Towards Gender Equality and the Elimination of Patriarchy ...€¦ · self-esteem that is often...

International Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 12, No.2, April – June, 2018

211

Towards Gender Equality and the Elimination of Patriarchy in

Nigeria

by

Julie Akpotor,

Department of Sociology and Psychology

Faculty of the Social Sciences

Delta State University, Abraka

[email protected]; 08064309195

Abstract The article examined the enhancement of gender equality and the elimination of patriarchy in

Nigeria. Tradition, culture and religion have for decades been the sacrosanct institutions that

have dictated the relationship between man and woman and have institutionalized male

hegemony into the structure of social organizations at all levels of human life. Patriarchy has over the years sought in every ramification to rationalize the denigration and marginalization

of women in education, economy, employment, politics, business, family and domestic matters. This, patriarchy has sought to achieve on the platform of ideological positions, cultural

norms, socio-political and economic policies as well as religious credence. It was contended

that the world has, in recent times, witnessed a renewed vigour in the pursuit of gender equality and this pursuit has resulted in the evolution of several national and international

strategies targeted at promoting gender equality, women empowerment as well as protection

of the rights of women. Despite the fact that gender inequality remains unhealthy and vicious,

the paper counters the belief in some quarters that gender inequality can be completely wiped

out. This is because of the intensity of patriarchal dogmas, religious convictions and mores that have continued to uphold male dominance in most Nigerian Societies. It is, therefore,

recommended among others, that women education and enlightenment should be encouraged

and promoted to enable the individual woman expand her influence and break the cycle of low self-esteem that is often accompanied by self-pity, loss of confidence and disenchantment. It is

further recommended that the Nigerian Government should review all gender bias laws as a

step towards the elimination of patriarchy in Nigeria.

Keywords: Patriarchy, Gender Equality, Female, Male, Elimination.

1. Introduction

There has always existed a battle of hegemony between men and women, from

time immemorial. Patriarchy refers to a system in which men have all or most of the

power and importance in the society to the detriment of the women folk. Patriarchy has

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Akpotor, J.

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been the major structure of traditional society; it is “a salient feature in most Nigerian

Societies” (Aina, 1998).

In traditional societies, men were attributed the qualities of power, vigour, self-

confidence and the courage to wade off enemy attack and incursion. Hence, men were

not expected to partake in household chores including nurturing of children that was

considered the exclusive domain of women. Men were expected to be solely “providers”

or bread winners of the household (Silberschmidt, 1999). It is a design of social and

materialistic relationship that gives men the prerogative to lord it over women (Stacey

1993; Kramarae, 1992; Lerner 1986; Aina, 1998, 2003). It is a discriminatory system that

is socially stratified on the basis of sex, giving material edge to the male sex while at the

same time placing strict restraints on the duties and responsibilities of the female.

Most feminist scholars view patriarchy not only as a deliberate attempt by men to

denigrate women but also debase them with the weapons of ideology, socio-political and

economic policies, cultural norms and religious beliefs (Makama, 2013; Okafor, 2010;

Ejumudo, 2013; Babalola, 2014). It is however worthy of note that the birth of

democracy, civilization and the spread of modern education have given an impetus to the

struggle by women to gain acceptability and be given a place in the cultural, socio-

political, economic, religious and professional affairs of the global society (Damilola,

2010). Today, discrimination on the basis of gender has become an epidemic that has

stamped gender inequality in many countries of the world. It manifests differently in the

various countries and cultures. Article1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All

Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has defined gender discrimination

as;

…any distinction, circumscription or exclusion on the basis

of sex intended to cripple or abrogate any form of relevance,

pleasure or active involvement of women, married or

unmarried on the issues of equality of man and woman, of

human rights and of basic freedoms in the cultural, social,

civic, political and economic spheres or any other field.

(CEDAW, 1979). Gender inequality has caused huge damage to the socio-economic lives as well as

healthy living of women owing to their excessive marginalization and suppression. This

inequality has not only given rise to intense poverty among women, but has also bred low

self-esteem, diseases among others. This concern has led to a reinvigoration of the

pursuit of gender equality all over the world in the past few decades.

The move has materialized into many national and international strategies

towards the establishment of gender equality, empowerment of women and protection of

the rights of women (Essien and Ukpong, 2012). Some of the strategies include the

Vienna Declaration Programme and Action; Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the

Advancement of Women; the ICPD programme of Action; the Beijing; Conference,

Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict

(1974); Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women

(1979), Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against


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Women (2000); African Charter on Human and People Rights (1986) among others

(Ayobade, 2012).

Despite the resolution and declaration of these regional and international rights,

women in Africa have continually encountered the challenges of gender inequality in

almost all spheres of life. The strategies and declarations all acknowledge that humans

are born free and whether male or female, they are equal in social standing and rights

without distinction of any kind. Discrimination against women is therefore unidentifiable

with human self-esteem and societal harmony.

However laudable and desirable gender equality is, the patriarchal structure of the

Nigerian society will continue to tactically hinder the involvement of women on equal

basis with men in political, social, economic, cultural and occupational endeavours and

this will continue to be a deterrent to the development and maximization of women‟s

potentials for the greater good of society.

2. Objectives

i. To assess the dimensions of gender inequality in Nigeria

ii. To examine the catalytic agents in the pursuit of gender equality in Nigeria.

3. Clarification of Major Concepts

Patriarchy

The word “patriarchy” was originally used to denote the power the father as head

of household wielded around himself. However with the emergence of feminism, the

term has come to be associated with the systematic and deliberate pattern that has given

the male an edge of superiority over their female counterparts (Aina, 1998), Okpe (2005)

submits that patriarchy is a broad network or system of hierarchical organization that cuts

across social, political, economic, religious, cultural, industrial and financial spheres: a

system which has privileged the male gender to be the suitable occupant or controller of

most of the top positions in society.

Thus, any system that privileges men with undue advantages and opportunities at

the expense of women is regarded as patriarchal. A patriarch is usually regarded as the

lord of the house and this automatically gives him control over productive activities,

labour power and reproduction abilities as rooted in the philosophy of supremacy and

lowliness and given legality by distinction in gender and vast support (Makama, 2013).

Also, Roc defines patriarchy as

“a family social ideology and political system which enables

men to establish the role of women using the forces of direct

pressure, tradition, law, language, customs, and division of

labour; it pushes in every way to subordinate the female under

the male” (Roc, 1977).

No matter how it is defined, patriarchy simply means the devaluation and

subjection of women by men in nearly every sphere of human endeavour enhanced by the

forces of culture, religion as well as socio-political and economic factors.

Akpotor, J.

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Gender

It should be noted that gender does not denote sex. Gender is a creation of culture

while sex is a biological phenomenon. For instance, sex is seen as the biological and

permanent discrepancy between male and female which is characterized by the presence

of breast and penis. Gender unlike sex refers to the roles assigned to men and women in

tandem with social and cultural norms. Stacey (1993) sees gender as the social

organization of sexual discrepancies. It is the understanding that gives meaning to the

human biological distinctions. This means that gender relates to the normative expectation

attached to each sex. Gender is therefore not regarded as a phenomenon that is inborn in

an individual but something that is created from external factors.

Gender Equality

This means a situation in which women and men have equal chances, privileges

and stipulations for achieving their complete human rights, potentials, prospects and

vision. Gender equality allows women to play roles in the social, cultural, political and

economic spheres of national development as well as allow them to profit equally from

the outcome.

Additionally, gender equality requires that the factors, norms, beliefs that have

nourished gender discrepancy are meticulously identified and eliminated to permanently

open up men and women to equal opportunities. Gender equality must therefore include

both prescribed equality and substantive equality, and not just plain equality with men.

4. Drivers of Gender Inequality in Nigeria

There are several factors, perhaps forces that have favoured gender inequality in

Nigeria. These factors are:

i. Ideology: - Ideology refers to a series of beliefs on which people base their

actions. Millet (1970) associated gender inequality with faulty socialization

process which socialized men to have an overriding disposition. The result is a

situation which has given men a higher social standing and placed them in social

positions in which they can put into practice command over women. The

unflinching acceptance of male dominance has continued to favour gender

inequality in Nigeria.

ii. Genetic or Biological factor: - Differences in biological characteristics between

male and female have also been used as a pointer for patterning the socialization

process along different activities and roles.

iii. Societal factor: - The family as a social institution is also one of the major

proponents of gender discrimination. From time immemorial, the family

institution has been the nursery bed for nurturing patriarchy and an instrument for

its spread and establishment. Over the years, the family has helped to keep alive

the phenomenon of patriarchy through indoctrinating infants to think and set in

line with their sex and accept the roles assigned on the basis of this difference.

iv. Education: - Education has also been a readily available medium for propagating

gender inequality in Nigeria. From the precolonial era, women education has been

perceived as a waste of investment. In addition to this wrong notion concerning


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women education, the plague of early marriage is also capable of worsening the

impoverishment and misery of women, exposing them to legal prejudice (Ojo,

2012). Similarly, Mamdani (1996) posited that the rate of poverty is predominant

among African women and specially among Nigerian women because of the bias

in educational prospects for women. This situation has not only kept women at

the rear in educational attainment but has also facilitated their dominion by men.

v. Religion: - The incidence of patriarchy and gender inequality is also made

possible by the religious belief predicated on the Christians‟ assertion that Eve

was a lesser being by virtue of the fact that she was created from Adam‟s

auxiliary ribs. Male superiority and dominance is highly toughened and

legitimized by such religious convictions.

vi. Psychological factor: - Another driver of gender disparity is the acceptance of low

standard and flaccid nature by women. This passiveness is made worse by the

media. The internalization and recognition of male authority by women directly

and indirectly affects their psyche and mental functioning which contributes to

low self-esteem, lack of self-assurance, disenchantment and inferiority complex.

From the above, it is quite noticeable that traditional, biological, cultural and

religious factors and a host of other forces have sustained the lack of

correspondence between male and female by subjecting woman to secondary

position.

5. Dimensions of Gender Inequality in Nigeria

The manifestation or extent of gender inequality in Nigeria is multi-faceted. The

relegation of women cuts across all spheres of human existence be it political, cultural,

economic, religious etc. some of these domains will be briefly discussed.

Political Dimension in Governance

Here the problems of gender divisions are equally obvious.

An examination of the political structure in Nigeria shows great disparities in favour of

men. Many reasons account for low female participation in active politics. Female who

venture into politics discover the enormity of the hurdles they have to face based on

cultural factors such as tradition, state-imposed legal restrictions and policies, which are

further complicated by the obstacle of their birth. The natural physiology and biological

disparities between male and female sexes as well as religious beliefs have greatly

hindered effective participation of females in politics (Omede, 2002). Nigerian women

have encountered numerous problems, while venturing into politics. They have

experienced large scale discrimination from the men folk, both in voting for candidates,

and in allocation of political offices.

The gross under-representation of women in the legislative and executive arms of

government across the country shows the extent to which women are suppressed and

undermined in the country‟s democratization process. This is regardless of the fact that a

national gender policy has been endorsed to ensure 35% affirmative action for women a

policy that demands 35% involvement of women in all government processes. For

instance, the formulation of the National Policy on Women by the Nigerian government

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has enhanced some level of positive action towards increasing the representation of

women in the executive, the legislature, the judiciary and in the leadership of political

parties. Besides, the constitution of Nigeria section 92, now has provisions against

traditional discriminatory practices and this has, in many states of the federation, also led

to an increase in women‟s activities (Committee on Eliminating of Discrimination against

Women, 2004). For instance, there are now increased political appointments for women

both at the federal and the state levels.

That a woman presidential candidate emerged in the political scene in 2003, 2011 and

2015 is also a ray of hope.

Cultural Dimension

Culture is seen as the total way of life of a people and it is relatively enduring

(Adekeye, 2005). Hence it is easily noticeable that women are discriminated against in

many ethnic groups in Nigeria, with special reference to property inheritance and

succession. In most ethnic groups in Nigeria, right of inheritance is principally by male

descent, Nigeria being a patrilineal society (Aduba, 1999). Although Babalola (2014)

points out that there are one or two places in Yorubaland where women can inherit their

father‟s property, such inheritance is the prerogative of men in many Nigerian societies

including Igboland. It is however lamentable that despite national and international

proclamations on the eradication of all forms of discrimination against women, gender

inequality continues to persist because many of these proclamations have not been

domesticated.

There is a general preference for the “male child” while girls are known to leave

home at marriage to become their husbands‟ assets. More so, there are widowhood rites

which are quite demeaning to womanhood which some have to experience for the

duration of the funeral of their departed husbands. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

otherwise known as female circumcision and tribal marks are traditional rites that have

refused to die in most societies in Nigeria.

Religious Dimension

Essien and Ukpong (2012) observed that religion is the strongest factor in the

society and wields about the most powerful influence upon the philosophy and existence

of the people. They are of the opinion that women in Nigeria are in a difficult religious

situation typified by various denominations and religious leaders who are not necessarily

well trained both mentally and culturally. In traditional religion, a woman is seldom

allowed to be in charge of community shrine. The religious rites of pouring libation,

incantation, imploring the ancestors for blessings and protection are usually the

prerogative of men. No woman is permitted to perform these rituals even if she is the

oldest and the most dedicated follower of the community deity. Thus, women are

perceived even from the perspective of traditional religion as inferior to their male

counterparts.

The present-day Nigerian society is also characterized by profound religious

devotion and loyalty. Almost everyone in the country recognizes and professes one

religious belief or the other, and enthusiastically partakes in religious ceremonies on a

regular basis. However, their stance on male and female coexistence has not in any way


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been different from the patriarchal learning of traditional religion. Many of the religious

beliefs and doctrines are cruel and prejudiced especially against women and are

contradictory to human right norms. Many religious faiths allow polygamy which is seen

as women demotion blueprint in some countries of the world. Polygamy, sociologically

termed polygyny, is an old phenomenon in many human societies which refers to the

marriage of many wives.

A common feature of Islam and other religions (e.g. Christianity and Judaism) is

the embrace, perhaps tolerance of polygamy. Then the million-dollar question is: If men

are permitted by religion to marry more than one wife, why are women proscribed from

doing same? Were they not equally created by God?

Discrimination under Customary and Sharia Laws

Nigeria has several ethnic groups and each ethnic group operates a peculiar

customary law. Most of the customary laws in Nigeria are fraught with diverse gender

disparity provisions which include forced/child marriage, wife/girl child disinheritance,

wife chastisement, payment and return of bride-price, wife inheritance by a relative of late

husband, polygamy, denial of women‟s custodial and maintenance rights, encouragement

of harmful widowhood rites and female genital mutilation. All these cultural practices

have in one way or the other negatively impacted women and slowed down their pace of

liberation in Nigeria.

Firstly, a girl-child who is forcibly married off at the age of 10 years by her

parents for economic gains to a man of her father‟s age, is not only emotionally and

medically ill-equipped for marriage but is also economically ill-prepared for it, and often

times such a child is eternally denied the right to education. Secondly, child/forced

marriage expose the girl-child to medical hazards associated with early child birth, such

as Vesico Vaginal Fistula and Recto Vaginal Fistula, (conditions of excessive urination).

Besides, customary law‟s provision for payment and return of bride price, or inheritance

of wife by a relative of late husband gives the disgusting notion that women are goods

that could be bought with money and such payments refunded in the event of divorce, no

matter the length or duration of such a marriage. Furthermore, in the event of the death of

a man, his widow is exposed to a lot of harmful widowhood rites and all manner of ill

treatments. For example, where she is alleged by her spouse‟s family of involvement in

his demise, she is made to drink the water that was used to bathe the dead body in order to

be free.

In addition, a large amount of customary laws in Nigeria encourage wife

chastisement. In the context of Sharia law which operates totally in the northern part of

Nigeria, discrimination against women is very noticeable. The Sharia law lessens a

woman‟s substantiation or evidence, and places it at the same level with the statement of a

minor. Also, the stoning of women to death as punishment for adultery cases by Sharia

Courts and 100 lashes for fornication discriminates against women in preference of men.

Educational Marginalization

Discrimination against women in education is a common practice in several parts

of Nigeria. Many girls who attempt to go to school are usually given out for marriage

sometimes before the end of their primary education, while their male counterparts may

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continue to attain higher levels of education (Ojobo, 2008). Many girls have been

withdrawn from school to help their mothers or guardians and are subjected to harassment

and exploitation. This attitude towards women education is most inimical to the

development of the families and the social structure in the society. The result of this

lopsidedness in education between male and female is that only few women become

empowered and allowed to participate in the labour force. Government has not formulated

a deliberate policy to encourage and assist women in this direction in spite of the National

Gender Policy and its subscription to affirmative action. Policies to correct this

predicament in Nigeria need to be enforced after a thorough examination of the policies

that produce this situation particularly with respect to participation of women.

Employment Marginalization

Employment discrimination happens when an employee is deliberately treated

differently due to race, colour, religion, nationality, impairment, gender, sexual

sentiments or age by the employer either at the stage of hiring, performance appraisal or

termination of appointment. In the labour force, men make up the bulk of the industrial

work force. Prior to now, the traditional and social practices as well as role stereotypes

confined women to the home as house wives and children bearers, hence, they were

largely economically dependent on their husbands and by implication subservient to them

(Osunyikanmi, 2000). Females constitute little percent of the entire labour force in

Nigeria and are mostly found in small-scale enterprises including petty-trading and food

production. They engage in craft-making, weaving of cloth, animal husbandry and

planting, transformation and commercialization of agricultural produce. Hence, Klasen

(2002) argues that between 70% and 75% of Sub-Saharan African food crops are

produced by women.

In fact, being a woman is a supplementary obstacle to finding objective jobs

(Angya, 2013). The report graphically illustrated the adverse decline in Nigerian women

labour-force, which stood at 29.7% in 1980, reduced to 28.0% in 1990 and 14.3% in 1994

(Osunyikanmi, 2000). In Nigeria, the labour laws are against discrimination in many

work-related areas including recruiting, hiring, training, job evaluations, promotion

policies, compensation and disciplinary action. Furthermore, treating a person in a

different way from others is a negation of the Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) laws

promulgated by most countries. Onyejekwe (2011) observed that although in times past,

women faced higher employment discrimination than men and the place of women in paid

employment in Nigeria remained severely undermined, in recent years, a few women

have now broken into the masculine world of profession, higher education and even

public life.

For example, Omoike (2009) reported that about 30 percent of women are

involved in wage employment in the public sector in Nigeria, 8.1 percent in the private

sector. Such imbalance has affected the occupational position which women occupy. In

every career setting, men outnumber women and women are few in top positions. A

woman‟s place in the society is assumed to be simply dependent upon that of her husband

or father. In Nigeria, the socially defined roles and duties of a woman are daughter, wife

and mother. Even though a few women in contemporary society are now getting involved


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in paid employment, they are saddled with these multiple responsibilities (Ojie, 2002)

meanwhile, even the few women who are lucky to acquire jobs are continually victims of

sexual harassment, and refusal on their part to yield to these perpetual demands from their

bosses, often earns them sack letters.

Furthermore, as a result of prevalence of Son Preference syndrome in Nigeria, the girl-

child often falls victim of child trafficking (for cheap labour and prostitution) by her

parents, for financial gains while the boys are kept back. There is no gain saying the fact

that economic self-reliance for women is vital in the struggle for gender equality as an

economically dependent house wife or daughter lacks the resources that will enable her to

agitate for her rights (Ekpe, Eja and John, 2014).

6. Catalytic Agents in the Pursuit of Gender Equality

Catalyst according to Bandele (2015) is a substance, someone or something that

causes intermittent or methodical change in the process of growth of an organism, living

or non-living. The catalytic agents in this case have to do with forces/factors that have

facilitated gender parity in Nigeria. Some of these factors are:

Education

It has become a platform for the liberation of women in many respects. Prior to learning

being opened up for women, the notion that reigned was that though women were crying

to be appointed into positions, they did not have the requisite credentials to lead. But with

more women gaining higher education, some now occupy leadership positions having

been equipped with the necessary qualifications and expertise.

Heroic Feats of Early Women

The significant role played by such women like Moremi of Ife, Emotan of Benin, Omu

Okwel of Ossomari, Efunstan Aniwura of Ibadan, Madam Tinubu, Funmilayo Ransome-

Kuti, Hajia Gambo Sawaba and a host of others geared towards women liberation and

empowerment in the history of Nigeria cannot be over emphasized (Abidemi, 2005).

These women surmounted all the cultural and socio-economic structures erected by

patriarchal societies to gain prominence and achieve remarkable status in their societies.

In recent times, the achievements of women such as Bolande Awe, Professor Grace Alele

Williams, Sarah Jubril, Ngozi Okonjo Iweala, Dora Akinyuli and Obi Ezekwesili (Mama

Due Process). have helped in stimulating other young girls and women to venture into

domains that were previously male dominated.

International conventions

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

(CEDAW) requires the necessity of eradicating stereotypes, mores, and norms that breed

the numerous legal, political and economic restrictions on women. On the issue of the

rights of women in Africa, the protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples‟

Rights states in Article 17 that “women shall have the right to live in a positive cultural

context and to participate at all levels in the determination of cultural policies. This is in

addition to Article 2 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Rights which

“enshrines the principles of non-discrimination on the basis of race, ethnic group, colour,

sex, language, religion, political or any other position, national and social origin, fortune,

Akpotor, J.

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birth or any other status‟. These declarations have helped to curb the rate of

discrimination against women.

Women Empowerment Programmes

Women empowerment has been conceptualized as a multi-dimensional process involving

the transformation of the economic, political, social, psychological and legal

circumstances of the feeble with its aim of taking apart the cultural, traditional and social

norms, which disvalue, dis-empower and deprive women with its central objectives tied to

the needs of women in terms of opportunities, facilities, skill acquisition and position of

authority, especially within the political sphere (Okonofua, 2007). This recent

development accords women the prospect to develop their individual talents and

contribute more meaningfully to societal development, helping to confront cultural and

the societal norms which have been a drawback to the women folk. Forum of Nigerian

Women in Politics (FONWIP) is an example, whose fundamental goal is to encourage

women empowerment and obliteration of all shapes of aggression and bias against women

(Salaam, 2003).

Quotas and Proportional Representation

These are often accepted as a positive action of law, apportioning quotas to assist in the

achievement of gender balance in public life. The Law in Nigeria offers a maximum of

60% and a minimum of 30% representation for either sex, which was implemented as a

result of the Beijing Conference. The conference agreed that 30% of public seats and

positions should be reserved for women. Nigeria recorded increase in women‟s election

into public offices between 1999 and 2015. It can therefore be clearly noticed that the

quota system has assisted in reducing the low-level of women‟s participation in politics, a

genuine remedy to the male dominated patriarchal society.

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

The issue of gender equality is not a new phenomenon taking into cognizance the

patriarchal nature of most Nigerian societies. The patriarchal society situates the

boundaries for women‟s structurally unequal arrangement in families and society by

overlooking gender disparity in inheritance rights and differential wages for equal or

similar work. Tradition, culture and religion have for decades imposed the pattern of

relationship between men and women and have established male supremacy into the

structure of social organizations and institutions at all levels of human life. Patriarchy

rationalizes the marginalization of women in education, employment, politics, business,

family, domestic issues and birthrights. Despite the fact that the paper is of the opinion

that gender dissection in Nigeria is unpleasant and unacceptable, it counters the belief that

gender disparity can be completely wiped out knowing the patriarchal structure and

religious ideals, thinking and mores that sustain dominance.

Nevertheless, the adoption and implementation of certain recommendations will

help to reduce the magnitude of gender inequality in Nigeria. It is therefore recommended

that there is need to promote education and awareness of the individual woman to equip

her to establish her influence and destroy the plague of low self-esteem which is often

manifested in lack of confidence, disenchantment and self-pity. Re-orientation of the


221

male‟s mindset through gender education could greatly promote women empowerment.

This could be attained through organized seminars, training and workshops for men as

well as introduction of gender studies in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions.

Nigerian government should endeavour to review all laws promoting discrimination

against women to enable the woman throw her whole weight into the process of

destruction of gender inequality in Nigeria.

Furthermore, the government should through partnership with traditional rulers

and other stakeholders ensure the eradication of all harmful traditional practices against

women. Compulsory girl-child education should be enforced which in the long run will

equip her for future participation in key decision making in the government and also

enable her influence gender friendly policies. Additionally, Nigerian government is called

upon to beef up her political appointive positions for women. The current appointment

opportunities for women fall short of international policies that endorse thirty-five percent

(35%) of all political appointments for women.

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