIONGAINED:A.STRENGTH:4–5

B.WEAPONS:4AKM7.62mmX39mmRIFLES;ONEPISTOL7.62TYPE64WITHSILENCER

C.AMMUNITION/DEMO:7.62mmX39mmAMMO;7.62mmXSR17mm;ELECTRONICEXPLOSIVEDEVICE

D.LOAD/EQUIPMENT:AMMUNITIONPOUCHESANDWEAPONSCLEANINGKIT.BACKPACK,POSSIBLERADIOSIGNALEQUIPMENT,ANDMEDICALKIT.MAPREADINGANDLANDNAVIGATIONALAIDS.COOKINGEQUIPMENTANDWATERCONTAINERS.

E.AGE:START:3–4HRS.

FINISH:10MINUTES–0

F.MORALE:VERYHIGH

9.CONFIRMATION:I.CAPTUREDWASONENORTHKOREANINFILTRATOR.II.K.I.A.WERETWONORTHKOREANINFILTRATORS.III.RESCUEDWASASOUTHKOREANCIVILIAN.IV.SEIZEDWAS:a.THREEALUMINUMALLOYEDCYLINDERS,APPROXIMATELYTWOFEETLONGANDFIVEINCHESINDIAMETER,WITHATIMEDELECTRONICEXPLOSIVEDEVICESTAMPEDINKOREANANDTRANSLATEDAS“CHEMICALPRODUCTOFKANGGYEANDSAKCHUFACTORIES.”

b.THEEXPLOSIVESHADADUAL-INITIATINGSYSTEM:

1.REMOTESIGNALING.

2.TIME.

c.THREECLAYMORESWITHACCESSORIES.INTHECLAYMOREBAGSTHEREWERETWODUALPRIMEDPRECUTTIMEFUSES.

1.30-SEC.DELAYTIMEFUSE.

2.ONE-MINUTEDELAYTIMEFUSE.

3.ONETWO-MINUTEDELAYTIMEFUSE

d.FOURAKMs7.62mmx39mmTYPE68WITHCHINESEFOLDINGHORSESHOEDESIGNSTOCKSTHATHAVEPERFORATEDRAILS,JOINEDATTHESTOCK(AUTOMATICASSAULTRIFLES).TWO7.62mmxSR17mmTYPE64PISTOLSWITHSILENCERS.THISPISTOLISLIKETHEBROWNINGMODEL1900.

1.FORTY30-ROUNDMAGAZINES,300ROUNDSOF7.62mmx39mmWERERETRIEVED.(EVERYTHIRDROUNDWASATRACER).

2.SIXTEEN10-ROUNDMAGAZINES,150ROUNDSOF7.62mmxSR17mmWERERETRIEVED.

e.ONEMEDICALBAGWITHIVs,SUTUREKIT,VARIOUSGAUZESANDSIZES,PRESSUREBANDAGES,TAPE,ETC.EACHMEMBERHADCYANIDECAPSULESANDPRESSUREBANDAGE.

f.THREEBACKPACKS,ONEGPS,FIVECOMPASSES,TWOMAPSOFOURAREAOFOPERATION,TWOMONOCULARNIGHTVISIONDEVICES,TWOBINOCULARS.

g.ONESETOFCOOKINGUTENSILS.SOMERICEWASPRE-COOKED.SOMEMEALSWERELIKEREADY-TO-EATMEALS,SIMILARTOUSRATIONS.THREESMALLSINGLE-BURNERSTOVES.

10.RECOMMENDATIONS:

a.DURINGTHEAREASEARCH,THESOLDIERSINKEYPOSITIONSNORTHOFUSSHOULDHAVEMOVEDSOUTH,EXCEPTTHEONESATCRITICALTARGETAREAS,CONSIDERINGWEWEREONAPOSITIVEPATHOFTHECHASE.

b.ATWELVE-MANCOALITIONTEAMSHOULDHAVEBEENTRAILINGUSNOCLOSERTHAN500METERS,CONSIDERINGTHETERRAIN,FORON-THE-GROUNDBACKUP,INTHEEVENTWEWEREOVERTAKENBYTHEINFILTRATORS.

c.DURINGFUTURETRAININGEVENTS,ALLPARTIESSHOULDREHEARSELINKUPANDCOMMAND/CONTROLPROCEDURESFORJOINTCOALITIONTYPESOFOPERATION,INORDERTOPREVENTFRIENDLYFIRE.

CHAPTER7

RoundUpthePosse

Weliveinanagefitforheroes.Notimehaseverofferedsuchperilsorsuchprizes.Whatisneededispeoplewhowillkeeptheirheadsinanemergencynomatterwhatthefield.

—VINCELOMBARDI

Thismeansbuilding“TeamSpirit”:thismeanscommongoals,complementaryskillsandabilities,andmutualaccountability.

—VINCELOMBARDIJR.

In the rough and semicivilized days of the Old West, the courageous sheriffwouldgather together the townspeople,deputizewillingvolunteers, and rounduphispossetogoafterthehaplessand,theyhoped,overwhelmedoutlaw.Thereweremany failures yetmany lessons learned during the actual pursuits of the1800s.Although somewere highly organized, the stereotypical posse from theOld

Westwashaphazardatbest.Thesheriffhadanideaofwhichpeoplehewouldend upwith on each pursuit, but even so, he couldn’t count on training themproperlyorhavingallof theneededskills tocomplement theentiregroupandensure a successful capture (an expert marksman, Tracker, roper, and animalhandler,forexample).Inafewcases,heknewsuchprofessionals,butinmanyothershecouldneverreallygettoknowthemasprofessionalman-hunters,nordevelop themasacohesive team.AndIamconvincedhewouldneverentrusthislifetoagreen,temporarydeputyunlesshisbackwastrulyagainstthewall.In fact, some of themost historically successful posses of theOldWestwereTexasRangers andelitemembersof theUSMarshal’sServicewhowerewelltrained,wellequipped,andhighlysoughtafterforthepursuitandapprehensionofdangerousoutlaws.

Today’ssuccessfuloperationsarenodifferent.Nomatterwhichofthebelowmentionedunitsyouareaffiliatedwith,youcan

enhanceyour skill at trackinghumanswithin the countersurveillance, counter-improvised explosive devices of all sorts, perimeter security, combat,reconnaissanceandtrackingpatrols.Belowareunitsandorganizationsthathaveandwillbenefitfromtheskillof

HumanTracking:

combatengineersEODpersonnelconventionalinfantrygroundSpecialOperationalForceelementswithinSpecialOperationsCommandInfantryRangerslawenforcementatthelocal,countyandstatelevelsmilitaryintelligencemilitarypolicepersonnelrecovery(searchandrescue)reconnaissanceandLongRangeSurveilanceunitsscoutsandsnipersSurvivalEvasionResistanceandEscapeTrainingprogramTexasRangersUSMarshalsUSMCcombathunterprogramunmannedvehiclesystemspersonnelweaponsintelligenceteamsUSAirForceParaRescueUnits

Sobeforeyousaddleupyourhorsesandridetotherescueofalostpersonordamselindistresscapturedbytheevilvillain,knowthefundamentalstaughtinthisbookandputthemintoactionduringtraining.Ifyouandyourtrackingteamwanttobemorethanjustaverageatthisbusinessoffollowingatrail,youmusttraintogether(figure7.1).Bythis,Idon’tmeanthatyougooutinthewoodsacouple times a year and practice trailing a deer. I mean that every availableopportunityyouhave,youneed tospendtheweekendin themountains, in thedesert, in the rain forest, trailing a volunteer “Chase” or opposing forces(OPFOR)teamtohoneyourskillstotheirsharpestlevels.

Figure7.1Trackingteam.TheauthorwithPhilippineTrackers.

TheUSArmyhas a saying, “Train as youwill fight.”Thatmeans re-createactual battlefield conditions as closely as you possibly can. If you will bedependingonyourbuddy ina life-and-deathsituation, learn todependonhimdailyduringlesshazardousconditions.Developatrustthatcannotbebrokeninday-to-dayactivities,anditwillrisetotheoccasionwhenitisreallyneeded.For a tracking team, the same is true. If you have the luxury of training

togetherdailyorneardaily,takeadvantageofthesituation.Ifyoucanonlytrainonceortwiceamonth,byallmeansdoit.Thekeyhereistogettoknowyourteam members. Discover each member’s likes, dislikes, strengths, andweaknesses; learnoneanother’s idiosyncrasiesduring timesofeaseaswell asstress;eat together,sleep together,and train together tosuchadegree thatyouknowoneanother’sindividualandcollectiveresponsibilities,probablereactions,and even thought patterns. Work on developing trust in little things and intrainingsimulations,sothatwhenitreallycounts,youcandependonyourteam.For some agencies, such cohesiveness in trainingbecomesdifficult to attain

becauseofeachteammember’sregularjobresponsibilities.Iofallpeoplesurelyunderstandthechallengesofthesecircumstances,buteveryeffortmustbetakentotraininthisareaofyourchosenprofession,ifyouwanttobesuccessful.Whether the organization consists of the Drug Enforcement Agency

counteringanarco-guerrillagroundoperationinSouthAmerica/SoutheastAsia,theFederalBureauofInvestigationbecominginvolvedinamassivemanhuntin

North Carolina, or a military unit dealing with ground operations, it is thereconnaissance,scoutsniper,andtrackerteamsthatarethetipofthespearheadfortheseinitiatives.

TRACKERTEAMSowhatdoestheidealtrackerteamlooklike?Whatdoesitconsistof?Theanswer—andyoualreadyknowwhatI’mgoingtosay—dependson the

missionand thepurposeof the team.Ahostilepursuit tracking teamwill lookand act differently than a search and rescue team. Even though they have thesamemission—findingandbringingbacktheChase—theirmethods,equipment,and team makeup will be entirely different. A military team may want tominimizeitssize,inordertomaintainnoisediscipline,camouflage,andsecrecy.ItwillalsohavebeentrainedinthevariousaspectsofF3-EAD:finding(enemycombativeorfugitive);fixingontheirlocation;finishingthemoff(capturingorkilling);exploiting their action; analyzing their activity; anddisseminating theinformation. A search and rescue team, on the other hand, may welcome theaddition of fifty volunteers, if they can be of real assistance in finding littleJohnny.Formostpurposes covered in this book, the ideal sizeof a tracking team is

four,maybefiveatthemost,consistingofaTracker,coverman/secondTracker,team leader/communicationsspecialist, and rear security/medic/EMT.The fifthpersonmayprovideadditionalflanksecurityorcommunications,whilecarryingsomeof theoperationalequipment to lighten the loadonothers. If thispersondoes not possess competentmedical skills, Iwould place him as rear securityandplacethemedicneartheteamleader.Sinceeachindividual’sresponsibilitiesdiffer during a hostile pursuit from those in a nonhostile pursuit, I will coverbothscenariosseparately.

DutiesandResponsibilitiesTracker. The primary purpose of theTracker is, you guessed it, to look for andinterpret signs left by the Chase. But the job goes well beyond this limiteddefinition. In fact, it is closely related to that of point man in a militaryoperation.TheexperiencedleadTrackerandthepointmanarealwayscognizantof the

oppositionbymeansof theirownintuitionand/or indicators(signs) leftby theChase.Bothareawareoftheirsurroundings.ThedifferencebetweentheTrackerandthepointmanisthepathorrouteeachwalks.Thepathofthepointmanispreplanned, charted, and chosen with the belief that it is the most tacticallysoundpassage to the advantage of the teamanddisadvantage of the opposingforce.ThepathoftheTracker,ontheotherhand,issubjecttothecunningoftheChase.MaybetheChaseselectedhispathwithacontingencyplanintheeventhe may be pursued. This contingency may be to deceive, harass, delay, orilluminateanyTrackersinpursuitbymeansofboobytrappingand/orambushingtheTrackerortrackingteam.Icannotstressenoughthatiftheteamisshadowingorfollowinginhotpursuit

of a hostile Chase, the primary role of Trackers is to ensure their area ofresponsibility is clear of the presence of any hostile opposition beforecommitting themselves and their teammates through the path of the chased.Therefore, the Tracker controls the rate of movement throughout the entirechase,dependingonwhattypesofsignstheChaseleavesinhiswake.As a young instructor, I was taught these lessons by a gunnery sergeant, a

veteran ofVietnam, in theNorthernTrainingArea ofOkinawa as part of ourcounterinsurgency training.This sameprocesswas confirmed tomeat a 1994MalaysiantrackingcoursetaughtbyaMalaysianTrackerwhopursuedinsurgentguerrillas.Additionally, they taughtme the value of the “Don’ts” of tracking.Theyare:

1. Don’tbluffyourselfbyimaginingsigns(betruetoyourself).2. Don’ttrackwhenyouaretired(unlessyouwanttospringaboobytrapor

getkilledinanambush).3. Don’tmakenoise,andobserveonlythehigheststandardsoffieldcraft.4. Don’tleavetoomanysigns,suchasbreakingleavesortwigs.5. Don’tmerelyobservethegroundimmediatelyinfrontofyou.Signsare

everywhere.Remember,therearetop,middle,andgroundsigns.

TheTrackernormallyaccomplishesthejobbyutilizingapredeterminedsetofprocedures known as the “Tracker Observation Procedures.” The use of theTracker Observation Procedures will enable you to follow your Chase’s pathwith more caution as well as confidence. There are two types of TrackerObservation Procedures, one geared toward the hostile Chase, the other for anonhostileChase.

HostileChase. During a hostile pursuit, while following a hostile Chase, theTrackerObservationProceduresconsistsofeightphases,asfollows:Phase1:Lookforsignsoftheopposition.Thisisaccomplishedbyidentifying

the farthest recognizable sign, looking around your immediate area from astationarypositionouttotheterrainsurroundingthesign,andthencarryingthesearchbeyondthesigntodetectthepresenceoftheopposition.Byprobingtheseareaswithyoursensesofsight,hearing,smell,touch,andintuition,youwillnotonlybeable to foil anycunningactionsyouroppositionmayemploy,butyouwillaidyourselfinexpeditingPhase2.The Tracker is the person who is out front; he is the one who can see the

farthest; and he is normally the onewhowill identify signs of the oppositionbeforeotherteammemberscan.It’snotthatheisanybetterthantheotherteammembers, he just has a better opportunity than they do to discover opposingpersonnel.All teammembers’ eyes—figuratively speaking—are on the Tracker during

thismostimportantsecurityscan.Hissignalwilldeterminetheirformation,theirlevelofrelaxationorwatchfulness,andtheirweaponsreadiness.Conversely,theverylivesofhisteammembersrestontheshouldersoftheTrackerduringthisphaseoftheTrackerObservationProcedures,andhemustneverforgetthat.Onceheisassuredthat therearenohostilepersonnel in the immediatearea,

theTrackercancommencethenextphase.Phase2:DetermineallpossibledirectionsofmovementyourChasemayhave

taken(seechapter5,underDirectionofMovement).Ifyouhavebeenfollowingaclearsetoffootprintsfor100meters,youmayfeelfairlycomfortablewiththefactthatyourChaseistravelinginthesamedirectionyou’vebeen.Butthekeythingtorememberinahostilechaseis,expecttheunexpected.Howsureareyouthat theChase hasn’t actually beenwalking backward to deceive you and the

team?MaybetheChasemadeacircularroute thatwillactuallydrive the teamintoanambush.AtthispointintheTrackerObservationProcedures,considerallpossibledirectionsthattheChasemayhavetaken.To do this, make a map reconnaissance. Ask yourself, “Where might this

Chasebegoing?”Iftacticallyfeasible,callinforbackup,placingateameitheratanambushsiteoronalistening/observationpost.Callinfordirectorindirectfire support by calling formortar, artillery, close air support, or naval gunfire.These types of supporting fire can kill, harass, or deny the Chase’s probablerouteormissionsite.Dependingonweather,terrain,adjacentfriendlyelements,oryourownposition,“walkin”thesefiresupportmissionsbycreepingroundstowardtheChasefromtheoppositedirectionofhismovement.Byyourdenyinghisdirectionofmovementandanyavenueofescape,hewillbeforcedtoreturnthroughhis initial route,whereyour teamcanambush,kill,orcapturehim. Inthe same way, law enforcement agencies can block the Chase’s avenue ofapproachbystrategicallyplacingeitherhelicoptersorteamsaheadofhim.Phase3: Rule out possible directions ofmovement.During this phase, you

narrowdownthepossibilities.Ifthereisasheerclifftotheimmediatewestwithno signsof ropes, rock climbing equipment, or disturbanceofnature, you canmostlikelyruleoutthatareaasapossibledirectionoftravel.Iftheareatotheeastofyouconsistsoftall,thick,overlappingblackberrybushes,whichshownosignofdisturbanceorpassagethroughthem,youcanalsorulethatdirectionout,atleastforthetimebeing.(Ofcourse,ifthetraildead-endsafewmetersuptheroad,youmaywanttocomebackandtakeamuchcloserlookatthoseinnocent-lookingblackberrybushes.)Narrowdownallthepossibledirectionsoftraveltothemostlikelydirections

taken,andthenmakeaneducateddeterminationonwhichonetheChasetook.Phase4:Alignyourselfwiththefarthestsignandthepathyouaretraveling.

The linewon’talwaysbestraightaheadandmayevenzigzag inanattempt tothrowoff thepursuit.The important thinghere is todetermine themost likelydirectionof travel,as thatwillserveasyourstartingpoint in locating thenextsign.Once you have aligned yourself, take a mental note of the direction of

movementand,ifneedbe,shootanazimuthinlinewiththedirectionoftravel.Phase 5: Confirm or deny possible anti-tracking. Look closely at the signs

beforeyou.Looktoyourleftandrighttoconfirmordenyanyassumptionthattheoppositionmayhaveusedananti-trackingtechniqueortactictodeceiveyou,hidefromyou,ordelay,boobytrap,orambushyou.Isthestridethesamelength

as when you first discovered andmeasured it? Are the toe marks a little toopronounced? Are there pointers to your left or right? Use the techniquesdiscussed in the previous chapters to discoverwhether or not yourChase hasattemptedtodeceiveyou.Phase 6: Memorize the segment of the Chase’s path from your current

locationtothepointofobservationofthefarthestsign.InPhase4,youmadeamentalnoteorazimuthreadingofthepossibledirectionoftravel.Now,youneedto memorize it. Take notice of the terrain, vegetation, and obstacles betweenyourcurrentlocationandthefarthestsign.Youdonotwanttobelookingdownwhileyou takeon the responsibilityofandproceedaspointman. In fact,youmustalwaysbelookingahead,beyondthecurrentsign,evenwhileapproachingitandlookingtoseeifthesignissignificant.Anddon’tforgettotakenoteofthesecond, farther landmark to allow quicker realignment to your Chase’sprospectivepath.Phase7: Repeat Phase 1, looking for signs of the opposition.As the phase

suggests, look once again for the bad guys.You have just been distracted forsometimeandareabouttomoveout.Doyoureallywanttotakethatfirststepwithoutmaking sure somethinghasn’t changedorwithout ensuringyoudidn’tmisssomethingthefirsttimearound?Phase8:Becomethepointman.Atthispoint, theTrackertransitionstoand

takesontheresponsibilityofpointman.Inamilitaryoperation,thepointmanisthemanoutfront.Hewillbethefirsttoseedanger;hewillalsobethefirsttoexperience it. It goeswithout saying that the pointmanneeds tomaintain theutmost vigilance throughout the move forward. Since stealth is of utmostimportance,thisshouldbethefirstandonlytimemovementtakesplaceduringthis TrackerObservation Procedure. Even though your teammemberswill beprovidingcoverduringyourmove,theywillmostlikelynotseewhatyoudoandmaynotseetheambushuntilyouareinthemiddleofit.Comfortingthought,Iknow.Nevertheless,without this phase, the pursuit grinds to a halt. Presuming all

goes well during your movement forward, you then take cover and providefrontal security for theother teammembersmovingup.Beon thealert for anunexpectedoffensive.Withtheentireteammovingforwardandonlyoneperson—you—providingsecurity,thisisthemostvulnerabletimeforatrackingteam,andyourChasemost likelyknowsthis. (Note:While thisappears tobea longandmundaneprocess,itactuallyisaflowing,smoothprocedurethattakeslesstimetodothanittakestoexplain.)

EveryoneontheteammustunderstandandacceptthetimestheTrackermustmoveforwardslowlyandattimesnervously,strivingtomaintaincomposureinordernot toalert theopposition.Many times, theopposition iseithernowhereneartheTracker’simmediateareaorisnotawarethattheTrackerisshadowingor inpursuit.Unfortunatelyfor theTracker,mostof thoseheart-beating, tense,adrenaline-flowing,andsweatymomentsareself-imposed.Onceyourteamhasarrived,turnoversecurityfunctionstothecovermanand

performtheTrackerObservationProcedurestodeterminethenextsign.

NonhostileChase.TheTrackerObservationProceduresforanonhostilepursuitwillbesomewhatsimilartothatofthehostileChase,withoutthelife-threateningdangers and the resulting precautions. Because of the lack of precautions, notonly will the Tracker Observation Procedures be shorter with regards to thenumberofphases, theywillalsobe less time-consuming,allowingthe teamtomovemuchfasteralongthetrailoftheChase.Phase1:LookforsignsoftheChase.Usewhateversearchmethodsaremost

appropriate for the conditions,weather, and terrain, andmark the farthest signwithinyoursearcharea.Immediatelyprobetheareawithyoursensesaswellasyourintuition,lookingaroundyourproximateareaandbeyondthefarthestsigntodetectthepresenceofyourChase.ItmaybethatJohnnyishidingunderthatlittle outcropping of rock to thewest or has climbed a tree to get away fromwolvesorwildboars.Ifappropriate,youmayevenwanttocalloutyourChase’snameintheevent

thatheiscloseenoughtohearit.Whencallingoutaname,however,stop,listen,look, and smell. Stop: call out his name. Listen carefully: TheChasemay beweakandhisvoicesofaint thatyouareunabletohear; listenforsoundsotherthanahumanvoice, suchas thumping,banging,orclapping.Look:Watch formovement,suchastheswayingofatreeorsmokerising.Smell:Snifftheairforsmokeoranything related to theChase (fragrance,deodorant,perspiration, forexample).Phase2:Determinethemostlikelydirectionsoftravel.Thisisaccomplished

in the same manner as during the hostile chase, without ruling out anyprospectivedirection.Phase3:Ruleoutpossibledirectionsofmovement.Thisalsoisdonethesame

wayas in thehostile chase, eliminatingareas coveredbyobstaclesor features

thatwouldrendertravelhighlyunlikely.Phase4:Alignyourselfwiththefarthestsignandthepathyouaretraveling.

Thisisalsoaccomplishedthesamewayasinthehostilechase.Phase5:Confirmordenythepossibility that theChasemayhavewandered

off track. In a search and rescue, the Chase is most likely frightened afterunexpectedly finding himself in a life-threatening situation. He may not bethinking clearly; hemay have put himself into a panic; hemay have becomedisoriented due to strange terrain, unfamiliar territory, or lack of wildernesstraining.Hemayhavebeenovercomewithfatigueorasenseoffatality,leavingtheestablishedpathtofindshelter,flagdownanairplane,orsitdownandrestforawhile.Itisimperativeatthispointthatyoulookcarefullyforanysignsofwandering, as a passed pathway could spell disaster for the lost person.Onceyouareconvincedthatyoudidnotmisssuchasign,moveontothenextphase.Phase 6: Move forward to the farthest sign and repeat Phase 1 actions to

discoverthenextsign.WhenreadingtheTrackerObservationProcedures,youmaythinkitseemsto

besomemundaneprocess thatwilldelayyouevery timeyougo througheachphase. Initially, thisprocedurewill delayyou.Nonetheless, it is important thatyoufollowtheseproceduralphasesbyexercisingthemuntiltheybecomesecondnature,asnaturalasblinkingyoureyes.Induetime,thewholeprocesswilltakebutaquickglance,allowingyoutomoveataconfident,fast,yetsafepacewithminimuminterruptionofyourmovement.

TrackSearchingProceduresDuringthecourseofanypursuit,youwillmostlikelycomeacrossatimewhenyouhave—Heavenforbid!—lostthepathofyourChase.Inthisevent,youwillhavetotakestepstoreestablishthedirectionoftravelandrelocatetheChase’spath.Therearefourproceduresthatyoucanuseatthispoint,eachwithitsownvaryingdegreeofsuccess.Just remember,beforeyoustartanyof themduringthecourseof ahostilepursuit, informyourcovermanofyour intentions sohecangethimselfintoahigh-securitystateofmindandprepareappropriately.Probing Procedure: This procedure is normally the first one tried and is

similar to taking a rod and prodding a haystack until it hits whatever—orwhomever—isinside.Exceptinthiscase,youaretherod,andyouareprobingoutwardfromyourlocation.This procedure is used themoment you are unable to find any signof your

Chase’spathandisstartedbyreturningtothelastconfirmedsign.Markitinanobvious, distinguishable manner that you can easily recognize. Probe (move)forwardslowlyandmeticulouslyinthemostlikelyareainwhichasigncouldbeplaced. Subject to the vegetation and terrain, the probe should be carried outapproximatelythreetosixmetersfromthesign.Lookcloselyforanynewsigns.Ifyoufindanythatcanbeconfirmedbeyondadoubt,commencePhase1oftheTrackerObservationProcedures.If you do not find any new signs, return to the last confirmed sign, turn

approximately45degreesineitherdirection,andprobeforwardagain.Ifyoudonotfindanynewsigns,returntothelastconfirmedsign,turnforty-fivedegreesintheoppositedirectionfromthefirsttime,andprobeforwardonceagain(seefigure7.2).Ifyoustillhavenotfoundevidenceofanynewsigns,commencetheInitialSearchProcedure.

Figure7.2Probingprocedure.

InitialSearchProcedure:Thepurposeofthisprocedureistonarrowdownthepossibledirectionsofmovementandruleoutpossibledeception.The first step in this procedure is to return, you guessed it, to the last

confirmedsignfacingthepreviousdirectionoftravel.Atthispoint,turnaround(youknow, do an about-face,make a 180-degree turn).Backtrack theChase’spath;however,donottravelonthesamepath,butinsteadparallelthepath.Goadistance of about six to twelve meters (again, depending on the terrain andvegetation)andmakeawidesweepingcirclearoundthesignineitherdirection,maintaininganequaldistanceall thewayaround theprevious sign (see figure7.3).Ifanothersignisdiscovered,determinehowthisnewsignlinesupwiththeprevious last confirmed sign and either conduct Phase 1 of the TrackerObservationProceduresorinitiatetheProbingProceduretoseewhetherornottheChasehaschangeddirection.

Figure7.3Initialsearchprocedure.

Whetherthedirectionofmovementhaschangedornot,youmustruleoutanyintentiontheChasemayhavehad.ThereisapossibilitythattheChasemayhavegone to aharbor site (sleeping site).There is a possibility that theChasemayhaveconductedananti-trackingtacticbysplittingup,tomakeitmoredifficultto locate more than one person. Understandably, you should not take offfollowing the first sign you discover. To rule out these possible intentions, aswellasthoseunknowntoyou,finishyourinitialsearchingdrill.If unable to discover a new sign, return to the last confirmed sign and

commencetheExtendedSearchProcedure.ExtendedSearchProcedure: Thismethod takes the steps from the first two

procedures and broadens the geographic area further. Return back to the lastconfirmedsign,makea180-degreeturn,backtracktheChase’spathonaparallelpathouttoadistanceoftwelvetoeighteenmeters,andcirclethelastconfirmedsignineitherdirection,maintainingtheappropriatedistance.Imustemphasizehere that the depth of the extended search is based on the weather, terrain,vegetation,andhostility(orlackofhostility)ofyourChase.Once a new sign is discovered, see how it lines up with the previous last

confirmedsign.ConductPhase1oftheTrackerObservationProceduresand/orthe Probing Procedure to determine whether or not the Chase has gone adifferentdirectionandtosearchforanewsign.Ifnonewsign is found,useyourbest deductive reasoning todetermine the

mostlikelylocationthatadesperatepersoninyourChase’sconditionwouldgo—thensearchthatlocationorplacesurveillanceonit.Note:IfdealingwithahostileChaseduringanyofthesearchprocedures,the

restof the teamshouldbeata100-percentdefensivealert.Before theTrackerandcovermandepart,acontingencyplanshouldbeleftwiththeteamleader,intheeventsomethingthreateningtakesplaceagainsttheteamortheTrackerandcovermanduring the search.While in themilitary, Iwas always given a five-pointcontingency,consistingofthefollowing:

1. Whereisthedepartingelementgoing?2. Whoisleaving?3. Howlongwilltheybegonebeforelinkingupwiththeparentunit?4. Whatistohappenifthedepartingelementdoesnotreturnorlinkup?

5. Whatactionwilltheparentunitand/ordepartedelementtakeintheeventofenemycontact?

AlthoughtheTrackeriscognizantofthedefenselesspostureheplaceshimselfinduring the search,he is assured that thecovermanwill safeguardhis life. It isduring these moments in the time of a tracker team, or any team in similarcircumstances,thattheveryfoundationoftheword“cohesiveness”isoptimizedandbroughttolife.Asmylifeisdependentonmyteam,somyteam’slivesaredependentonmine.Thereisnogreaterlove.Most Probable Search Area: If you are down to this last procedure, your

Chase has most likely shaken you through the application of a deceptivetechnique,andyoumost likelyhaveno ideawhereheor theyhavegone.ThisdeceptivetechniquewilleitherawardtheChasetimetogreaterdistancehimselffromyouandeventuallyloseyou,oritcouldeliminatethetrackerteam.Ifthepersonnelisavailableandplannedcorrectly,theMostProbableSearchAreacanbeusedinconjunctionwiththepursuitofyourChase.TheMostProbableSearchAreaconsistssimplyoflookinginareastheChase

wouldmost likelygo tooruse.These includeshelters, suchasbridges,caves,probable camping sites, barns, stables, or sheds; pathways, such as roads,railroadtracks,streambanks,riverfronts,embankments,andjunctions(lookforprints in shallow water and rocks; search for stirred-up mud and splatteredrocks); targets for sabotage or reconnoitering, such as national monuments,industrial areas, dams, bridges, or popular landmarks; or other areas, such asgradual steep slopes. Depending on the desired end result, other resources—satellite imagery,boatsorwatercraft, drones,or the like—canwithout adoubtassistinthemanhunt.Withyourskill,intuition,anddetermination,oneofthesemethodsisboundto

work.

Coverman (Hostile Chase)/Second Tracker (Nonhostile Chase). The coverman or secondTrackeristhesecond-mostimportantmemberofthetrackingteam.Infact, theTracker and the coverman are a teamwithin a team, as these are the two thatneedtounderstandeachother implicitly.Witharelationshipofunquestionabletrust,theyneedtoknowwhentheotherisstressed,fatigued,worried,orsharp.The coverman receives information conveyed by theTracker; the coverman

forwards this information to the teamleader.While theprimaryconcernof therestoftheteamisflankandrearsecurity,thistwo-mantrackingteamprovides

maximum security to the front. While maintaining frontal security, they areensuringthattheteamisnotfunneledintoaboobytraplaneoranambushalley.Thecovermantakesthesecond-moststressfuljob.Inahostilepursuit,thecovermandoesjustwhatthenameimplies:Hecovers

the Tracker throughout the Tracker Observation Procedures and/or during theTrackSearchProcedures (see figure7.4).He is theonewhoneeds to be eversharpandawareoftheirsurroundings,readytoreactatamoment’snoticeoratthefirstsignofdanger.HeistheeyesandearsoftheTrackerwhentheTrackerisotherwiseoccupiedanddistracted.

Figure7.4Trackingteaminaction.CovermanandTrackerperformingTOP.

The coverman must employ all of his senses, not to locate signs, but todiscoverevidenceoftheopposition—beforetheydiscoverthetrackingteam.Hisfocus is to the front and the sides to prevent the Tracker or the team fromwalkingintoanambush.Let’s make one thing perfectly clear: It is extremely important that the

covermanrefrainfromdoingtheTracker’sjob.Ifhedoesso,hewillfailathis,

andsuchanerrorcouldcostthelifeoftheTracker,himself,ortheentireteam.TherearetimeswhentheTrackerissotense,hemayoverlookadeceptiveploytheChasemayhaveinitiated.Therefore,thecovermanmustberelaxed,lookingto his immediate frontal right and left for signs of deception. Each individualmust focusonhisparticular job: theTrackeron finding signsanddirectionofmovement; the coverman on discovering and preventing harm from theopposition.Outsideofhisprotectiveduties,thecovermanisalsothesecondTracker.He

must be equally or nearly as knowledgeable and experienced as the primaryTracker, since he will be the one to take over the duties when the primaryTrackerneedsabreak.HethereforeneedstobecognizantofwhattheTrackerisdoing at all times, keeping up to date with the signs found, the direction oftravel, the dangers involved, and the methods employed thus far to find theChase.ThesecondTrackermustbeabletorecognizewhentheprimaryTrackerneeds

to be relieved. He needs to know the signs of fatigue or injury, even if theprimary Tracker attempts to hide them; he needs to keep track of the time,ensuringthattheTrackerdoesnotspendanymorethanfourconsecutivehourson intense trailing—especially if not acclimated—before he is pulled back toassume coverman, flank, or rear security duties. Any margin of error, due tofatigue of the Tracker, can place the entire team on a booby trap lane, in anambushalley,oronawildgoosechase.Oneshouldnottrackwhenexhausted.Additionally, the secondTracker and/or radiooperator is the recorder.He is

theonewhowritesdowntheazimuths,distancetraveled,obstaclesencountered,and changes in direction. This responsibility can be split between twoindividuals:Theradiooperatorcanrecordrouteinformation,andthecovermancan record signs or information found. Although everyone is responsible forregular navigational checks, the coverman and Tracker should discuss anychangesthatmaydevelop,especiallyiftheChaseisprojecting,bymeansofhissigns,anintentionthatmaywarrantspeedortheaugmentationofanadditionalteamtocuthimofforwatchhim.Thecovermanmayevenbe theone to takephotographs, shootavideo,orsketcha roughpictureof thesignsencounteredwhiletheTrackeriscollectingandpreservingthem.Nomatterwhichroleheassumesatanygivetime,hemustkeepinconstant

contact with the Tracker, ready to take over primary tracking duties at amoment’snotice.

TeamLeader.Thepersonmost senior in rank, status, or experience ismostoftendesignated the team leader. This is the person who makes the decisions andmaintains control at all times; this is the personwho pulls the team together,trains them, and turns them into the cohesive, close-knit crew they should be.This shouldnotbeapersonwho is thrown into thepositionat the lastminutejustbecauseheissenior.Experienceisthenumberonecriteria.Beforetheteameversetsfootinthewoodsonalivemission,theteamleader

shouldbepreparinghiscrew.Heistheonewhoshouldbeplanning,executing,participating, and evaluating training that should be as realistically difficult asthe prospectivemissions theymay be called upon to accomplish. If the teamanticipateshostilemissions,forexample,theteamleadershouldbearrangingforsimulatedoppositionforcestoharass,ambush,orsetboobytrapsforthetrackingteamduring training exercises (seeTraining for theBeginningTracker, in thischapter).Standardoperatingprocedures(SOPs)mustbeestablished.Duringactualmissions,theteamleaderassumestheoverallresponsibilityfor

the success or failure of the search.He places himself centrallywhere he caneasily maintain control, security, and command of his team. During hostilemovement,hewillbetheone(oroneoftwo)toprovideflanksecurity.Throughout the conduct of the pursuit, he must keep the tracking team

updated, providing status of the Chase, situational changes, and plans for thenext step.Heneeds to ensure that each teammemberknowswhat to do fromstart to finish, at any given time, and during any anticipated action. Hemustprovide them with grid coordinates, maps, and methods to find their currentlocation, destinations, or reconnoiter areas; hemust cover returnmethods androutes; and he must ensure they all know their PACE (Primary, Alternate,Contingency, and Emergency plans), including the courses of action for theseplans.Throughout the conduct of the operation, the team leader must maintain

communicationwithhigherheadquartersor thehigher command.Thisused tobealmostexclusivelybyradio,but todayhemaycommunicateviacellphone,satellitephone,palmpilot,oreven laptop, sendinge-mails to theheadquartersbase campor commandpost.Of course, during amilitaryoperation, the teamleader must use only secure, or encrypted, methods of communication, asapprovedbytheDepartmentofDefense.Onadailybasis,eitherattheendofthedayoratapredeterminedtimeofday

(presumablywhen thedailysearchhasconcluded,whilenot settingapattern),hewillsubmitaSituationReport,alsoknownasaSITREP(seeappendixF).Onatrackingpatrolwhenthelikelihoodofchancecontactisprobabletoimminent,whenimmediatecontactismade,aSALTReportis thefirstreport thatwillbesent to higher (see appendix G). During or immediately after unforeseen yetanticipatedincidenceswiththeopposition,hewillsubmitahastyreport,knownintheArmyastheSALUTEReport(whichstandsforSize,Activity,Location,Uniform, Time, and Equipment) (see appendix H). If in a hostile pursuit,everyoneshouldbewell-versedinanine-lineMedevacReport(seeappendixI).If during a search, an improvised explosive device (IED) is found a nine-lineIEDReportistobesubmitted(seeappendixJ).And finally, at the end of the operation or during team handover, the team

leaderwillprepareandpresenttheformalTrackingPatrolReport.HewillgatherthepertinentinformationfromtheTrackerandcoverman/secondTracker,whichtheyhavebeengatheringalongtheway,condense it intobite-sizechunks,andpresent it inverbal and/orwritten form to thehigher commandor to the teamtakingoveroperations(seeTrackingPatrolReport,previouschapter).

RearSecurity/DesignatedMedicorEMT.Lastbutnotleastistheperson(orpersons)whomakesuptherearsecurity(inahostilechase)orprovidesthemedicalaid.Thisindividual is not just “following the leader.” He also has very distinct andimportantresponsibilities.During a hostile pursuit, he is the one who ensures that no enemy or

oppositioncomesupsecretlybehindtheteamorfollowsthem.Henotonlyhastokeepaneyetohisfront,watchingwheretheteamisgoing,healsohastokeeplookingback,scanningallareastotherear.Besides being schooled in rear security, this individual must also be well

trainedintheartofanti-tracking.Thisisbecausehissecondresponsibilityistocoverthesignsproducedandleftbyhisownteammembers.Ateamoffourorfivemembersisnotgoingtotrudgethroughthewoodswithoutnotice.Eventhemoststealthyandhighlytrainedteamsaregoingtoleavesomekindofevidencethattheypassedthroughthearea,althoughintensetrainingcanalleviatemuchofthis. It is up to the last individual to cover up thesemarks, replace displacedfoliage,andobscureprints leftbymanysoles, so that aChasecirclingaroundbehindwillnothaveapaththesizeoftheOregonTrailtofollow.In a nonhostile chase, this last individualwillmost likely be the designated

medic,EMT,orfirst-aidperson.HeorsheshouldbeatrainedEMT,oratleast

schooledor certified inadvanced first aidandCPR.Thispersonwill carryallfirst-responsefirst-aidsupplies,whichshouldhandlebitesorinjuriesmostlikelytobeencounteredinthatgeographicarea,withitsuniquefoliage,insects,animalpopulation,andterrain.Thedesignatedmedicshouldalsoprepareasmallfirst-aidkitforeachteammember.HewillalsoneedtobepreparedtotreattheChasewhenheisfound.Ahostile

Chase may have bullet wounds, knife cuts, or myriad other conditions orinjuries.Asearchandrescuevictimmayadditionallyhavebrokenbones,buthemay also have received insect stings, animal bites, or rashes/welts frompoisonousplants;hemaybesufferingfromexposure,frostbite,serioussunburn,ordehydration;hemayneedprescriptionmedication(whichcanbeprovidedbyfamily members) to counter the effects of diabetes, mental illness, AIDS, orother potentially life-threatening conditions. And the medic should always bepreparedtodealwithaheartconditionand/orshock.Itisuptotheteammedicto research the Chase’s needs and obtain the necessary items. Overall, hispurposeistosustainlifeuntilthepatientishandedovertoaphysician.Dependingontheamountofweightheisalreadycarrying,hemayalsowant

to include a few comfort items for theChase, especially in the case of a lostchild.Maybe little Johnny has a favorite teddy bear, brand of candy, securityblanket, religious article, or another memento that will give him immediateconsolationwhenheisfound.

Others.Ifotherpeopleareincludedontheteam,therearerolesthattheycanfill.On a five-person team, the fifth person can be the radio operator,communications specialist, or route recorder, helping the team leadermaintaincontactwith higher headquarters or base camp. The team leadermay feel theneedforanadditionalmedicor foramemberwhocanprovidesupplementarysecurityon the flanksor in the rear.Howevermanypeoplemakeup the team,they can all share part of the load, transporting items that help the designatedteammemberscarryouttheirregulardutiesmoreeasily.AsIsaidinthefirstpartofthischapter,theoptimumsizeofatrackingteamis

fourorfive.Anymore thanthat,andthe teamruns theriskofeitherexposingitself to a hostile Chase or inadvertently destroying valuable signs that coulddirectittothelostpersonitisdesperatelytryingtofindbeforenightfall.

FormationsSonowthatweknowthemakeupoftheoptimumteam,whattypeofformationsshouldtheybeintoeffectivelypursueaChasewhiletheteamleaderensuresthesecurity, stealth, control, flexibility, and accountability of the tracking team?Obviously, for a nonhostile Chase, no real formation is necessary, other thangetting in line shoulder to shoulder, the distance between team membersdependent upon terrain, weather, vegetation, and time. This is perfectlyacceptable as long as the team leader can effectively control the team, and aslongasteammembersperformtheirresponsibilitieswithoutinterferingwiththeprimaryTrackerandsecondTracker.Areasearchescanalsobeconductedundernonhostileconditionswiththeaidofhelicoptersandboatssearchingthecontourof theearthat low levels.TrackerObservationProceduresandTrackerSearchProceduresmayremainthesame.There are three main formations my team and I have used over the years,

which are of great value for the quick reaction of a small fire andmaneuverelement: the File, the V, and theWedge. The type of formation used and thedistancebetweenteammemberswillbebasedontheexactmission,theterrain,vegetation, weather, the Chase, team member strengths and weaknesses, andtime available to complete the operation.The distance is also dependent uponhow the team leader can best control and direct his team while maintainingsecurity, the effectiveness of the pursuit, and the formation with no break incontactbetweenteammembersforaccountabilitypurposes.

File.Thismovementisnormallyusedinlimited-visibilityweather;heavy,densevegetation;and/orsteepterrainthatallowslittleroomformaneuveringtoeithersideofthemaintrail.Thisformationisjustwhatit indicates.It isasingle-fileformation, led off by the Tracker, then the coverman, team leader,communicationspecialist,and the first-aidmedic/rear security (see figure7.5).Eachpersonhasaresponsibilityforcoveringsomeportionoftheperimeter,asdiscussedearlierinthischapter.Inthisformation,theTrackerwillcovertheareato his immediate front; the coverman will cover the area to his front and oneithersideoftheTracker,theteamleadertooneflank(orbothflanksinafour-personteam),thecommunicationsspecialisttheotherflank,andtherearsecuritytheareatotherearoftheformation.Whilenotthemostsecureformation,itis

the most feasible and allows for maximum speed in tight areas. Collectively,360-degree security is maintained. Individually, the Tracker and rear securityeachhaveanapproximate230-degreefieldoffire;allotherteammembershave160degreesofinterlockingfiretotheirflanks.Thistypeofformationiseasytocontrol.

Figure7.5Fileformation.

Vee or V. This type of formation,which actually looksmore like aY than aV,allows for maximum security while on the move and is used in moderatevegetationwithflattorollingterrainwhencontactisimminent.Inthisinstance,the Tracker takes a secondary role, givingway to not one, but two covermenwhoprovidesecuritytothefrontandoneitherside,makingthetopendsoftheV.TheTrackercompletesthebottomoftheVformation,followedbytheteam

leader and rear security in a line directly behind. The team leader nowmustprovideflanksecurityonbothsidesoftheteam,whiletherearsecurityprotectsthe area in back of the team (see figure 7.6). This formation is slower andslightlymoredifficulttocontrol,butifwellrehearsedandincludedaspartoftheSOP,controlwillbenoproblem.In the V formation, the collective 360-degree security is not compromised.

Theleftcoverman(assuminganorthwarddirectionoftravel)hasafieldoffirethatstartsat80degreesandshiftsnorth,west,south,andalittletowardtheeastto 175 degrees; his total field of fire is approximately 265 degrees. The rightcoverman does the same on the right side of the formation and hasapproximately the same 265-degree field of fire on the opposite side. Thecovermen can have fields of fire ranging from the front of the opposingcovermantotherightorleftflankoftherearsecurity.TheTracker,ontheotherhand,hasafieldoffirerangingfromtherightshoulderoftheleftcovermantotheleftshoulderoftherightcoverman,adistanceofabout90degrees.Fromtherear of the covermen, the Tracker has a field of fire of approximately 110degreesonbothflanks.Allotherteammembersinfrontoftherearsecurityhavefieldsof fireofabout160degrees toeither flank.Therearsecurityhasanarcfrom the right shoulder of the right coverman to the left shoulder of the leftcovermanaroundtherearoftheformation,representinganapproximately270-degreefieldoffire.Throughthisformationandtheinterlockingfieldsoffire,theChase’shastyambushescanbefoiled,andsometimesdeceptivecounter-trackingtechniquesortacticscanbesightedpreemptively.

Figure7.6VeeorVformation.

Wedge.TheWedgeisan invertedorupsidedownV,usedwhenthe teamis inasparsetoopendangerarea,unprotectedbyvegetationorterrain.Whilestillledby theTracker, the remainderof the team is staggereddown the right and leftlegs of the formation. The purpose of this is to provide effective protection(knownasfieldsoffireinthemilitary)thatcrisscrosseswithminimalblockageof one teammember’s viewover another’s (see figure 7.7). In this formation,360-degree security,bothcollectivelyand individually, ismaximized, reducingthe chance of friendly fire. This formation allows for speed and is easy tocontrol.

Figure7.7Wedgeformation.

BoundingOverwatch.Whilenot a formation, this is amovement techniqueusuallyused in conjunction with the File or Wedge formations, in rolling hills andamong numerous obstacleswhen the team is blatantly exposed and contact isimminent.TheteamisdividedintoanATeamandaBTeam,withtheTrackermoving

forwardwithwhichever teamismoving to thefront. If this isnot feasible, theteamleaderwilldesignatetwoTrackersandperformtheBoundingOverwatchinasplit-teamfashion.Therewillalsobetimeswhenteammembersmayhavetomovesinglyduetothelackofcoverandconcealment.TheBoundingOverwatchmovementtechniquecanbeconductedsuccessively

orinanalternatingfashion.

Figure7.8BoundingOverwatch.

AlternatingBounds.Oneteam(ATeam)providesanoverwatchposition,whichisacovered position that provides suppressive fire toward the opposition in theevent the moving element is under fire. The other team (B Team) and theTrackermoveforwardtoassumeanoverwatchpositioninfrontoftheATeam.OncetheBTeamisinposition,theATeamthenmovesforwardtothefrontoftheBTeam,pickingup theTrackeras theypassby. In this instance,onlyoneteam is moving at a time while the other is providing themaximum securitypossible for the other team and the Tracker (see figure 7.8). The alternatingboundsarefasterthansuccessivebounds.Usethealternatingmethodonlyifandwhenthestationaryoverwatchteamcanobservetheboundingteampassbyandassume the overwatch position. This method will be continually used untildeterminedunnecessary.

Successive Bounds. The A Team, with the Tracker, will move to an overwatchposition.Oncetheoverwatchpositionissecured,theBTeameithermovestotherightor lefton line.Then theATeamand theTrackermoveahead toanotheroverwatch position. This method of bounding will continue until determinedunnecessary.Successiveboundsaresimplertocontrol.Other formationsmay provide the samekind of securitywhile allowing the

Trackertocontinuedoinghisjob,butthesearetheonesIhavefoundtobethemost effective in a potentially hostile situation. Unless the Chase you arefollowing has demonstrated the potential to harm innocent bystanders,noncombatants,orcivilians,yourmainpurposeistoprovidesecurityandsafetyforthetrackingteamwhilemovingasquicklyaspossibletointercepttheChase,inordertosafeguardanyvictims.

ImmediateActionDrillsItisimportanttobrieflydiscusswhatisknownintheUSArmyas“ImmediateAction Drills.” Due to the inherent hazards of the Trackers’ profession,especially inahostileenvironment, the tracker teammusthavetheupperhandontheopposition.Withminimumcommandsandsignals,rapidactionmustbetaken,andthisisusuallydonebymeansofImmediateActionDrills,oneofthefirst things taught tome in basic infantry training. Bymy gunnery sergeant’sdefinition,whichdidnotmincewords,ImmediateActionDrills“willsaveyoura— because they provide swift and incontestable reaction to the enemy’sphysical or visual contact.” They are designed to provide a quick, automaticresponsetopredeterminedsituationsthatcouldotherwiseprovefatalforyouortheentireteam.Thesedrillsarevery familiarandwidelyused throughout themilitaryanda

number of law enforcement agencies. Among the most common are thefollowing:

1. Evadecontact2. Attack3. Reacttocontact4. Reacttonearandfarambushes5. Reacttoindirectfire6. Airdefense

Thesuccessofanymissionthroughouthistoryhasdependedonhowwelltheparticipantshaverehearsedforthatmission;thesamecanbesaidtodayandwellinto the future. Coming home alive from that mission, however, may welldependuponhowwellyouhaverehearsedyourImmediateActionDrills.Because the tracker team must collectively outperform the opposition

deceptively,defensively,evasively,andoffensively,thesedrillswillbe,withoutadoubt,instrumentalinachievingthisupperhandandsavinglives.Justasyourformations, movement techniques, search drills, observation procedures, andtrackingreportsmustbepartofyourSOPs,youmustalsoaddImmediateActionDrills.TheymustbeincludedinteamSOPs,regularlyrehearsed,andrehearsedintenselytothepointthattheybecomesecondnature.Onceoutinthefieldintheheatofbattle,thereisnotimetostopandthinkaboutwhattodoundercertain

conditions;youneedtobereadytoexecuteatamoment’snotice.

BoobyTrapsKeep in mind, however, that the Chase is not likely to lie down and let youovertake him, especially if he is a dangerous fugitive, infiltrator, terrorist,guerrilla, or regular enemy soldier. In fact, he may be well-versed in layingbooby traps to welcome you and your team. Terrorists and guerrilla fightersthroughout history and up to the present time have been very effective in thismethodofwarfare,anditisimperativethatyoubeabletorecognizethetypesofbooby traps and their indicators. Remember, you are walking in the Chase’spath, and you must be mentally one step ahead of him, his cunning, and hisabilitytodeceive,delay,demoralize,orkillyou.Itisimportantthatyouhaveabasicunderstandingandahighlevelofrespect

forthesedevicesinordertoavoidbecomingacasualtyofthem.Thefirstthingtounderstandaboutboobytrapsisthereasontheyareeffective.

Theyarenotnecessarilyintendedtokilltheirvictims;rather,theirintentionistoinstill fear, suspicion, and uncertainty in the minds of those potentiallyvulnerable to them. It is psychological warfare that then becomes a combatmultiplier,whichisagreatallytophysicalwarfare.Booby traps are used in all three warfare operations, including defensive,

offensive, and withdrawal operations. These can be conventional militarydevices with infrared-sensitive, high-tech microchips and remote-commanddetonations; or they can be unconventional, rough, improvised devices madewithmostlynaturalvegetationandmaterialsonhand.Ineitherevent,99percentofallboobytrapsoperatebyoneofthefollowingmethods.

Delay: These devices have fuses that have some kind of automatic delayfeature. This delay could be a stopwatch-style counter, digital countdownclock,alarmclock,orothermechanicaldelay,similartoawind-upclock.Pressure: This type of booby trap is detonated by direct pressure or by thedistributionofweightedpressureonthefuseordeviceitself.Pull:Thisisactivatedbypullingatripwireawayfromthedevice.Release:Once theweightof an individualorvehicle isdistributedonto thedevice,itclicksthefuseorcircuitpartiallyintoplace.Whenthepressureonthedeviceisreleased,thecircuitiscomplete,andthedeviceexplodes.ThiswasoneofthefavoritedetonationmethodsinVietnam(andisstillafavorite

in guerrilla warfare), combining both physical and psychological warfaremost effectively.Ground troops on patrol could often hear the click of thepartialdetonation, realizing theirdoomwith littleornorecourse topreventthefataloutcome.

All of these types of devices have indicators that at least partially identifythem and allow the tracking team to take defensive measures against them.Watchcarefullyfortheseindicatorsandwarnings:

1.Damaged,disturbed,ortransferredvegetation(foreigntothearea)2.Electronicwire3.Loosedirt,rope,string,vines,orotherkindsofwire4.Newlyfilledareasofdirta.Patchesofclumpdirtb.Patchesofconcavedirt,particularlynotedafterrainfallc.Patchesofdiscoloreddirtorvegetation

5.Plasticorcardboardmaterialsprotrudingfromtheground6.Thesmellofexplosivematerials,suchassulfur,gunpowder,orfireworks

Ask localsoryourcounterpartsabouthowtheoppositionmarks theirboobytraps.InAsiaandCentralAmerica,localsmarktheirboobytrapswithmaterialsindigenous to that particular area in some sort of predetermined pattern.Yourconstant suspicion of the unusual, inquisitive learning, and experience withpreviouslydiscoveredmarkingswillresultinminimalcasualties.

TRAININGFORTHEBEGINNINGTRACKERInordertohaveaneffective“posse,”newmembersmustbecontinuallybroughtinandtrainedinthetechniquestaughtinthisbook.Inspiteofourbestefforts,veteranTrackerswillmoveon, transfer,getpromoted, suffer serious injury,orretire from these types of operations. Just like in amajor league sports team,“rookies”whohaveshowngreatpotentialmustbebrought intospringtrainingandschooledinthemethodsemployedbyprofessionalsinthefield.Andjustasrookiesdonotbecomeveteransafteroneyear inprofessional-level“trenches,”neither do novice Trackers become experts after one season of even themostintensivetrainingefforts.Nevertheless,eventhemostskillfulTrackerhashadtostartsomewhere(see

figure7.9).WhatfollowsisaseriesofexercisesdesignedtodevelopthenoviceTracker’s

senses, sign recognition, and awareness one step at a time, each successiveexercisebuildinguponthepreviousones.Atthecompletionoftheseexercises,thenoviceTracker shouldbewell grounded in tracking skills andwell on thewaytobecomingaprofessionalinthisfield.

Figure7.9TrackingClass.

StaticandMovementObservationDrillsBefore I ever start teaching a student the art of tracking, I teach the art ofobservation, by putting Tracker Observation Procedures into practice andexercising scanning and searching methods. I do this through both static andnon-staticdrills.

StaticDisplay. In this drill, the trainer hides various itemswithin awooded area,fromone foot to fivemeters in front of the trainee.The articles are placed atground-, middle-, and top-sign levels in both obvious and semi-obviouslocations.Thetraineeisgiventenminutestoeyeballthearea,andthenhasfiveminutes

to turn around and recordwhat was observed andwhere. Initially, the trainermay want to place the items within obvious view, gradually increasing theobscurityasthetraineeimprovesinskill.

MovingObservationDrill.Inatwenty-five-metercorridor,spreadvariousitemsaboveeyelevel,inthemiddle,andthroughoutthegroundofthelane.Havethetraineewalkataslowpatrolpace,twominutesinanopenareaandsevenminutesinamoreforestedarea.Atnotimemaythetraineetouchorwalktowardtheitems.Onceattheendofthecorridor,allowfiveminutestowritedownwhatwasseen.Tomaintaintheintegrityoftheseobservationdrills, isolateeachtrainee,and

allow only one observer at a timewithin the static display area ormovementobservationcorridor.Once the traineehasdemonstrated thecapacity tobeobservant, it is time to

moveontothetrackingexercises.

InitialExerciseThe initial exercise should take place in an open dirt lot that is at least onehundred meters in length and exposed to full morning and evening sunlight,whichcastlonganddistinctshadows.Step1:Travelingeasttowest(orwesttoeast),oneindividualdeliberatelylays

clear-cut shoe prints, preferably with waffle-type tennis shoe soles or combatbootswithdistinctivemarkings.Thereisnoneedatthistimetovarythepace,addweight,orotherwiseaddvarietytotheprints.Thepointhereistomaketheprintsas recognizableanddistinctiveaspossibleasa resultof shadowcastingfromeasttowestorviceversa.Once theprintsare laid,have thestudent trail themarkings,measuringboth

thestrideandshoeprint.Havethestudentdrawapictureoftheprintindetail,take a picture, and/or write a description of what is observed. Then rake orsweepthelot,andrepeattheexerciseuntiltheapprenticeiscomfortabletrackingandrecognizingtheprintsandtheeffectsofshadowcastingontheprints.Step2:RepeatallfacetsofStep1,layingtheprintsnorthtosouthorsouthto

north.Thisallowsforadifferentperspectiveofshadowcasting.Step 3: Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with varying speeds and postures, to include

running,walkingbackward,carryingaheavyweight,walkingwithacane,andwalkingwithalimp(seefigures7.10AandB).

Figure7.10BVariousprints.Bottomtotop:backward,normal,running,heavyload.

Figure7.10AVariousprints.Lefttoright:backward,normal,running,heavyload.

Step4:Repeat the first three steps inother terrain and timesofday.Repeatthem in an open sand lot, an open grass fieldwith dew, dry and green lawns,short to long grass, wet muddy lots, and snowed-in tracts (see figures 7.11AthroughD).Repeatthematnight,whentheambientlightofthefullmooncastsshadows over the prints, and do so with and without binoculars and/or nightvisiongoggles.Step5:Finally,repeattheentireexercisewhilemakingtwosetsofprints:one

deliberate and obvious, and the other parallel, in the same stride, but morenatural.

Figure7.11ASnow—walkingnormally.

Figure7.11BSnow.Lefttoright:walkingnormally,running.

Figure7.11CVariousprintsinsnow.Lefttoright:walking,running,heavyload.

Figure7.11DVariousprintsinsnow(differentperspective).Toptobottom:walking,running,heavyload.

ForestedAreaExerciseInthisexercise,findaforestedareawithmoderatevegetationthatisatleast400to 600meters in length. If you have a class of novice or apprenticeTrackers,buddythemupintwoteamsoftwoTrackerseach.Thisexercisewillteachthemthedifferentrolestheymaybeexpectedtofulfillonalivemission.From a designated starting point forward of the “tracking team,” have two

“Chase” teammembers go forward on a given azimuth for a distance of onehundredmeters,leavingatrailofvisibletop,middle,andgroundsignsineveryconceivable location.28Once the twoChaseshavecompleted theone-hundred-meterdistance,havethemsoundoff,makenoise,orcallontheradiotoindicatethat the trailhasbeen laid.Thenhave the two“Trackers”commence tracking,onetakingontheroleofprimaryTrackerandtheothertakingontheroleofthecovermanorsecondTracker.Oncethetwoteamshavemetup,discussthelearningpointsoftheexercises,

thenhave the two teams reverse roles, theChasesbecoming theTrackers, andtheTrackerstakingontheroleoftheChase,layingthetrailforthenexthundredmeters.It is important for the acting Chases, when laying a trail, to incorporate as

manydifferent terrainfeaturesaspossible.Havethemmakeastreamcrossing,travelthroughdeepmuddyorsandypatches,climbsteephills,orworktheirwaythroughthickundergrowth(eventothepointofcrawlingordraggingthemselvesthrough). Make sure they make the exercise as realistic as possible whileprovidingplentyoflearningopportunities.Astheapprenticesprogress,havetheChasesleaveincreasinglyobscuresignstosharpenthenoviceTrackers’skills.Iftrainingonlyoneapprenticeatatime,haveinstructorsorassistantslaythe

trailswhile theapprentice tracksalongsideaseasonedTracker,switchingroleseveryonehundredmeters.TheseasonedTrackercanpointout thesignsalongthewaywhenintheroleofprimaryTracker.Besuretoincorporatemorethanjustvisualsignsintotheexercise.Re-create

audible and mechanical sounds during both day and night hours. Replicateauthenticovernightcampingsites,leavingthesitestrashedwithmanysignsandsmells.Gradually,leavemoreobscuredsigns,sounds,andsmellsasthestudentprogresses from the ranks of novice ever closer to the journeyman level ofexperience.Thestaticandmovementobservationdrillsalongwiththeactualtrainingfield

exerciseshouldbecomposedofobjectsandreplicatedactivitiesthatinsurgents,

guerrillas, and fugitives or missing persons may possess or engage in. Theobjectsandreplicatedsigns,tracks,andincidentsitesaredeliberatelyfedtothestudent in their purest form, then gradually obscured and hidden from thestudent’ssenseseachday.Thisteachingmethodallowsthestudenttoeventuallylearn to recognize objects (targets) and interpret actionable activities(intelligence) in their least ideal forms. That recognition allows the student todevelop a situational awareness accentuating that all Trackers are humansensors. Being situationally awaremay save the Tracker’s life or the lives ofothers. This type of training accompanied with the laboratory site with itscompartmentalized aging observations will develop the student’s real-worldabilitytoread,deducefrom,andinterpretwhatisbeingsensed.Bybeingabletoread,deducefrom,andinterpretsigns,humantracks,tiretracks,and,ifpackormounted animals are involved, spoor, the student will enhance the ability toanswerwhatarereferredtointhemilitaryasacommander’scriticalintelligencerequirements (CCIR),whichwill allow the student to confirm,deny,orgatherintelligenceinanygivenareaofinterestorlawenforcementjurisdiction.

CCIR: Commander’s Critical Information Requirements. These are the criticalquestions that a military commander needs answers to in an area of interestwhichdriveplanningofanyintelligentsurveillancereconnaissance.ISRsaretheassets (infantry, rangers,marineforcereconnaissance,scouts,snipers,allSOF)thatarecapableofansweringtheCCIR.TheoperationsofficercoordinateswiththeintelligenceofficerthattaskstheISRassets.Individualsthatarepartoftheassetsandareskilledinhumantrackingarebestequippedtoexpeditiously,andmoreaccuratelyanswertheintelligenceofficertaskedtoanswertheCCIR.CCIRexamplescanbe:

1. Wherearethesmuggler’sinfiltrationandexfiltrationroutes?2. Whattypeoftacticsarethearmedescortsandspottersforthesmugglers

using?3. Wherearethesesmugglingteamsreceivingtheirsupport?4. Wherearethesmuggler’sbaseandsafehouses?

BymeansofsometypeofTrackingPatrolReportformatagivenorganizationutilizes,thisinformationcanbeimmediatelydisseminatedthroughanaccessible

networklikePalantir,QueryTree,orAnalystNotebooksothatthedatacanbeExploited,Analyzed,andDisseminated(asinthelastthreestepsofF3-EAD).

OtherSkillsBecausethisisaninstructionmanualfocusedontheartoftracking,manyotheressential skills are not covered in this book. For these other skills—includinglandnavigation,advancedfirstaid,and,forthehostileChase,advancedshootingskills,hand-to-handcombat,andcamouflage—Ireferyouto therecommendedreadinglistatthebackofthisbook.Forthepracticalapplicationofself-defensetechniques,IencourageyoutoexplorebooksonBrazilianjiujitsu,KravMaga,anIsraelimartialart,andstickandknifefighting.

Remember: This book shows a fundamental method in achieving the humantrackingskill.Itisuptothepractitionertotrain,train,andtrainsomemore.

EPILOGUE

Ithasbeenalong,arduous,and,Ihope,rewardingjourneythroughthecourseofthisbook.Younowhave the tools tomake that all-important first step towardbecoming a qualified Tracker. Eventually, with dedication and time, youwillgain experience to the point that youwill be able to track a person through awide variety of territories and conditions. Iwish you the best of luck in yourtrackingendeavors andall the rewards thatgoalongwith thepractice and thetitleofTracker.Remember to be true to yourself, and the rest will follow. May Tracking

Humans give you the confidence you desire to effectively capture afugitive/criminalChaseorfindalostlovedone.Happyhunting,andthankyouforgivingmetheprivilegeofsharingsomeof

myknowledgewithyou!

TRACKER’SCREED

I as a Tracker understand thatmy success depends onmy territorial training.Under adverseweather conditions, through urban, suburban, desert,mountain,forested, jungle, andarcticclimates, I as aTrackermustberesourceful. I as aTrackerunderstandthatanychangeinatrackorsignleftmaybeamatteroflifeordeath.Withthisinmind,IasaTrackermustallowmysensestoaggressivelysearch for those I pursue or who pursue me. I as a Tracker must be fullyconsciousofmysurroundings,neveroverlookinganydetailortakinganyhumanindicator for granted. I as aTrackermust pursue and eludehumanswithkeeninsight. I as a Tracker with my experience and resilient determination willconsequently find, fix, finish, exploit, analyze, and disseminate humanintelligenceoreludeand,ifneedbe,eliminatetheTrackersthatdaretopursueme.

GLOSSARY

ACE report. Field report that identifies friendly or enemy Ammunition,Casualties,andEquipment.

adipocere. A crumbly white or unctuous brownish waxy substance thataccumulatesonthefattypartsofahumancorpse(thecheeks,breasts,abdomen,and buttocks). It is produced when fats chemically react with water andhydrogen in thepresenceofbacterial enzymes,breakingdown into fattyacidsandsoaps.Resistanttobacteria,itcanprotectacorpse,slowingdecomposition.

AK-47. Cost-effective assault rifle developed in the former Soviet Union andusedprimarilybycommunistanddevelopingcountries.

AKM. Similar to the AK-47, the AKM is an assault rifle with a perforatedfoldingstockofChinesehorseshoedesign.

algormortis. The equalizing of body temperature to the surrounding air afterdeath.

anthrax.Bacillusanthracis;anodorless,verydeadly,powderorliquidbacteriaorzoologicaldiseaserecognizedasoneofthetopstealthkillersofhumankind;usedinbiologicalwarfareorbioterrorism.

anti-tracking.Anti-Trackingarepassivedefensive techniquesand tacticsusedby an element to maintain a low profile in order to elude and evade theoppositionthroughdeception.

azimuth.Innavigation,ahorizontalanglemeasuredclockwiseinacirclefromanorth-pointing baseline andmeasured in degrees ormils. In a circle of 6,400milsor360degrees,thebaselineisthelinepointingduenorthatthe0/6400miland0/360degreemark.

BDU.BattleDressUniform;camouflagedfieldutilityuniformoftheUSArmedForces.

BoundingOverwatch.Atypeofsquad-levelmilitarymovementinwhichhalfof the team provides protective fire while the other half of the team movesforwardtoanotheroverwatchpositioninactualorimminentcontactwithenemy

forces.

Chase.Thepersonorpersonsbeingsoughtorpursued.

claymore. Antipersonnel mine composed of C4 and pellets that emits asemicircularblastareatothefrontandrear;itcanbeself-detonatedorsetupasaboobytrap.

coilsearchpattern.AmethodinwhichaTrackerconductsadetailedsearchofanareausingawindingorunwindingpatternresemblingacoil.

counter-tracking.Counter-TrackingareoffensiveviolenttechniquesandtacticsusedbyanelementinordertopreventtheTrackerfromfollowing,capturing,oreliminatingtheelement.

coverman. In a military operation, the second person in a team or squadformation;providesprotectionforthepointman;inatrackingteam,thesecondTracker.

DMZ.DemilitarizedZone;athingeographicareaorbufferzonethatrunsalongthe border separating two potentially hostile countries, declared by bothcountriestocontainnomilitaryforces.

drone.Asmall,unmannedaircraft,normallyequippedwithcamerastoprovidereal-timeimagery.

earthwormcast.Atrailofsandordirtpelletsdepositedbywormsastheytravelovertheground.

EMT.EmergencyMedicalTechnician;themedicinamilitaryunit.

END-EX.ENDofEXercise;officialendtoamilitaryexercise.

exfiltration.Theactofcrossingoverintofriendlyterritory.

fansearchpattern.AmethodinwhichaTrackerconductsadetailedsearchbystartingatacentralpoint,movingoutward,andloopingbacktowardthecentralpointinapatternthatresemblesafan.

fastrope. Intertwined rope, three inches in diameter and green in color, thatallowsapersontoslidedownfromahelicopterwithoutburninghishands,usinghisfeettobrake.Theycomein60-,90-,and120-footlengths.

finger.Geographicformationconsistingofathinridgethatjutsoutwardfromalargerridgeandissurroundedoneithersidebysteepdraws.

F3-EAD. Find, Fix, Finish, Exploit, Analyze, and Disseminate. A US Armydoctrine that states that every soldier is a sensor (E2S). The skill of HumanTrackingembodies this fundamentalUSArmydoctrinemore thananypresentofficialMilitarySkillIdentifierinanyoftheservicescombined.

GPSGlobalPositioningSystem;aninstrumentthatutilizespositioningsatellitesignalstodetermineone’sexactlocationanywhereintheworld.

gridsearchpattern.AmethodinwhichaTrackerconductsadetailedsearchbycrisscrossinganareainagrid-likepattern.

groundsigns.Thosesignsappearingatgroundleveluptoanklelevel.

HappyMound.AKoreanburialsite.

harborsite.Sleepormealsite,basedonthenavaltermforthelocationatwhichashipisharbored.

Huey.UH-1 utility helicopter used extensively inVietnam formoving troops,woundedpersonnel,andsupplies.

ImmediateActionDrills.Apredeterminedsetofactionsthatdeterminespecificmovestotakeinreactiontohostile/enemycontact.

infiltration.Theactofcrossingoverintoenemyterritory.

InitialSearchProcedure. Search procedures used to reestablish the trail of aChasebybacktrackingandmakingawidecirclearoundthelastknownsign.

inter-deduction. Interpretation-deduction; the interpretationofa signbasedondeductivereasoning.

livormortis.Discolorationofabodyduetothesettlingofblood.

middlesigns.Thosesignsappearingfromankleleveltoeyelevel.

MostProbableSearchArea.Area throughwhich theChase ismost likely totravel;arrivedatbyusingdeductivereasoning.

night vision goggles (NVG).A set of goggles fittedwith an infrared sighting

opticaldesignedtoenhancenightvisibility.

objectiverallyingpoint(ORP).Thelastrallyingpointpriortoafinalassaultonanenemyposition.

observer-controller.Gradersand/orrefereesinmilitaryexercises;theymaintainthe integrity of players, ensure realism, and provide a detailed critique/after-actionreportattheendoftheexercise.

OPFOR.OPposingFORces;friendlyforcesplayingthepartofenemyforcesinawargame.

PACE. An informal field plan that provides team members their Primary,Alternate,Contingency,andEmergencyactions,routes,orrendezvouslocations.

PMI.Postmorteminterval.

pointman. Inamilitaryoperation, theperson in the frontof a teamor squadformation;providesfrontalprotection.

point of infiltration. The line at which a unit or patrol crosses over fromfriendlytoenemylinesduringamilitaryoperation.

pointer.Foliagethathasbeenbrushed,bent,orbrokeninthedirectionoftravel.

postmortem interval (PMI). A predetermined sequence of stages that adecayingbodyexperiencesfromthetimeofdeathtocompletedecomposition.

ProbingSearchProcedure.Searchprocedureusedtoreestablish the trailofaChase by starting from a central location, probing outward, returning to thecentrallocation,andprobingoutwardataslightlydifferentangle.

psychologicalwarfare.Thoseactions taken inahostileenvironmentdesignedtodemoralizetheopposingforces.

putrefaction.Therottingofthebodytissueafterdeath.

rear security. In a military operation, the person who brings up the rear;providesprotectiontotheteamorsquadfromenemyapproachingfromtherear;coverssignsleftbehindbytheteam.

rigormortis.Stiffeningofthebodyafterdeath,occurringwithinonetotwelvehours.

ROK.RepublicofKorea;SouthKorea.

SALUTE. Brief field report which identifies enemy Size, Activity, Location,Uniform,Time,andEquipment.

sign.Anytrace,object,ormarkleftdirectlyorindirectlybyapersonand/orhisequipmentthatcouldindicatethedirectionoftravel,location,orconditionofthepersonleavingit.

SITREP.SITuationalREPort.

SOG.StudiesandObservationGroup.

standard operating procedures (SOP). A written set of procedures thatstandardizesactionstobetakenunderacertainsetofconditions.

stride. The distance between the left and right (fore and rear) footprint in awalkingorrunningpattern.

Studies and Observation Group. A US Army unit that conducted covertspecialoperationsinSoutheastAsiaduringtheVietnamWar.

thermalimagingdevice.Adevicethatenablesapersonto“see”heatsourcesatnightorthroughfog,smoke,orothertranslucentobjects.

TOP.TrackerObservationProcedures.

topsigns.Thosesignsappearingateyelevelandabove.

T.R.A.C.K.E.R.AcronymdescribingthekeypointsinthecreedoftheTracker:Territorial, Resourceful, Aggressive, Conscious, Keen insight, Experience,Resilient.

TrackerObservationProcedures(TOP).AsystematicmethodofsearchingfortheChase’strail.Themostcommonmethodsincludecoil,Grid,andfan.

TrackingPatrolReport.Detailedreportofatrackingexpedition.

transfer.Therelocationofdirtormudfromitsoriginallocation.

Type 64 pistol. Short round pistol with silencer manufactured in and usedprimarily by communist or developing countries; similar to the US-madeBrowning1900.

unconventionalwarfare.Small-scale,oftencovertoperationsconductedbehindenemylines,usuallyintheformofspecialoperationsorcounterguerrillawarfareagainstinsurgents.

NOTES1GeorgeRoyHill,dir.,ButchCassidyandtheSundanceKid,TwentiethCenturyFox,1969.2RobertArdrey,TerritorialImperative(NewYork:Atheneum,1966).3SunTsu,translatedbySamuelB.Griffith,SunTsu,theArtofWar,ManoeuverandEmploymentofSecretAgents,ed.UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1963):105,144–49.4OscarRatti,AdeleWestbrook,SecretsoftheSamurai,OuterFactorsofBijutsu,Ninjitsu(Rutland,VT:CharlesE.TuttleCo.):324–31.5GordonC.Baldwin,TheApacheIndianRaidersoftheSouthwest(NewYork:FourWinds,1978).6TheSoldiers,TheOldWestSeries(NewYork:Time-LifeBooks,1974):117.7TheMysticWarriorsofthePlains(NewYork:Marlowe&Company,1995):523.8RobertB.Edgerton,MauMau:AnAfricanCrucible(NewYork:BallatineBooks,1989).9MosheBetserandRobertRosenberg,SecretSoldier(NewYork:AtlanticMonthlyPress,1996).10JohnL.Plaster,SOG:TheSecretWarsofAmerica’sCommandosinVietnam(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1997).11DonaldC.CooperandAlbert“Ab”Taylor,TheFundamentalsofMantracking(Olympia,WA:EmergencyResponseInstituteandNationalRescueConsultants,1990).12SydneyPossuelo,“HiddenTribesoftheAmazon,”NationalGeographic(August2003):2–27.13AlthoughbasedinSouthKorea,thescenario,events,geographiclocations,andpeopleusedinthisillustrationarefictional.Anysimilaritiestoreal-lifeoperationsarepurelycoincidental.14GeorgeBloomfield,prod.,DueSouth,AllianceAtlantisCommunications,CBS/CTV,1997–1998.15HumanAnatomyandPhysiology(Lincolnwood,IL:ContemporaryBooks,2001):359.16AmericanRescueDogAssociation,SearchandRescueDogs,TrainingMethods(NewYork:MacmillanGeneralReference,1991):22.Usedbypermission.17JayDixandMichaelGraham,TimeofDeath,DecompositionandIdentification(BocaRaton,Florida:CRCPress,2000),6,4–5.18Dr.DungXuanNguyen,interviewwiththeauthor,June2000.Dr.DungwasasurgicaldoctorduringtheVietnamWar,servedapproximatelytwoyearsinaCommunistreeducationcampinNorthVietnam,andnowworksinWashingtonStateasageneralpractitioner.19DebraA.Kumar,“DecayRatesinColdClimates:AReviewofCasesInvolvingAdvancedDecompositionfromtheExaminersOfficeinEdmonton,Alberta,Canada,”JournalofForensicScience43.1(January1998):57–61.20DirkH.R.SpennemanandFrankeBernd,“DecompositionofBuriedHumanBodiesandAssociatedDeathSceneMaterialsonCoralAtollsintheTropicalPacific,”JournalofForensicScience40.3(May1995):356–67.21DixandGraham,13–14.22Kumar,57–61.23GuinnessWorldRecords2003(London:GuinnessWorldRecords,2003),258,358.

24RolandMueser,LongDistanceHiking,LessonsfromtheAppalachianTrail(Camden,ME:RaggedMountainPress,1998),83,87,85,81.25“MountainOperations,”U.S.ArmyFieldManual3–97.6:pages4–7and4–8,figure4–3.26“JungleOperations,”U.S.ArmyFieldManual90–5:pageB-2.27Webster’sNinthCollegiateDictionary,s.v.“fact.”28Alwaysworkinatwo-personbuddyteam.Thiswillhelpinmaintaininganazimuthandcheckingeachother’sre-creationofasign.Mostofall,thetwo-personruleensuresthesafetyofbothteammembersintheeventofatrainingaccident.

RECOMMENDEDREADING

Ardrey,Robert.TerritorialImperative.NewYork:Atheneum,1966.AustralianMilitaryForces.PatrollingAndTracking.Boulder:PaladinPress,1988.

Betser,Moshe,andRobertRosenberg.SecretSoldier:TheTrueLifeStoryofIsrael’sGreatestCommando.NewYork:AtlanticMonthlyPress,1966.

Bodziak,WilliamJ.FootwearImpressionEvidence.CRCPress,1999.———.TireTreadandTireTrackEvidence.CRCPress,2008.Brown,Tom,Jr.CaseFilesoftheTracker.NewYork:BerkleyPublishingGroup,2003.

———.NaturalObservationandTracking.NewYork:BerkleyPublishingGroup,1999.

———.TheScienceandArtofTracking.NewYork:BerkleyPublishingGroup,1999.

Burnham,FederickRussell.ScoutinginTwoContinents.Doubleday,Doran&Company,1929.

Chapman,F.Spencer.TheJungleIsNeutral.Guilford,CT:LyonsPress,2003.Chesbro,Michael.WildernessEvasion.Boulder:PaladinPress,2002.Crawford,A.George.Manhunting:ReversingthePolarityofWarfare.PublishAmerica,2008.

Daly,RonReid.SelousScouts:TopSecretWar.GalagoPublishingPty,1983.Dickerson,H.R.P.TheAraboftheDesert.London:GeorgeAllen&UnwinLTD,1949.

Dix,Jay,andMichaelGraham.TimeofDeath,DecompositionandIdentification:AnAtlas.BocaRaton:CRCPress,2000.

Fuller,Gregg,EdJohnson,andRobertJKoester.TrackersandDogHandlersinSearchandRescue.DBSProduction,2000.

Grainger,D.H.Don’tDieintheBundo.LittlehamtonBookServices,1984.Grayer,GeorgeWhitty,andTroyA.Lettieri.FootPrint:AnAidtotheDetection

ofCrimeforthePoliceandMagistracy.TemplarConceptsPublications,2011.Gwynne,S.C.EmpireOfTheSummerMoon.NewYork:Scribner,2010.Hardin,Joel.Tracker:CaseFiles&AdventuresofaProfessionalManTracker.2004.

Harris,Marvin.CannibalismandKings.NewYork:RandomHouseInc.,1977.Hayes,StephenK.TheMysticArtsoftheNinja:NinjaAruki.Chicago,IL:ContemporaryBooks,Inc.,1985.

———.TheNinjaandTheirSecretFightingArt.Rutland,VT:CharlesE.TuttleCo.,1981.

Hooper,Jim.BeneaththeVisitingMoon.LexingtonBooks,1990.Hurth,John.TheCombatTrackingGuide.StackPoleBooks,2012.Lawrence,Eric.TheOperator’sTacticalPistolShootingManual.Linesville,PA:BlackheartInternational,2002.

Lawrence,Eric,andMikePannone.TacticalPistolShooting:YourGuidetoTactics&TechniquesThatWork,2ndEdition.2009.

Lettieri,TroyA.ScoutTracker;OperationalandTrainingNotesofaSpecialForcesCombatTracker.TemplarConceptsPublications,2011.

Liebenberg,Louis.TheArtofTracking.CapeTown,SouthAfrica:StruikPublishers,1990.

Osuna,FredericoS.,andJonR.Boyd.IndexTracking.AmethystMoonPublishing,2012.

Plaster,JohnL.SOG:TheSecretWarsofAmerica’sCommandosinVietnam.NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1997.

Poole,JohnH.AllPoole’sbooks(concentrationonsmalltacticalelements).Rottman,Gordon.USSpecialWarfareUnitsinthePacificTheater1941‒45:“Scouts,Raiders,RangersandReconnaissanceUnits.”OspreyPublishing,2005.

Scott-Donelan,David.TacticalTrackingOperations.Boulder:PaladinPress,1999.

Sexton,Mark.TheTracker’sWay:AncientArtandModernApplications.Self-published,2012.

Wells,Spencer.TheJourneyofMan:AGeneticOdyssey.Princeton:Princeton

UniversityPress,2002.VanWyk,Peter.Burnham:KingofScouts.TraffordPublishing,2003.

USArmy.ReferenceFieldManuals:FM2-91.6SoldierSurveillanceandReconnaissance–2007FM3-05.222SpecialForcesSniperTrainingandEmployment–2003FM3-20.98ReconnaissancePlatoon–2002FM3-21.8TheInfantryRiflePlatoonandSquad–2007FM3-22.10SniperTrainingandEmployment–1994FM3-24.2TacticsinCounterInsurgency–2009FM3-34.119ImprovisedExplosiveDeviceDefeat–2005FM3-55.93LongRangeSurveillanceUnitOperations–2008FM3-97.6MountainOperationsFM7-92TheInfantryReconnaissancePlatoonandSquad–1992FM7-42CombatTrackerandTrackerDogTrainingandEmployment–1973FM17-98ScoutPlatoon–1999FM19-20LawEnforcementInvestigation.Chapter19,“Death.”FM21-26MapReadingandLandNavigationFM21-75CombatSkillsoftheMarine–1984FM90-3/FM7-27DesertOperationsFM90-5JungleOperationsSH21-76RangerHandbook

ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

David Diaz has taught human tracking and anti-and counter-tracking tactics,techniques, and procedures from the deserts, jungles, and mountains into theurbanstreetsofsixcontinents.HeisaretiredUSArmySpecialForces/Marine.Diazhas thirtyyearsofexperience inhumantracking.HisuniqueskillsethasnotonlybolsteredtheeffortsofUSconventionalandspecialoperationalunits;he has also trained elements of various allied and NATO troops. Diaz isrecognizedthroughoutthemilitary,lawenforcement,otheragencies,alongwiththe petroleum, telecommunication, and mining industries, as a subject-matterexpertinthetheoryandpracticeofhumantracking.Diaz provides a very realistic and challenging program of instruction that

always exceeds the client’s needs. He has fine-tuned his craft through manyyearsofdedicationandstudyingwiththefinestthroughouttheworld,includingthe Dyaks/Iban of Brunei and Malaysia, Kiwi of New Zealand, Negritosaborigines of the Philippines, the San people of Botswana, and US MarineVietnamveteranswholearnedtheirskillfromtheMontagnardsofthehighlandsof Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Diaz has also exchanged human trackingtactics,techniques,andprocedureswiththeSayerotHa’DruimandHa’BedouinTrackersofIsrael.For four years hewas exposed to theRhodesian version of human tracking

developedbyMr.AlanSavory.It’snotbeneathDiaztohavealsolearnedfrommilitaryprivates and less reputableTrackerswith innovative ideas.Due tohisexposure to a broad and diverse range of teachings, he has developed varioussystematic approaches to theart and scienceofhuman tracking.Diazhas alsowritten Anti-Tracking: Hiding in the Shadows, The Illusion of Invisibility.Presently, through a small 8(a) disabled veteran–owned business calledInformationTechnology&SecuritySolutionsInc.ITS2,Diazteachesexclusivesmall elements within the US military, NATO, Allied forces, and lawenforcement.

WriterV. L. McCann has a BA in creative writing, having graduated withhonorsin1981andthereafterservingnearlytwelveyearsasanofficerintheUSArmy. In 1997, McCann became owner and chief writer/editor of Abbacy

ProfessionalWritinginTacoma,Washington.