TQM_TOOLS
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Transcript of TQM_TOOLS
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Quality Tools
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Statistics is the body ofscientific methods and practices
for
collection
summarizationanalysis
interpretation and
presentation
of data
Control can be exercised effectively
if statistical methods are used
skillfully in all stages .
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Quality tool : Any procedure or Indicator which helps to improvequality of any activity related to any process /
product / services performance is considered as a
quality tool .
Example : Average time to wait for picking up the telephone
by the receiver .
: Average time required for explaining a new procedureto different sets of people .
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1
2
3
4 Price of non-conformance as % of sales
5
6 Average idea generated per person per year
7
8 Time budgeted for education training and process
9
10
Telephone Rings
Persons Contributing ideas
Annual Employee Turn over
5 - 10 % 95 - 100 %
0.5 - 1.0 30 - 100
3 - 7 % 1 - 2 %Absenteeism
5 - 40 % < 2%
Number of ideas implemented 15 - 25 % 85 - 95 %
0 - 1 % 10%
improvement
4 - 8 99.9%Customer Promises Kept
KEY BENCHMARK AREAS
TRADITIONAL WORLD CLASSPARAMETER
CRITICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
TRADITIONAL AND WORLD CLASS TOTAL QUALITY COMPANIES
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Development is the key for survival
Both planning and deployment are critical features ofDevelopment - the
development of targets , the development of means to achieve targets and
deployment of both are the main features ofDevelopment.
Hoshin Kanri is a method devised to capture and concretize strategic goals as well
as flashes of insight about the future and develop the means to bring these into
reality .
In short Hoshin Kanri is a developmental activity .
Daily control , which can also be called as routine work activities , is used to
maintain and control the current control level , where as policy deployment is used to
improve the current control level .
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The scope of Daily Management
The scope of daily management (DM) includes both the maintenance and incremental
improvement of current process standards . Elements of this system includes the
following :
Process descriptions in terms of flow charts . QC Process charts , control points for process outcomes , and check points for
process control parameters .
Operation Standards
Description of Roles , Responsibilities and Accountabilities .
Data requirements ( type , collection method , frequency , reporting method andfrequency )
Procedures for maintenance
Procedure for corrective action when special causes occur
Procedure for daily improvement
Procedure for suggestion system Methods for intra-departmental and intra-process coordination
Procedure for employee recognition .
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Uses of Daily Management
Daily Management is used as the basis for
Maintaining awareness of the current level of performance
Determining breakthrough areas forHoshin Kanri .
Determining improvement priorities
Planning - Annual , Midterm and Long range
Method to determine the areas forHoshin Kanri.
Performance
Time
Expected
improvement
from Daily
Management
customer
Needs from
Management
Analysis
Break through Area
where a new
method is required
current Future
As a result of daily improvement
activities , a certain incremental rate
of improvement , say 10% , is
expected throughout the coming year
on a given process . An analysis ofcustomer needs by management
determines that the process must be
improved by 30% . This difference
between 10% and 30% represents an
area for breakthrough Improvement .
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Hoshin Kanri
Daily Management
SystemIs Break
through
Required
?
Critical /Chronic
Problems
Incremental Improvement
Standardization
Breakthrough Improvements
S
DC
A
P
DC
A
NO
YES
The cycle of daily control
can be called as SDCA cycle
, that is , Standardization-Do-
Check-Action . Critical /Chronic problems checked
during the SDCA cycle in
daily control are then taken
up by policy deployment
tasks , i.e.Hoshin Kanri.Hoshin Kanriuse PDCA
cycle for problem solving .
The control steps are the movement from the PDCA cycle to the SDCA cycle and vice versa .
PDCA cycle to the SDCA cycle and vice versa .
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12
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14
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16
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
5a
Selection of the Theme
Reason for Selection
Study of
Current
Status
Analysis
Planning of
Measures and
Implementation
Implementation
Confirmation of effect
Prevention /
Standardization
Stabilityof
Control
Remaining
Problems
Future Policy
Decide on
purpose and
Target
Decide on steps ,
method
(Standardization)
Education
, Training
Implementation
Check
17
Check
result of
action
Take
Action
Plan (P) or
Standardize
(S)
Implement
(D)Check (C)
Act ( A)
PDCA & SDCA CYCLE
Mutual movement of control ( Daily control ) and Improvement ( Hoshin Kanri ) Activity
Inn
er
C i r
cl e
: Da
ily
con
trolC
yc
le(SD
C A)
O u
ter
C i r
cl e
:
C y
cle
ofH
oshi n
Kan
riPo
lic
yD
ep
loy
me
nt
(P D
C A
)
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Identification of Control Items : The basic requirement
Some companies have discontinued use of control graphs and control charts
because control items are useless . A negative attitude about control items
will ensure that they end up as FireCracker duds . It is important to build
Live control items . Then a set number of control items , and thus a control
system , can be established .
NoofControlItems
Excitement
PeriodDull Period
Time
Maturing Period
Established Control System
End of top management'sFire Fighting Control Items
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Five elements of customer satisfaction
Product Design
Quality
Cost
Delivery
Safety
Morale
Conformance
Service
Cost Effective
Price Effective
In use
In production
Everyone Cares
Elements of
customer
satisfaction
Right Place
Right Time
Right Amount
Right MaterialAssuranceofQuality
Full
Customer
Satisfaction
Potential Areas for development of methods Control Items
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Control chart
From various view points , the control chart can be
said to be the central statistical tool for control .
Put plainly , it is no exaggeration to say that quality control begins and ends with control chart .
The main area of application of control charts are :
1) For control
2) For analysis
3) For graphs
4) For adjustments5) For inspection
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While control charts may be used for all of the
above purposes , their essential role is still processcontrol , followed by process analysis . Analysis
could also be viewed as a preparatory stage in
which control charts useful for process controlare prepared .
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Using control charts for analysis
Control chart for analysis can be considered under
the following two headings :
1) Those used for analysis for discovering and
eliminating the causes of variation ;
and ,
2) Those used for analysis for estimating the
process capability in preparation for controllingthose processes in the future .
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Steps for formulation of a control Chart
1) Sub-grouping
2) Stratification
3) Control Limit Calculation
4) Control Chart implementation
and is mainly consists of charts prepared with the aim
of discovering and eliminating the causes of variation
by devising various ways of sub-grouping , stratifying
and modifying data and testing whether a process isout of control .
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Control limits are highly dependent on Sample size
Average Denier with sample size 25
0.94
0.950.960.970.980.991.001.011.02
1-1
1-3
1-5
1-7
2-1
2-3
2-5
2-7
3-1
3-3
3-5
3-7
4-1
4-3
4-5
4-7
5-1
5-3
5-5
5-7
6-1
6-3
6-5
6-7
Denie
Average Denier with sample size 50
0.940.950.960.970.980.991.001.011.02
1-1
1-3
1-5
1-7
2-1
2-3
2-5
2-7
3-1
3-3
3-5
3-7
4-1
4-3
4-5
4-7
5-1
5-3
5-5
5-7
6-1
6-3
6-5
6-7
Average Denier with sample size 200
0.940.950.960.970.980.991.001.011.02
1-1
1-3
1-5
1-7
2-1
2-3
2-5
2-7
3-1
3-3
3-5
3-7
4-1
4-3
4-5
4-7
5-1
5-3
5-5
5-7
6-1
6-3
6-5
6-7
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Control charts are useful for tracking process statistics, like
average, range, standard deviations etc. over time and
detecting the presence of special causes, if any.
A special cause results in variation that can be detectedand controlled.
Examples of special causes include supply like PTA 1 or 2 ,
ageing , or day of the week differences.
SPECIAL CAUSES/ ASSIGNABLE CAUSES/FINDABLE CAUSES
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A process is in statistical control when only common
causes , and no special cause exists .
COMMON CAUSES/ CHANCE CAUSES
There are many causes:
Each contributes a little:Very difficult to identify:
Very difficult to eliminate.
Common cause variation, is that variation which is
inherent in the process.
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Variables control charts, described here, are statisticsVariables control charts, described here, are statistics
from measurement data, such as length or pressure.from measurement data, such as length or pressure.
Attribute control chartsAttribute control chartsplot count data,
such as the number of defects or defective units.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample/time-->
Observations
Central Line
Upper Control Limit
Lower Control Limit
Structure of
A control chart:
TWO TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS
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A process statistic, such as a subgroup mean,A process statistic, such as a subgroup mean,
individual observation, or weighted statistic, is plottedindividual observation, or weighted statistic, is plotted
versus sample number or time.versus sample number or time.
A center line is drawn at the average of the statisticA center line is drawn at the average of the statisticbeing plotted for the time being charted.being plotted for the time being charted.
UCL, CL, LCL
Two other lines the upper and lower control limits Two other lines the upper and lower control limits
are drawn, by default, 3are drawn, by default, 3 above and below the center line.above and below the center line.
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A process is in control when most of the points fall withinA process is in control when most of the points fall within
the bounds of the control limits, and the points do notthe bounds of the control limits, and the points do not
display any nonrandom patterns.display any nonrandom patterns.
The tests for special causes in control charts will detectThe tests for special causes in control charts will detect
nonrandom patterns in your data.nonrandom patterns in your data.
PROCESS IN CONTROL
Once a process is in control, control charts can be used to
estimate process parameters needed to determine
capability.
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Determine
data type
Is data
Measured or
Counted ?
Counted data
( Attribute
data type)
Measured data
Variable data type
Is sample
Size = 1
?
Use X
and
MR chart
Is sample
Size > 10
?
YES
Use X-bar
and
S chart
Are you
Counting defects
or Defective
units ?
Use X-bar
and
R chart
Is
Sample size
Constant ?
Is
Sample size
Constant ?
Counting Defects
Poisson Data
Counting Defectives
Binomial Data
Use np or p
chart
Use c chart
or
u chart
Use p chart
Use u chart
YES
YES
YESNO
NO
NO
This system to be strictly followed for sample size less than 31. For sample size more than100 , and fraction defective very low ( < .5%) , normal distribution assumption can be made .
Selection of control chart type
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Control Chart Zones
92
94
9698
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
Afreak is a single point that is indicating an out of control situation . It signifies that something changed
dramatically in the process for a short time or that a mistake was made
UCL
LCL
** If 4 out of 5 consecutive points are in zone B or beyond on the same side of the centre line , a freak pattern is formed
** If 2 out of 3 consecutive points are in zone A or beyond on the same side of the centre line , a freak pattern is
formed
X X X
X
X
X X
X
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Trends
92
94
9698
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
** If 7 consecutive points are steadily increase or steadily decrease indicate a run .
** If 10 out of 11 points that steadily increase or steadily decrease form a run .
** A long fluctuation pattern that is steadily increasing or steadily decreasing is a trend .
A chart that shows a pattern of points that are steadily climbing or steadily falling is called a run . An
increasing / decreasing trend would be a sequence of points that are indicating a run , including the
process fluctuations , This means that in between some values can be in the different direction .
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Cycles
92
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96
98
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
Cycles on a control chart are patterns that repeat on a regular basis . They signal that something is
systematically affecting the process .
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Grouping
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
Grouping or bunching , occurs when the points on a chart occurs in clusters . Large fluctuations
between clusters may qualify as one of the instability patterns ; freaks or freak patterns .
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Instability
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
** More than one third of the points are in zone B or beyond .
** More than 4% of the points are in zone A or beyond .
** The chart has a steep zigzag pattern .
An erratic pattern that has large fluctuations on a control chart is classified as instability or unstable mixture .
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Stable Mixture
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
This pattern usually indicates a mixing of two different stable distributions : one for the upper set of points and one for the
lower set .
** 5 or more consecutive points outside the C zone (out side 1 limits ) on either side of the center line indicates a
stable mixture pattern .
A mixture pattern that has erratic ups and downs similar to the instability pattern but has
very few points in the middle of the chart is a stable mixture .
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control Chart - Stratification
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
1 4 7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
+1-1
+2
-2
-3
+3Zone AZone BZone CZone CZone B
Zone A
UCL
LCL
** If 14 or more consecutive points are all within the C zone (within 1 limits ) then the process indicates an
stratification pattern on a control chart .
To the untrained eye , stratification pattern seems to identify as a smoothly running process . Recalculation of the Control
limits will bring the appearance of the control chart back to a normal one .
In stratification pattern , the points hug the Average Line in the Control Chart . There is a
notable absence of points near the control limits .
Interpretation of Control Chart
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Control chart applications ?There are occasions where people use control charts as graphs ,
means plotting data in the form of a control chart and not using
them as such .
Although control limits are drawn in , such charts are only gazed at
, even when some points fall outside the limits ; the causes of
abnormalities are not sought and no action is taken .
Such charts are simply drawn mechanically under instructions from
superiors , and many of the so called control charts prepared in
factories where process analysis and standardisation are inadequate
are of this type .
They are control charts in form but not in substance , and
should really be called graphs .
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Control chart applications ?
However plotting the data in the form of a control chart does show the
ways in which a process changes with time
and
can also have quite a good motivational effect .
It is therefore not recommended to abolish these type of charts .
If presenting data in the form of graphs produces good results , they
should be widely used ; but it is not to be mistaken that these are
control charts .
Also , boredom inevitably sets in after this type of a chart has been
used for some time and people begin to argue that control charts are
useless .
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Control chart applications ?
For this reason , efforts should be made as soon as possible to start
Analysing and standardising processes ,
Reviewing the characteristics to be plotted on control charts ,
Standardising authority , responsibility and methods related to
Searching out assignable causes , and taking action for control
purposes
and actually using the charts for control .
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Measures of quality
Actual out put
Effectiveness = ------------------------------------------------------ X 100 per cent
Expected output
Resources planned to be used
Efficiency = --------------------------------------------------------- X 100 per cent
Resources actually used
Expected output
Target Yield = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- X 100 percent
Resources expected to be consumed
Actual output
Actual Yield = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 percentResources actually consumed
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Measures of quality
Value Added
People productivity Ratio = --------------------------------------------------------------------------Number of employees ( Employee costs )
Net profit before Tax
Return on Value Added = ------------------------------------------------- X 100 per cent
Value added
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Measures of quality
Unit cost = cost of production per MT
Cost of quality = As percentage of Unit cost .
Quality = Pure 1st quality percentage
( 1 x % STD + 2 x % PQ + 3 x % SS + 6 x %C ) X Production (MT)Loss due to down gradation = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Rs Lacs ) 10000
Rate of investment in Research & Development
Amount of investment in R & D in a given period= ------------------------------------------------------------------
Net sales amount in a given period .
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Measures of quality
Deliveries
Percentage of on-time shipments
Predictability of delivery dates
Response time to demand changes
Response to product or volume changes .
Product substitutability
Product options or variants
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Measures of quality
Number of suppliers certified
Supplier certification NOI = --------------------------------------------
Total number of suppliers
Volume of material received from certified suppliers
Supplier certification VOI = ----------------------------------------------------------------------Total volume received
Number of shipments received within specification
Supplier performance = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of supplies received
Number of vendor deliveries received early / late / on time
Schedule stability = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of vendor deliveries
Effective supplier service
Continuity of supply
Supplier knowledge and competence
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Measures of quality
Cost of purchased goods vs... standard costs .
Administrative cost of the purchasing department as a percentage of total purchase .
Inventory turn over ratios .
Percentage of on time orders .
Average delay on delinquent orders .
Average out of stock situation of running items .
Average time for procurement .
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Performance measures for world class manufacture
Quality :
Number of plant measurable processes under statistical process control
SPC_ NOI = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Total number of plant measurable processes
Number of parameters under Cpk evaluation
Cpk _NO = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of parameters monitored
No. of parameters with Cpk > 2.0
Cpk_RATIO = -------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of parameters under Cpk evaluation
Number of orders delivered on time and complete for the period
Schedule maintenance = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of orders delivered for the period .
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Performance measures for world class manufacture
Program stability = Average number of times the production program changesoccurred in a month
Cut length change Frequency = Average number of hours one cut length runs on one cutter .
MT of Fibre on hand in warehouse
Material days in hand = -------------------------------------------------------
Average daily production (MT)
Time to order and receive materials plus production time
Production delivery ratio = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time from customer order until goods received
Number different materials used
Materials flexibility = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of different finished products made
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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION PLOT FOR DIFFERENT SIGMAVALUES
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
-40
-37
-35
-32
-29
-26
-24
-21
-18
-15
-13
-9.8 -7
-4.3
-1.5
1.2
5 4
6.7
59.5
12.3 1
5
17.8
20.5
23.3 2
6
28.8
31.5
34.3 3
7
39.8
VARIABLE
FREQU
ENCIES
SIGMA=1
SIGMA=3
SIGMA=5
SIGMA=10
t - Test
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t Test
When do we apply the t test : This test is generally used for comparing to averages
When the standard deviation of the population is not known . In other words we canSay that it is applied to test two sample averages .
TESTING BASICSA hypothesis is an assumption confronted with a contradictory one . For any test we
need to have 2 hypotheses .
Null Hypothesis ( H0 ) : The assumption to be tested is called the Null Hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis ( H1 ) : The assumption contradictory to the Null Hypothesis
is called the Alternative Hypothesis .
Examples :
1.0 Assumption Ho : Average 1.0 den Tenacity is equal to 6.3 gpd
H1 : Average 1.0 den Tenacity is less than 6.3 gpd
2.0 Assumption Ho : Average CP6 1.0 den DM1 Dye% =
Average CP6 1.0 den DM2 Dye%
H1 : Average CP6 1.0 den DM1 Dye% =
Average CP6 1.0 den DM2 Dye%
t - Test
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t Test
1.0 Process Setting Known
Test Statistic
X - 0t = ----------------------- where , X is the average of n observations
s/ n and s is the standard deviation of nobservation
CRITICAL VALUE :
This is the limit for a value to declare that the difference is sufficient to conclude
that the null hypothesis is to be rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis
and thus for any value of the test statistic more away from the centre than the
critical value , the difference is considered as significant .
sample size < = 30 sample size > 30
Process setting Known
equal sample sizes (n) dif ferent sample sizes( n1 and n2)
equal process variability un-equal process variabilitytry to make the variability equal
Process setting Not Known paired value test
t Test
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The Use of P values in hypothesis testing
One way to report the results of a hypothesis test is to state that the null
hypothesis was or was not rejected at a specified value or level of significance .
For example , for the denier value of 1.4 den produced in two different Draw
machines , say SM #1 & SM #3 , has average denier values as 1.35 and 1.37 andnumber of observations as 53 and 182 respectively and the standard deviation is
0.01 for both of them .
On testing the null hypothesis that all the average deniers are equal was rejected
at 5% level of significance . This statement of conclusion is often inadequate . ,because it gives the decision maker no idea about whether the computed value of
the test statistic was just barely in the rejection region or whether it was very far
into this region . Further more stating the results in this way , imposes the pre
defined level of significance on other users of the information . This approach may
be unsatisfactory , as some decision makers might be uncomfortable with the risksimplied by = 0.05 .
To a oid these diffic lties the P al e approach has been
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To avoid these difficulties , the P-value approach has been
adopted widely , in practice . The P-value is the probability that the
test statistic will take on a value that is at least as extreme asthe observed value of the statistic when the null hypothesis H0 is
true . Thus a P-value conveys much information about the weight
of evidence against H0 , and so a decision maker can draw a
conclusion at any specified level of significance . More formally ,
we define the P-value as the smallest level of significance , thatwould lead to rejection of the null hypothesis H0 .
It is customary to call the test statistic ( and the data )
significant when the null hypothesis H0 is rejected ; therefore
we may think of the P-value as the smallest level at which thedata are significant . Once the P-value is known , the decision
maker can determine , for himself or herself , how significant the
data are without the data analyst formally imposing a pre-selected
level of significance .
It is not always easy to compute the exact P-value for a test .
However , most modern computer programs for statistical analysis
report P-values , and they can be obtained on some hand held
calculators .
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BASIC SEVEN TOOLS OF SPC
FLOW CHART ( STRATIFICATION IN QC )
PARETO CHART
CHECK SHEET
CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
HISTOGRAM
CONTROL CHART
7. SCATTERPLOT
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Seven New Tools of Quality Design
1. Affinity diagram .
2. Interrelationship digraph or Relations diagram
3. Tree diagram
4. Matrix diagram or Quality table .
5. Matrix data analysis .
6. Process Decision Program Chart ( PDPC )
7. Arrow diagram
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Logical
Creative Affinity Diagram
Interrelationship Digraph
Tree Diagram
Matrix Diagram
Arrow Diagram
PDPC
Matrix Data Analysis
Relationship between the seven new tools of quality design - Relation I
Step 1The new seven tools of quality design
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Affinity DiagramCreative
Relations DiagramLogical
Tree Diagram
( To break
objectives to sub
groups )
Matrix Diagram
( To find relationship
amongst objectives
and strategies )
Arrow Diagram PDPC
MatrixData
Analysis
Use of remaining basic seven tools
Prioritizatio
n Analysis
Cause
and
Effect
Diagram
Step 1Planning stage ( Probe in darkness Phase )
Step 2Developing strategy
for the problem
Step 3Formulating
specific actionplan
Relationship between the seven new tools of quality design - Relation II
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
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AFFINITY DIAGRAM
This is used to gather large amounts of language data ( ideas , issues
, options ) and organises them into groupings based on the natural
relationship between the items .
In other words , it is a form of brainstorming .
One of the obstacles often encountered in the quest for improvement is
past success or failure . It is assumed that what worked or failed in the
past will continue to do so in the future .
Along with the experience , mindset should have the acceptability to
ideas which challenges old practices . This is especially true in Quality
Function Deployment ( QFD ) , where new logical patterns should always
be explored .
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
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It is used to generate ideas and categories that can be used later with
more strict , logic based tools . This tool should be used to map the
geography of an issue when :
Facts and thoughts are in chaos and the issues are too large orcomplex to define easily .
Breakthroughs in traditional concepts are needed to replace old solutions
and to expand a teams thinking .
Support for solution is essential for successful implementation .
The affinity diagram is not recommended when a problem is simple
or requires a very quick solution .
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
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The steps for generating an affinity diagram are as follows :
Select a Team : Assemble a group of people familiar with the
problem of interest . Six to eight members in a group works best .
Phrase the issue to be considered . Make a macro level presentation
of facts and figures to kindle creative thinking . It should be vaguelystated so as not to prejudice responses in a predetermined direction .
Be positive while proposing the issue under consideration .
For example , if the brainstorming is on why issues are not followed up
in an organization , it would be best to state the question as Whydo issues remain unresolved ? rather than Why dont people take
the responsibility to complete their assignments ? .
Generate and record the ideas . Give each member of the group a
stack of cards and allow 5 - 10 minutes for everyone in the group torecord ideas on the cards , one per card . During this time , the
objective is to write down as many ideas as possible . and as concisely
as possible . There should be no communication between members of
the group during this 5 - 10 minutes .
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
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Display the cards : At the end of this 5 - 10 minutes each member of
the group , in turn , reads out one of his / her ideas and places it on
the table for every one to see . There should be no criticism or
justification of ideas , and it is allowable to write new ideas during this
time , if fresh thoughts are generated . Sorting the cards : When all ideas are presented , members of the
group place together all cards with related ideas . This process is
repeated until the ideas are approximately in six to ten groups .
Arranging and rearranging continue till everybody in the group agrees to
the arrangement .
Creating Header cards :Look for one card in each group that captures
the meaning of that group . The output of this exercise is a
compilation of maximum number of ideas under a limited number of
major headings .
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
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Displaying the final set-up : The completely arranged activity wise set
of cards along with their header cards are now ready for display . Even
while on display , some suggestions may come . The group leader
may use his discretion and take appropriate action .
Presentation : The final affinity diagram is finally presented to themanagement , for their approval to go to the next step .
This data can then be used with other tools to define areas for attack
. One of these tools is the interrelation digraph .
EXAMPLE
why do issues
remain unresolved ?Thats not my job Multiple ownership
Lack of initiativeNo one wants to
take responsibility
Too many teams
or committees that
get bogged down
Resourcing
priorities
No buy-in
from boss
Too busy doing
paper work
We only work
on crisis
Affinity Diagram
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y g
Identify problem andPhrase neutrally
Brainstorm ideas and
impressions individually
, and record on cards
Sort cards into groups
. Discard those with no
affinity .
Label groups and
organise cards underthem to form chart
Present Chart
Analyze results and
plan action points
When to use it :For gaining insight into complex problems where opinions
and views vary and There are no easy answers .
When not to use it :
Dont use for minor problems , for those with obviousanswers , for situations where outcomes are pre determined
, or in cultures where openness is not
appreciated
What youll achieve :
Method of bringing together different view points and
sorting them out constructively . Significantly increased
chance of gaining insights into how to deal with the
problem .
Controls required :
Needs an experienced facilitator to turn skeptics used to
relying on their own Judgment into productive participators ,
who see the benefits of working together .
INTERRELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH OR RELATIONS DIAGRAM
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The interrelationship digraph begins to draw the logical connections or
sequential links that surface in affinity diagram .
This tool starts from a central concept and leads to the generation of
large quantities of ideas , finally to the description of observed patterns .
Like the affinity diagram , the interrelationship digraph allows unanticipated
ideas and connections to rise to the surface .
The interrelationship digraph is adaptable to both specific operational
issues and general organizational questions .
Example ,
A classic use of this tool at TOYOTA focused on all the factors behind the
establishment of a billboard system as part of their JIT program .
On the other hand it has also been used to deal with issues underlying
the problem of getting top management support for TQM .
INTERRELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH OR RELATIONS DIAGRAM
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In summary , interrelationship digraph should be used when:
1. An issue is sufficiently complex that the interrelationship between
ideas is difficult to determine .
2. The correct sequencing of management actions is critical .
3. There is a feeling or suspicion that the problem under discussion is
only a symptom .
4. There is ample time to complete the required reiterative process and
define cause and effect .
The interrelationship digraph can be used by itself , or it can be used
after the affinity diagram , using data from the previous effort as input .
The steps for using this tool are :
1. Clearly define one statement that describes the key issue to be
discussed .
INTERRELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH OR RELATIONS DIAGRAM
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Record this statement on a card and place it on the wall or atable , in the center of a large sheet of paper . Mark this card
in some way so that it can be easily identified as the central
idea , e.g.. use a double circle around the text .
Generate related issues or problems . This may be done in
wide open brainstorming , or may be taken directly from an
affinity diagram . Place each of the ideas on a card and place
the cards around the central idea card .
Use arrows to indicate which items are related and what leads
to what .
Look for possible relationships between all items . Look for
patterns of arrows to determine key factors or causes . For
example , if one card has seven arrows coming from it to
other issues , the idea on that card is a key factor or cause .
Mark these areas in some way , e.g... by using a double box .
Use the key factors in a Tree diagram for further analysis
INTERRELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH OR RELATIONS DIAGRAM
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Selections of critical points or issues : Examine the points where
many arrows converge .
Also examine the points wherefrom a few arrows are emerging .
Sometimes even with minimum arrow can also be a key point or issue .
INTERRELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH OR RELATIONS DIAGRAM
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Resourcing
prioritiesSystem is out
of control
We only workon crises
Resource
constraints
Too much
red tape
Too busy doing
paper work
No bye-in
from boss
Boss does not
understand the
issue
EXAMPLE
System flow / Tree diagram
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Tree diagram is a technique for mapping out full range of paths and
tasks that need to be done in order to achieve a primary goal and
related sub goals .
It may also be used to identify all the factors contributing to a problem
under consideration .
Critical points identified in interrelationship digraph can be used as input
s for a tree diagram .
one of the strengths of this method is that it forces the user to examine
the logical and chronological link between tasks .
This assists in preventing a natural tendency to jump directly from goal orproblem statement to solution ( Ready .. Fire . Aim! )
System flow / Tree diagram
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The tree diagram is indispensable when a thorough understanding is
required of
what needs to be accomplished
how it is to be achieved
relationship between these goals and methodologies .
Tree Diagram has been found to be most helpful in situations when
1. Very ill defined needs must be translated into operational characteristics ,
and to identify which characteristics can presently be controlled .
2. All possible causes of a problem need to be explored . This use is
closest to the cause and effect diagram or fish bone chart .
3. Identify the first task that must be accomplished when aiming for a
broad organizational goal .
4. The issue under question has sufficient complexity and time availability
for solution .
System flow / Tree diagram
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Steps to prepare a tree diagram :
Ensure that the pre works like Affinity diagram and Interrelationship
digraphs ready . One should have a group of technically capable
people with him .
Have a big magnetic board and small reusable metal plates . Plates are
capable to get fixed on the board ,
with top surface painted in different colours
usable for writing and rewriting .
Select the primary mean for a goal (or principal cause for a constraint )
from the Interrelationship digraphs and subsequently select and relatethe secondary, tertiary , quaternary means ( constraints ) and so on.
At this stage further discussion by the group will help to identify some
causes which were missed earlier . This way we can arrive at all the
causes and position them on the board . The final form of the diagram
can be copied to a bigger sheet .
Finally have a discussion putting up the question Whether these
actions will help to achieve the result needed or fulfill the objective ?
This is to ensure that no steps needed are omitted .
System flow / Tree diagram
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To sum up ,
Affinity diagram uses gut level creativity and helps to have a meaningful
picture when we face an unknown or a very difficult problem .
Interrelation digraph or relations diagram helps to find out the causal
relation between the various factors involved .
Tree diagram or system flow diagram takes the key issues of these
processes and helps to break them down into the lowest practical level of
details possible .
There are lot of similarities between the Tree Diagram and the Cause
and Effect Diagram .
But they have their individuality also . Cause and Effect Diagrams aremade to find the causes for the effect . In case of Tree Diagram it is used
for more purposes . Tree Diagram helps to work out the minutest details
of a task undertaken . Here one can map out the choices before them and
plan for actions based on their capability .
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Matrix Diagram
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The purpose of the matrix diagram is to outline the interrelationships andcorrelations between tasks , functions or characteristics , and to show their
relative importance .
There are many versions of the matrix diagram , but the most widely used
is a simple L shaped matrix known as the quality table .
Quality Table ( the basis of QFD is a Matrix Diagram ) :
In a quality table customer demands ( the what ) are analyzed with
respect to substitute quality characteristics ( the how ) . Correlation between
the two are categorized as strong , moderate and possible .
The customer demands shown on the left of the matrix are determined in
cooperation with the customer . This effort requires a kind of verbal ping -
pong with the customer to be truly effective : Ask the customer what he
wants , write it down , show it to him and ask him if that is what he meant
, then revise and repeat the process as necessary .
Matrix Diagram
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This should be done in a joint meeting with the customer , if at all possible .
It is often of value to use a tree diagram to give structure to this effort .
The right side of the chart is often used to compare current performance to
competitors performance , company plan , and potential sales points withreference to the customer demands .
This should be done in a joint meeting with the customer , if at all possible
. It is often of value to use a tree diagram to give structure to this effort .
The right side of the chart is often used to compare current performance tocompetitors performance , company plan , and potential sales points with
reference to the customer demands .
Weights are given to these items to obtain a relative quality weight , which
can be used to identify the customer demands . The relative quality weightsare then used with the correlations identified on the matrix to determine the
key quality characteristics .
Matrix Diagram
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A modification that is added to create the house of quality table is asecond matrix that explores the correlations between the quality
characteristics .
This is done so that errors caused by the manipulation of variables in
a one at a time fashion can be avoided . This also gives indications ofwhere designed experiments would be of use in the design process .
In the training required for use of this technique, several hours should
be dedicated to a detailed explanation of the steps in the construction of
a quality table , and the system to be used to compare numerically thevarious items .
Use of Tree Diagram with matrix diagram improves the presentation
for the relationship between 2 or more sets of variables and gives it a
better understanding .
The Tree diagram can shown in either of the Row side or the column
side or even from both the sides also .
Matrix Diagram
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T - shaped matrix diagram :
The T shaped matrix is nothing more than the combination of two L
shaped matrix diagram . It is based on the premise that two separate
sets of items are related to a third set . Therefore A items are somehow
related to both B and C items .
Y shaped matrix diagram :
It is the extension of a T shaped matrix where the relationship
between B and C are also shown in a 3-dimensional cubical structured
table with grids .
X - shaped matrix diagram :
The X shaped matrix is nothing more than the combination of two T
shaped matrix diagram . It is based on the premise that two separate
sets of items are related to a set of 2 set . Therefore both A and D
items are related to both B and C items .
EXAMPLE OF MATRIX DIAGRAM T SHAPED
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TMC
HOD
SMC
MC
JMC
OC
SIX SIGMA X
SQC X
7 OLD TOOLS X
T NEW TOOLS O O
RELIABILITY O O O O
DESIGN REVIEW O O O
QC BASICS O O O O
QCC FACILITATION O O O
PROBLEM SOLVING O O O O
COMMUNICATION SKILLS X
ORGANISE FOR QUALITY O O O O
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS O O O
QUALITY PLANNING O O O O
JUST IN TIME O O O O O
NEW SUPERVISOR TRAINING O
TQM - TOOLS O O O O
REQUIRED X FULL
O OVER VIEW
WHO ATTENDS WHO TRAINS
Courses
Matrix Data Analysis
Matrix data analysis is used to take data displayed in a matrix diagram
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Matrix data analysis is used to take data displayed in a matrix diagram
and arrange them so that they can be more easily viewed and show thestrength of the relationship between variables . It is used most often in
marketing and product research . The concept behind matrix data analysis
is fairly simple , but its execution ( including data gathering ) can be
complex .
Pain Relievers
gentleness
Effectiveness
Tylenol
Bufferin
Excedrin
Bayer
Generic
Aspirin
Anacin
A good idea of the uses and value of
the construction of a chart of matrix
data analysis is shown in the adjoining
example in which , types of pain
relievers are compared based on
gentleness and effectiveness . This
information could be used together
with some type of demographic
analysis to develop a marketing plan .
Based on the information , advertisingand product introduction could be
effectively tailored for specific areas .
New product development could also
be carried out to attack specific niches
in markets that would be profitable .
Matrix Data Analysis
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Matrix Data Analysis , in the form of inter relationship matrix , is also
a step forward to the multivariate analysis technique known as
Principal Component Analysis .
Principal Component analysis is basically a data transformationtechnique used to make interrelated original variable into a plane /
space that can be independently studied .
Thus through principal component analysis , the total variation in the
data is usually identified as explained by one or two critical variables .
Matrix Data Analysis technique quantifies and arranges data presented
in a matrix diagram to find more general indicators , that would
differentiate and give clarity to large amount of complex information .
Generally Correlation Coefficient , as defined earlier , is the measure
used for variable type of parameters as the quantifier for the symbols
used in matrix diagram .
Inter relationship Matrix
NG3 process : Oligomer & Base Pastilles properties
Matrix Data Analysis
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olig-deg olig-COOH IV Lab COOH DPn OH Ratio deg ipa aolig-COOH -0.150
0.053
IV -0.018 0.076
0.816 0.328
Lab COOH 0.033 0.196 -0.090
0.676 0.012 0.250
DPn 0.022 0.141 0.783 -0.107
0.781 0.070 0.000 0.169
OH -0.014 -0.203 -0.595 -0.745 -0.440
0.862 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ratio -0.025 -0.224 -0.264 -0.935 -0.173 0.9290.749 0.004 0.001 0.000 0.026 0.000
deg -0.009 -0.068 -0.070 -0.040 0.015 0.076 0.067
0.913 0.386 0.371 0.605 0.844 0.330 0.394
ipa 0.066 -0.176 -0.037 -0.040 -0.045 0.058 0.053 -0.012
0.400 0.023 0.633 0.612 0.566 0.457 0.499 0.875
a -0.009 0.065 0.033 0.104 0.011 -0.102 -0.116 -0.010 -0.028
0.907 0.406 0.674 0.181 0.884 0.192 0.138 0.900 0.720
b -0.038 -0.067 0.107 -0.265 0.082 0.136 0.220 0.065 0.053 -0.188
0.630 0.389 0.171 0.001 0.295 0.081 0.004 0.407 0.498 0.015
NG3 process : Oligomer & Base Pastilles properties
Process Decision Programme Chart ( PDPC )
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A process decision program chart (PDPC ) is used to map out eachevent and contingency that can occur when progressing from a problem
statement to its solution . The PDPC is used to anticipate the
unexpected and plan for it . It includes plans for counter measures on
deviations .
The PDPC is related to a failure mode and effect ( FMEA ) analysis
and its structure is similar to that of a tree diagram .
Methods of PDPC :
Method 1 - Pre planned PDPC : This method is useful for all those
activities which can be planned beforehand .
Method 2 - Progressive PDPC or Contingency Planning PDPC : Even
with all the precautions , something can go wrong at any stage under adisastrous situation or during a major quality problem . Such a situation
calls for a PDPC method , which can be improved depending upon the
situation .
Process Decision Programme Chart ( PDPC )
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Steps to prepare a Pre Planned PDPC :
PDPC does not have any prescribed format , direction or guidelines .
Like Affinity diagram and Relations diagram it can have distinctly
different looks if two solutions comes from two distinct groups on
the same project .
The team should have persons who have an over all idea about
the entire process ,
how it moves ,can visualize what kind of problem one may encounter
at all stages .
Decide the specific goal .
Draw a normal high level , without too detailed flow diagramassuming that no problem will be encountered . Such a diagram
should show all the activity steps in a proper order .
Process Decision Programme Chart ( PDPC )
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Steps to prepare a Pre Planned PDPC :
On a white board or a big paper sheet write or stick the label
showing the starting point at left hand end and the goal or
objective to be achieved at the right hand end .
Discuss in sequential steps to find out the possible problems that
may arise in any operation and a corresponding contingency plan to
overcome those problems in achieving the final objective .
The entire operation is like making a detailed flow diagram . The
action plan should be discussed and the entire process to be
connected with a feed back loop to the original system .
Review periodically . On review , anything which needs to be addedor removed should be done .
Presentation Types of PDPC :
Process Decision Programme Chart ( PDPC )
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Presentation Types of PDPC :
PDPC can be made in a graphical form as well as in an
outline format i.e. After numerically coding the steps and the
problems .
Advantages of the graphical presentations are :
1. Clarity of the pattern
2. Easy to read and explain
3. Alternate paths can be shown easily
4. Comparison between different alternate paths easy.
Advantage of Outline format are :
1. Preparation is easier .
2. Each issue can be easily marked with numbers .
3. Each group can be studied separately and
simultaneously to identify possible problems as well
as to think about measures to overcome them .
4. It is easy to focus and draw out the all possible
contingencies .
EXAMPLE :
Process Decision Programme Chart ( PDPC )
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Decrease Main drive KW variability
Gear Box Main feeder Homogeniser
variability
Pressure balance Motor problems
Decrease
N2 flow
Decrease weir
heightDONE
Arrow Diagram
The arrow diagram is used to plan or schedule a task . To use it one
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g p
must know the sub-task sequence and duration . This tool is essentiallythe same as the standard gantt chart . Although it is a simple and well
known tool for planning work , it is surprising how often it is ignored .The
arrow diagram is useful in analyzing a repetitive job in order to make it
more efficient .
1 2
4
3
5 6Remove Control
Valve
Rework Valve
Rework control
wiring
Hydroblast
line
Install valve
Job or activity
Relationships between
jobs . Takes no time .
Start or end
of an event
EXAMPLE :
Symbols used in Arrow Diagram :
Arrow Diagram
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Event , Node : Nodes correspond to events in a project . A circle
generally indicates it . A number inside the circle indicates the event
number in a project ; an event may mark the initiation of an activity
or the completion of an activity after which the next activity will be
initiated .e.g. Node 1
Job , Task ( activity ) : Arrows are used to represent activities .
Length of arrow is arbitrary and has no relevance to activity time .
This is to explain the task and time required for completion of aparticular job is written on the arrow .
e.g.
t = time for the activity (7) to (8) .
Dummies : Dashed arrows ( ------- ) represent a dummy . A
dummy is used as a connector and has zero duration .
1
7 8t
Training to operators
Symbols used in Arrow Diagram :
Arrow Diagram
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Critical Path : The path for which the project duration is the
longest is identified as the critical path . All activities ( continuous
lines ) in this critical path are drawn in bolder lines . Any delay in
these activities will delay the completion of the project .
Arrow Diagram of a small house construction
Total slack : For any task , amount of time by which it can be
delayed is called slack period , e.g. slack for electrical works is 12
days , slack for plumbing and Doors and Windows is 5 days each .
3 41 2
7
6
8
5
9
10Foundat
ion
20 days
Structure
and RCC
roofing
30 days
Walls
construct
ion
20 days
Doors and windows
Finish plastering
, Whitewash
and painting
Plumbing
Electrical
Works
20 days
25 days
15 days
10 days
Trial
Tests
Trial Tests
5 days
3 days
Types of Arrow Diagram
Arrow Diagram
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Normal arrow diagram : Here the arrow represents the activities .Nodes represents events , start and finish . The details of activities
and duration are written on the arrows .
Activity on Node diagram : In this type of arrow diagram nodesare converted as a rectangular box and the details are written in
that . Here the arrows indicate the sequence . Time can be written in
the box or on the arrow .
1 2Foundation
20 days
Node / Activity Node / Activity
DetailsDetails
Foundation Laying
Time = 20 days
Structure and RCC
roofing
Time = 30 days
Organisation ,
Total Organizational Excellence Framework
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Vision , goalsand strategies
Mission
Critical Success
Factors & Key
Process Indicators
Self
Assessment
( Gap
Analysis )
Process Analysis
ISO
9000
Define
opportunities for
improvement
People Development
Decide
process
priorities
Education Training
and development
Visualize ideal
process
Business
Process Re-
engineering
ContinuousI
mprovement
Measurement of progressBenchmarking
( Process
Capabilities)
Application
of SQC
starts here
Gather and
identify critical
voice of the
Translate critical
VOC needs into
critical Technical
requirements
System / Subsystem / Part Cp / Cpk
assessment / audit / corrective
action during steady state
THE CRITICAL PARAMETER MANAGEMENT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
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customerneedsq
House of Quality
generated from critical
VOC and technical
requirements using QFD .
Gather and
identify critical
voice of the
customer needs
Convert system requirements
. Document into final
performance specification
Document .System
Requirements
Documents
Critical Functional Responses
identified during conceptdesign and optimized during
subsystem Development ,
system integration and Design
certification .
System requirements to
system CFR
Maps / Database
Measured System /
Subsystem / Part CFR
Cp / Cpk
performance vs. finalperformance
production and service
Construct Subsystem
Level Houses of quality
relating critical system
requirements to critical sub
system requirementsSub System
Requirements
Documents
Critical Functional parameters
identified and optimized during
Design and optimize phases
( Nominal set points ) .Construct ComponentLevel Houses of quality
relating critical sub system
requirements to critical part
requirements
Component
Requirements
Documents
Critical-to-Functional
specifications identified
and optimized during
Design , optimize and
verify phases.( Tolerance set points ) .
Construct Component
Level Houses of qualityrelating critical sub system
requirements to critical part
requirementsManufacturin
g Process and
Material
Requirements
Documents
Critical process parameters and
responses identified and
optimized during Design ,
optimize and verify phases.
( Nominal / Tolerance set
points ) .
System CFR to
sub system CFR
Maps / Database
Sub System CFR to
sub system CTF
Maps / Database
Component CTF tomanufacturing process
CFR
Maps / Database
Measured system CFR
Cp values
Measured sub-system
CFR Cp values
Measured component
CTF Cp values
Measured
manufacturing process
CFR Cp values
CONCEPT EVALUATION AND SELECTION PROCESS (CPM) - PUGH MODEL
Requirements , Functions and numerous
concepts from concept generation .
INPUT
Identify weakness in low scoring
concepts that can be turned into (+)s .
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Define concept selection criterion from a
clear and complete set of requirements
Define a best-in-class benchmarked
datum concept
Provide numerous candidate concepts to
evaluate against the datum .
Evaluate each concept against the datumusing (+)s , (-)s and (S)s to rank
fulfillment of the concept selection
criterion
Refine criterion as necessary during the
first cycle of evaluation .
Analyse the results from the 1st cycle of
evaluation : sum of (+)s , (-)s and (S)s .
Identify weakness in high scoring
concepts that can be turned into (+)s .
Create hybrid super concepts by
integrating the strengths of likeconcepts to remove (-)s and (S)s .
Select a new datum based on the scoring
that suggests a superior concept after
the previous cycle of evaluation .
Add any new concepts that have beendeveloped .
Analyse the results from the current
cycle of evaluation : sum of (+)s , (-)s and
(S)s .
Create hybrid super concepts by
integrating the strengths of like concepts
to remove (-)s and (S)s .
Repeat the evaluation process through
the current cycle .
Repeat the
evaluation
for the
next cycle ?
Superior concept is selected and ready to
go forward into the Development or
Design phase .
OUTPUT
Yes
No
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CO-RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN TECHNICAL
PARAMETERS
QFD ELEMENTS
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PARAMETERS
TECHNICAL
PARAMETERS
CUSTOMER
REQUIREMENTSSr.No.
IMPORTANCE
INTER-RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CUSTOMER
REQUIREMENTS AND
TECHNICAL
PARAMETERS
COLUMN NUMBERS
PRIORITY
RATIN
COMPLAINTS
CUSTOMER
COMPETITIVE
EVALUATION
COMPETITIVE
TECHNICAL
ASSESSMENT
OPERATIONAL GOALS
AND TARGETS
ORGANISATIONFIELD EXPERIENCES
ACTIONS
DIRECTION OF IMPROVEMENT
Regulatory Technical
Company Issues
COLUMN WEIGHTS
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This is an over all planning document .
It should be a team developed document .
The QFD concept suggests that a documented over all
approach be developed by a cross functional team
so that the whole challenge is addressed .
START
Simple Flow Diagram of a QFD
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Determine the voice of the customer ( Customers wants and needs )
Survey customers for importance ratings and competitive evaluations
Develop the customer portion of the matrix .
Develop the technical portion of the matrix .
Analyze the matrix . Choose priority items .
Compare Proposed design concepts . Synthesize the best .
Develop a part planning matrix for priority design requirements
Develop a process planning matrix for priority process requirements .
Develop manufacturing planning chart .
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
STEP 4
STEP 5
STEP 8
STEP 6
STEP 7
STEP 9
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Survey customers for importance ratings and
competitive evaluationsSTEP 2-1
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Barring a few , all customers does not have clear idea about the priorityrating for their requirements . This information is to be extracted from
them through One-on-One interviews .
Search for the root causes in the One-on-One interviews .
Keep asking Why? until the real wants are determined .
Prepare a well designed group of small questionnaire .
Each questionnaire can cover a portion of the total number of voices .
Collectively the response to the whole group of questionnaires will
cover the spectrum of voices .
Survey customers for importance ratings and
competitive evaluations
STEP 2-2
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Questionnaires on levels of importance and competitive evaluations
normally use scales with odd numbers range such as 1 to 3 , 1 to 5 or 1to 9 .
On competitive evaluationsfor simplicity it might be asked to the customer , For this voice , does the competitor perform the same as , worse than ,
or better than our company ? .
Organizations do not usually work on customer voices .They work ontechnical requirements that represent the translation of the voices .
competitive evaluations
Develop the customer portion of the matrix .STEP 3
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The analysis should represent an integrated decision based on thecustomers level of importance , their competitive evaluation , and anycustomer complaints .
The decision process can be assisted by development of goals forimproved customer satisfaction , determination of sales points andimprovement ratios .
This is not of major significance if the team continues to recognize that
these calculations of goals ratios , and row weights are simply to help inthe decision process .
They are not a substitute for common sense . They are not algorithmsthat replace judgment . They are simply aids in the decision process .
Develop the technical portion of the matrixSTEP 4
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A completed technical requirement must be measurable .If a team cant put a unit of measurement then the technicalrequirement should be re-examined .
As a rule of thumb , the team should try to keep the ratio of technicalrequirements to customer requirements somewhere between 1 and 1.5 .
When determining the relationship strengths , it is important to work in
columns . Teams should look at each technical requirement and movedown the column asking Would we work on this technical requirementto satisfy this customer requirement ?.
Indicate direction of improvement for all parameters . Establish target &spec . Co-relationship between technical parameters . Column weightages .
Categorize all the customer requirements in the following manner :
Analyze the matrix . Choose priority items
.STEP 5
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Categorize all the customer requirements in the following manner :
Category A item > the competitor has a significant current leadin the customers eyes .examine the competitors product for ideas
Category B items > the competitor has a minor lead .Competitors product should be examined first .
Examination of competitors product should be followed by developmentof a number of concepts for evaluation and synthesis to develop the
best idea .
Category C items > No company has a significant lead ,There exists a competitive opportunity andnew ideas and concepts should be explored .
These categories are in order of increasing difficulties . Category Awould be the easiest and category C is the hardest . All of thedesignated items in the action column represent priorities for increasingcustomer satisfaction .
f f
Analyze the matrix . Choose priority items .STEP 5
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Some organization add information to the customer portion of thematrix to help them in their analysis and in setting priorities .These indicators are , as mentioned in step 3 :
Goal : Expected Customer satisfaction rating .If the organizations personality is such thatestablishing any goal less than Excellent or
rating = 6 would be judged as Improper , thenthere is no value in using this column .
Sales : This should be used to highlight those rows in whichPoints: action to improve the product can provide a
competitive edge . Some weightage can be assignedto these rows for final compilation of row weightalong with other priority deciding factors .
Im : This is a calculated measure representing the scope ofprove: the improvement required to achieve the goal set atment : point 1 . If the existing CSI rating =2 and Goal =6ratio : then improvement ratio = 6/2 = 3 .
Th fi l l i ht i th d t f th th
Analyze the matrix . Choose priority items .STEP 5
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The final column row weight is the product of the threecolumns .
1 2 3 4 5
Goa
l
Sa
les
Point
Improvem
en
t
Ra
tio
Row
weig
ht
Action
Cup stays Cool 1 8 3 6 1.2 3 21.6 B
Coffee stays hot 2 7 0.1 6 1 3 18.0
Won't Spill tip 3 7 3 6 1.2 3 21.6 C
Resists Squeeze 4 6 0.5 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Doesn't leak 5 7 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Easy to hold 6 6 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Lid f its tight 7 7 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Remove w ithout spill 8 5 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Opening for drink 9 8 1 5.5 1 2.3 12.7 A
Empty w ith lid on 10 7 5.5 1 2.3 12.7 B
Easy-off drink tab 11 6 6 1.2 3 21.6
Prevent spill 12 8 5 1.2 2.5 15.0 C
No-leak cup / lid 13 6 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Reg / decaf 14 8 5.5 1 2.3 12.7 A
Good taste 15 7 6 1.2 3 21.6 C
Good aroma 16 7 5.5 1 2.3 12.7
Etc 17 6
Containers
Cups
Lids
Material
Characteristi
Sr.No.
Importance
Complaints
Customer Competitive
Evaluation
Compare Proposed design concepts .
Synthesize the best .STEP 6
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Excellence in design - especially the first stages of design whenengineers outline the essentials of a product - offers any business itsmost fundamental opportunity to achieve Quality at low cost .
At this point , many organizations examines the proposed product fromthe viewpoint of its potential for failure .
These failure analyses force the organization to plan for its controlthrough either the design requirements or by control .
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)and
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis ( FMEA )
are recommended to ensure that the issues of potential failure are
fully explored .
The risk assessment columns are provided for assessment of theprobable effect of potential design concerns .
From each column
Compare Proposed design concepts .
Synthesize the best .STEP 6
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From each column ,determine the total no. of pluses ( better than the datum ) ,
minuses ( worse than the datum ) andequals ( same as the datum ) .
Work to improve those concepts that scored best by incorporatingstrong ideas from other concepts .
Continue the process of synthesizing concepts . Rerun the analysisseveral times with the synthesized concepts .
Option
1
Option
2
Option
3
Option
Option
5
Option
6
Requirement1 + - + - S S
Requirement2 - + + + S +
Requirement3 + - - S + -
Requirement4 + + S + S -
Requirement5 S + + S - +
Total + 3 3 3 2 1 2
Total - 1 2 1 1 1 2
Total S 1 0 1 2 3 1
Develop a part planning matrix for priority
design requirementsSTEP 7
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Part and process matrices are simpler and easy to manage .
Furthermore , everything that was learned relative to development of aproduct planning matrix is repeated for the part and process matrices .
Thus learning to use the matrix concept is much like learning to ride abicycle . Once the product planning matrix is mastered , any remainingmatrices follow the same pattern .
The Design Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA ) format
lists the possible failure mechanisms and
permit an assessment of their risk based onlikelihood of occurrence ,severity , andease of detection
for every part in the process .
Develop a process planning matrix for priority
process requirements .STEP 8
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Process Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA ) and Fault Tree Analysis( FTA ) of the process is the primary requirement for reliability
assessment of a process .
Typically , QFD practices suggest that the process matrix be examinedin a similar manner to the previous matrices .
Those with weak and moderate relationship symbols would probably be
disregarded . The remaining ones would probably be deployed to thenext stage - manufacturing planning .
Develop manufacturing planning chart .STEP 9
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Manufacturing planning cant be done selectively . Every processrequirement represents an item that must be controlled during
manufacturing to ensure that parts will meet their design requirementand their customer expectations .
Therefore, the QFD team should seriously consider doing the wholeprocess study for the part involved .
Note that some of the process parameters may not have relationshipsymbols in their columns .
These parameters are also part of the process but not measurablyrelated to the critical part requirements that were the inputs to thematrix .
Steps for making an Action Plan
Set Objectives
When to use an Action Plan :
Particularly useful for planning initiatives where tasks fall outside the normalPattern of peoples responsibilities
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Break down
objectives into
tasks
Put tasks in order
, using flow chart
Establish due dates
for each task
Allocate people to
tasks
Copy and
distribute Action
plan to every one
involved
Pattern of people s responsibilities .
When not to use it :Dont use when the project is sizeable , with action points well within double
figures . Use a more formalized approach such as Critical Path analysis or
Gantt Chart .
What youll achieve :A way of planning how best to use people to achieve particular objectives .
Makes sure people know exactly what their responsibilities are , and in
what order
Controls required :
Just allocating tasks wont necessarily make them happen , particularlywhen theyfall outside normal job routines .
Check on memory , motivation and progress .
Keep the plan simple and keep it up to date .
Barrier Analysis
Define change being
considered
When to use it :
When you want to make sure that a particular project or change initiativeyoure contemplating has a reasonable chance of success .
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Brainstorm potential
and actual barrier to
change
Group barriers into
themes
Check that majority of
barriers can beovercome . If not
abandon project .
List actions to remove
barriers .
you re contemplating has a reasonable chance of success .
When not to use it :Dont rely on barrier analysis when you dont know the situation or the
people well enough to identify the real barriers .
What youll achieve :Using barrier analysis significantly reduces likelihood of an initiative being
sabotaged by major unforeseen barriers of attitude or resources . Also provide
information to prepare the ground .
Controls required :Barrier analysis needs to be done realistically - both pessimism and
optimism can cause difficulties . If using with broad range of staff rather
than management group , consider using a facilitator .
Benchmarking
Identify the key products
and processes you want
to benchmark
When to use it :
For making sure you are reaching the same standards as your competitors. Particularly feasible if you can find relevant collaborators , perhaps in
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Identify Competitor , or
Best within yourselves
Identify possible
collaborators organisations
doing similar things who are
not competitors .
Brainstorm sources of
information Libraries
Government statistics
Business databases
Journals and reports
Company reports
Gather and analyseinformation regularly
Establish strategies to
close any gaps .
y y , p p
quality departments who can share information without revealing
commercial secrets .
When not to use it :
Dont embark on a lengthy benchmarking exercise if customers andstakeholders are happy with the way things are . Watching what
others are doing is important but customers are more important than
competitors .
What youll achieve :
You can gain an understanding of the standards and targets you canRealistically set - because others have achieved them , and which , at
the very least your customers will expect .
Controls required :Competitor information is often very hard to get and consequently is
not always reliable . And its often hard to be certain what exactly the
competition is All organizations have unique features which can make
comparisons treacherous .
PDCA CYCLE
Select the problem
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analyse the reason
chalk out the action plan
Carry out the
Action plan
Continue collecting
Data for comparison
Check whether the desired
result has been achieved or
not
Act according to theresults on the basis
of the plan
start making another
plan
PLAN
DOCHECK
ACT
Selectthep
roblem
analysethereason
chalkouttheactionplan
Carry
outtheA
ction
plan
Contin
uecollectin
g
Data
forc
ompa
rison
Checkw
hetherthedesired
resulthasbee
nachievedor
not
Act
according
tothe
results
on
theba
sisof
thepl
anorstart
makin
gan
othe
rpla
n
PDCA CYCLE EPDCA CYCLE
EPDCA E l t Pl D
Improvised to
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D M A I C
DEFINE MEASURE ANALYSE IMPROVE CONTROL
EPDCA : Evaluate , Plan , Do ,
Check , Amend - the helix of
never ending improvement .
PDCA is to be applied for each of the
following problem solving steps
Nominal Group Technique
When to use it :
For reaching group consensus on decisions where there is a variety
Assemble the group and explain
to them about the issues pending
which call for prioritization .
The leader should not indicate
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Generate ideas about the
problem individually in writing
Record ideas on a flip
chart , without discussion
Discuss to clarify meaning
of ideas not for argument
Vote on ideas
Rank and prioritize
Discuss results of vote, and take final vote .
Check that all group
members support decision
of view points and an unanimous decision is unlikely .
More consultative than taking a majority decision .
When not to use it :
Dont use with groups which dont have responsibility for the final
decision .
What youll achieve :
Decision making based on what people think , which minimizes
the influence of personal or political factors , and makes sure that
everyone is involved . Should result in a higher level of commitment
to decisions .
Controls required :
Facilitator needs to exercise firm control to keep to a structured approach
And to stop inappropriate discussions from developing
his preference .
Break - even Chart
Set up graph
Horizontal axis : Financial
returns /
sales .
When to use it :
For comparing an expenditure to an economic return .
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Vertical axis : Expenditure /
Cost of sales
( Fixed cost +
Variable cost )
Plot data
Mark break-even point whereCost and sales lines intersect
Interpret graph to see
minimum salesrequirement and sales
figure for optimum
profit .
Can be used to justify projects and investment expenditure , or
To set sales targets .
When not to use it :
Dont use with out reliable information on variable costs and fixed costs .
What youll achieve :
A focus on profit rather than turnover .
An understanding of how increasing the existing sales levels brings
more profit than developing new products .
Controls required :
Remember that you cant just extend the cost line indefinitely .
At a certain capacity , costs will hit a step change when major
new investment is needed to produce more . Profits wont actually
Hit the roof .
Brainstorming
Facilitator defines subject
of brainstorm .When to use it :
When you need plenty of good ideas about solving difficult or
U l bl
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Everyone has 15 minutes
to write down all ideas
they can think of .
Alternatively ,
Everyone in turn gives an
idea ( or says pass)
Facilitator records all ideaswithout comment or criticism
Facilitator asks group
for more ideas until
ideas run out .
Group discusses ,
prioritizes and selects
The best idea .
Unusual problems .
When you work in a group like Quality Circle , Small Group Activity
Etc .
When not to use it :
Dont use when you dont have a clear idea of what the problem
actually is , or when there is one right answer one can derive from
a logical thinking process .
What youll achieve :
Many more times ( approximately three times , it is claimed ) the
number of ideas you would have from the same people working
separately . People stimulate each others thinking . Also ideas
likely to be more creative .
Controls required :
Needs good facilitating . Criticism of peoples idea will start with too
casual facilitator and creativity stops with too firm facilitator .
Facilitator must create a fun , hothouse atmosphere .
Solution effect Analysis
Write down solution you
are thinking of
impleme
