Toward the Factory of the Future

Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Production Research and 5th Working Conference of the Fraunhofer-Institute for Industrial Engineering (FHG-IAO) at University of Stuttgart, August 20 - 22, 1985

Edited by H.-J. Bullinger and H. J. Warnecke Assistant Editor: K· Kornwachs

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1985

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German Copyright. Law where copies are made for other than private use a fee is payable to 'Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort', Munich.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1985 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1985

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

ISBN 978-3-642-82582-8 ISBN 978-3-642-82580-4 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-82580-4

v

Preface.

The International Conference on Production Research has a good tradition: The fIrst Conference was held in Birmingham 1971 with 61 participants. With respect to the decision that the Conference should be held every second year, by this time the Conference has been held in the following countries: Birmingham (1971, UK), Copenhagen (1973, Denmark), Amhurst (1975, USA), Tokyo (1977, Japan), Amsterdam (1979, The Netherlands), Novi Sad (1981, Yugoslavia), Windsor (1983, Canada), Stuttgart (1985, Germany), and the next Conference will take place in Cincinnatti (1987, USA).

The number of submitted abstracts and papers was continuously increas­ing such that the Programme Committee of this actual 8th Conference on Production Research has been forced to introduce a further refereeing procedure. Each submitted abstract was presented to at least two referees. This resulted not only in a reduction of the number of presented full papers and poster contributions but, as the Programme Committee and the Editiors hope, it led also to a considerable increase in the scientifIc quality of this 8th International Conference on Production Research.

The preceeding conference in Windsor, Canada, was dedicated to the topic: Production Research as a Means of Productivity Improvement. We don't believe that this statement has become untrue in the meanwhile. As a consequence of the task of Production Research we can learn from the development of new technology that the Factory of the Future is not only designed and controled by productivity improvement but also by completly new solutions which have the force to integrate the new information technology, the management, the organization and the production technology.

Therefore the objectives of the 8th International Conference on Produc­tion Research are to support the international exchange of experience about outstanding industrial development and the latest results of production research.

We hope you enjoy stuying the Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Production Research as much as the results of this Conference may be useful for your research and practizing.

H.-J. Bullinger H. J. Warnecke K. Kornwachs

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Sponsors The conference is organized by "Verein zur Forderung produktionstechnischer Forschung e.V. (FpF), Stuttgart" together with

IFPR: International Foundatiori of Production Research, Blacksburg (Virg., USA) lAO: Fraurihofer-Institut fUr Arbeitswirtschaft und Organisation, Stuttgart (GFR) IPA: Fraurihofer Institut fUr Produktionstechnik und Automatisierung,

Stuttgart (GFR) IFF: Institut fUr industrielle Fertigung und Fabrikbetrieb der Universitiit

Stuttgart (GFR) IFS: IFS (Conferences) Ltd., Kempston, Bedford (UK) REFA: Verband fUr Arbeitsstudien und Betriebsorganisation e. V., Darmstadt (GFR) RKW: Rationalisierungskuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft e. V., Eschbom

(GFR)

VOl: (ADB) VOI-Gesellschaft fUr Produktionstechnik, DUsseldorf (GFR) VOMA: Verband Deutscher Maschinen- und Arilagenbau e. V., Frankfurt (GFR)

Programme Committe Chairman: Prof. Dr.-Ing. H.-J. Bullinger

Members: Prof. Dr. W. Bakker Prof. Dr. J. L. Burbidge Prof. G. Casson

Dr. B. Eidenmilller Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Eversheim Prof. C H. Gudnason

Dr. S. Ganguli Prof. K. Helmrich Dr.-Ing. F. Heuwing

Prof. J. R. de J ong Prof. Dr.A. Jonca Prof. Dr. Ch.-S. Lee Dr. T. Linghuan Prof. Dr. J. LOhn Prof. A. Mital Prof. J. U. Moore

Dr. G. Milller Min.-Rat D. Munz Prof. R. Muramatsu

FHG-IAO, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR)

Techn. University Twente (Netherlands) IFPR, Hundignton (UK) Dep. of Productivity Technol., Canberra (Australia) Siemens AG, Munchen (GFR) RWTH Aachen (GFR) University of Denmark, Lyngby (Denmark) LC, Calcutta (India) SRF, Stockholm (Sweden) VOl, DUsseldorf (GFR)

IFPR, Bilthoven (Netherlands) Acad. of Economy, Wroc1aw (Poland) KAIST, Seoul (Corea) RIMST, Beijing (China) Steinbeis Foundation, Stuttgart (GRF) Univ. of Cincinnati, Ohio (USA) Virgo Polyt. Institute, Blacksburg (Virg.) (USA) IBM, Stuttgart (GFR) MWMT, Government, Stuttgart (GFR) Waseda University, Tokyo (Japan)

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Dr.-Ing. e. h. W. Niefer Prof. Dr. W. Orpana

Prof. Dr. A. Raouf Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. Spur Prof. Dr. R. J. Sury Prof. Dr. U. T. Tabucanon Prof. Dr. S. Trajkowski Prof. Dr. I.B. Turksen Prof. Dr.-Ing. H. J. Warnecke Prof. Dr. Zelenovic

Organizing Committe Chairman: Prof. Dr.-Ing. H.-J. Bullinger

Members: Dipl.-Ing. E. Bergner Dr. K. Kornwachs Dipl.-Ing. H.-P. Lentes Prof. Dr.-Ing. H. J. Warnecke

Daimler-Benz AG, Stuttgart (GFR) Univ. of Technol., Lappeenranta (Finnland) University of Windsor, Ontario (CN) FHG-IPK, TU Berlin (GFR) Univ. of Technol., Leicestershire (UK) AIT, Bangkok (Thailand) University of Skopje (Yugoslavia) Univ. of Toronto (Canada)

FHG-IPA, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR) Univ. of Novi Sad (Yugoslavia)

FHG-IAO, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR)

FHG-IPA, Stuttgart (GFR) FHG-IAO, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR) FHG-IAO, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR) FHG-IPA, Univ. Stuttgart (GFR)

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A word of welcome from Minister-President Lothar Spath for the ICPR (International Conference on Production Research) in Stuttgart, August 20 - 22, 1985.

Following the process of technical evolution which characterized the late 19th Century and the first half of the 20th Century, the industriali­zed nations are now faced with a series of new challenges posed by technological progress and the economic change such progress inevitably involves. The changing scene is characterized on the one hand by the industrialization of the developing and threshold countries and on the other by competition between the industrialized nations in the search for new and better products. Against this backdrop, an export-oriented country must be aiming to recognize in advance the direction in which the market is heading and to act accordingly and in good time, by changing the range of goods manufactured.

This explains why product technology, the quality of manufacturing, marketing, after sales service and a flexible response to specific customer requirements are the decisive parameters in the competition for market shares.

The strategic answer to improving one's competitive position lies, as I see it, in bringing about a marked increase in innovation; in promoting the flow of technological know-how from the universities to - above all- medium-sized industry; in channelling basic research towards specific goals and in pursuing public policies designed to further the process of innovation.

In these areas the Government of Baden-Wiirttemberg has generated new impulses by re-orientating its promotion of the economy, by furthering the transfer of technological know-how and by increasing the means available for research.

The international conference "Toward the factory of the future" is focussing on important technological developments in flexible and integrated systems for the production and planning sectors of the factory of the future; developments of particular significance for an industrialized nation.

I am especially pleased that this year's conference is taking place in Baden-WUrttemberg, in a certain sense at the very heart of Europe.

I hope that the conference will prove a success, producing useful results for both science and industry, and would like to wish all participants a pleasant stay in our Land of Baden-Wiirttemberg. ~ ~

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Table of Contents

Opening Adress: H.-J. Bullinger, H. J. Warnecke, H.-P. Lentes: Toward the Factory of Future XXIX

First Invited Lecture: E. U. von Weizsaecker: Change in the Philosophy of Work

Second Invited Lecture: Y. Matsumoto: State of the Art and Trends in Assembly Automation

Third Invited Lecture: G. Salvendy: Human Factor Issues and Solution in the Design of Integrated Computerized Manufacturing System

* Manuscript was not yet available

Full Paper Sessions Plenary Session: Application of Production Research

PHILLIPS, G.: Can Manufacturing Management meet the Challenge of the Factory of the Future?

LITKE, H.-D.; VOEGELE, A. A.: Informationsmanagement and CAD/CAM - The New Challenge

STEMMER, G.; KANITZ, D.: Hochautomatisierte Produktionssysteme und Baukonzepte.

KYLAEHEIKO, K.; PIRTTILAE, T.:

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On Inventory Investment Determinants. 10

TAKAHASHI, K.; KUROKAWA, Y.; TAKAHASHI, M.: International Comparison of Flexibility in Income Measurement and Other Accounting Procedures; Its Economical, Geopolitical and Sociological Approach. 17

MANDUTIANU, D.; VOINEA, S.: Steps Towards Intelligent Assembly Robot. 23

STEFANESCU, D. M.: FEM Calculation of the Influence Matrix of a Six-Component Force Transducer for Robotics. (Das Bestimmen der Influenzmatrix fur einen 6-dimensionalen Kraft-moment-Sensor flir Roboter mittels der Methode der finiten Elemente). 29

BURBIDGE, J. L.: Production Flow Analysis.

HOLLENKREMER, M.: Computer Aided Process Planning with Help of a Decision Table Generator. (Rechnerunterstiitzte Arbeitsplanerstellung mit Hilfe eines Ent-

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scheidungstabellen-Generators und Interpreters). 43

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DAS, B.: Development of Industrial Workstation Design: A State-of-The-Art

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SCHMID, J.: Modular Assembly System - Examples of the Implementation of Labour - Intensive Assembly Operations (Modulare Montagesysteme - Realisierungsbeispiele fUr personalintensive Montageprozesse). 52

OSMAN, M. E.: ABDELHAMID, M. K.: Group Technology in Egypt. 57

DOBLER, G. W.: Technical Education for a Successfull Implementation of CAD Systems. (Durchfiihrung von Schulungsm~nahmen bei der Einftihrung von CAD-Systemen.) 61

ELSER,K.: Automation of Assembly - Application Potential and Preconditions. (Montageautomatisierung: Einsatzpotential und Voraussetzungen.) 64

RAODF, A.; ISMANISHI, H.; MOROOKA, K.: A Study of Continuous and Intermittent Cranking Motion. 68

DRISCOLL, J.: TRACEY, S.: The Marketing Implications for Research and Development in the Design of Robotic Systems. *

WARNECKE, H.-J.; STEINHILPER, R.; ROTH, H.-P.: Developments and Planning for FMS -Requirements, Examples and Experiences. 74

KAEMPF, R.: Concept of Manufacturing Control for a Highly Automated Factory. (Steuerungskonzeption fUr eine flexible, hochautomatisierte Fabrik.) 80

MDSSBACH-WINTER, D.: Disposition of Orders in a Flexible and Highly Automated Factory. (Auftragsdisposition in einer flexiblen, hochautomatisierten Fabrik -Proble:me, Randbedingungen, LOsungsbeispiel.) 85

UETZ, H.; HARDOCK, G.: Flexible Manufacturing with Lasers: Problems, Machine Concepts, System Solutions and Experiences. (Flexible Fertigungszelle zum Schneiden und SchweillJen von Blech­teilen mit Lasem - Probleme, Maschinenkonzepte, Systern10sungen und Erfahrungen.) 89

TRAJKOVSKI, S.: Automatic Tool Changers for NC-Machining Centers. 95

VlRNICH, M.: Selection Standard Systems of Production and Inventory Control (PIC) with the Aid of Utility Value Analysis. (Auswahl von Standardsystemen der Produktionsplanung und

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Steuerung (PPS) mit Hilfe der Nutzwertanalyse.) 101

ZENG, QING-HONG: A Microcomputer-Based Planning & Control System. 108

KOELLE,J.: PSK 2000: A New Flexible and Integrated System for Production Planning and Control.

YU,H.: A Radical Innovation Method From a Conventional Machine Shop to a DNC-Factory within 1.5 years.

ALDINGER, L.;MUELLER, R.: The Interactive Control Center in the Factory 2000. (Der interaktive Produktionsleitstand in der Fabrik 2000.)

FMS: Highly Automated Flexible Manufacturing Systems

HAWALESHKA, 0.; BALAKRISHNAN, S.; KUMAR, V.: An Affordable Flexible Manufacturing System.

TANAKA, Y.; MURAMATSU, R.; SOSHIRODA,M.; TAKAHASHI, K.: A Proposal and Analysis of Tri - Relation Forcasting and Control Method: Designing and Automated Flexible Manufacturing and Management System Based on Fusion Concept.

YAMAZAKI, G.: Guidelines for Design and Performance Evaluation of Production lines Having Variable Operation Times and Limited in-Process

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Inventory. 133

roCHELMANN, Y.: Material Flow Components for Automated Flexible Manufacturing. 139

NAKAMURA, N.; SHINGU, T.: Scheduling of Flexible Manufacturing Systems. 147

BEDNAREK,M.: The Selected Problems of FMS Application in Polish Industrial Plants. 153

ULRICH,P.: The Development of Highly Automated Flexible Manufacturing Systems in the GDR. 157

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SEKULIC, S., ST.: Detennination of Cutting-Tool Reliability on Flexible Automatic lines. 163

SHEIKH, A. K.; HUSSAIN, S. J.; AHMAD, M.: Cutting Tool Reliability and Machining Economics when Tool Wear Follows a Linear Nonstationary Random Wear Process. 169

BEIER, H.: A new CIM toolkit: Functionally Structured Hard-and Software Allows for Easy Configuration and Worthwile Realisation of Turnkey Production Systems. 179

NMT: New Manufacturing Technologies 185

CHAJTMAN, S.; ZYZIK, M.: The Identification of Information Processes in the Manufacturing. 187

CHINGHUA, C.; IN, J. V.; MING, Z. J.; TUNG, J.: GIN, J.: A Study of Technology of Grinding and Polishing Diamond Turning Tool and Cemented Carbide Precision Turning Tool. 193

SZUDER, A.; MARINESCU, I. D.; RIZEA, C.; KREMER, A.: A Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Influences on Flat Lapping. 198

WARNECKE, H. J.; STEINHILPER, R.: Remanufacturing of Products - Technologies and Appropriate Product Design. 204

FUH, K.;H.; WANG, J.;L.: The Force Model of Creep-Feed Dry Grinding. 209

THIEL, S.; LUX, W.: Controlled Defonnation - A Process to Increase Quality of Automated Adjustment and Straightening. 213

GAVRILAS, I.;OPRAN, C.;MARINESCU, I. D.: Electrochemical Microboring with a Capillary Electrode Made of Glass. 219

PPM: Production Planning and Control: New Methodologies '225

ARIZONO, I.; OHTA, H.: A Production Planning Based on the Minimum Kullback-Leibler Infonnation. 227

ZAMOJSKI, M.: Dynamic Algorithms of Choosing Production Process Variants of a Set of Parts.

TAKAHASHI, K.; MURAMATSU, R.; ISHII, K.: Design of Infonnations Sensoring and Feedback Method in Production Ordering Systems.

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TANAKA, T.; SAWADA, Y.: Optimal Grouping of Inventory Items for a Common Order Cycle System.

KUSIAK, A.; CYRUS, J. P.: Routing and Scheduling of Automated Guided Vehicles.

INOUE, I.; KOUNO, H.; FUJII, S.: A Backward Simulation System for Production Management Support.

MILL, F. G.; SPRAGGETT,S.: Process Planning with an Intelligent Knowledge Based System.

GONG, YING-RONG: On the Internal Control of Production Systems.

ICHIMURA, T.;MURAMATSU, R.: Screening System for Order Selection in Multiple Processor Model.

ARCELUS, F. J.: Computational Issues Concerning the Discrete Time-Proportional Demand Inventory Problem.

DAGLI, C. H.,MERAL, F. S.:

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Multi Level Lot-Sizing Heuristics. 270

PARLAR,M.: Optimal Ordering Decisions for Multiple Substituitable Products with Stochastic Demands. 277

KATAYAMA, H.: Optimal Policies for Balancing Order and Stock Variances in Periodic Reordering System.

PPA: Production Planning and Control: Applications

BEN-ARIEH, D.; MOODIE, C. L.; NOF, S. Y.: Knowledge Based Control System for Automated Production and Assembly.

ONARI, H.; KOBAYASHI, H.: Fast Scheduling Scheme for On-Line Production Control.

LI-YEN, SHUE: A Topedo Car Scheduling System in Steel Mill.

KANG, S.;H.; HONG, S.;H.: A Study on the Facility Allocation to Multi-Product Production System.

TAMURA, T.;HITOMI, K.;KUMAGAI, T.: Determination of Lot-Size Minimizing the Average Leadtime for Multi-Item Production on a Single Machine.

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KUHNLE, H:: Integrated Material Requirement and Capacity Planning for Flow Shop Production. 317

TABUCANON,M. T:;FARAHANI,M. v.: Solution Techniques for Inventory Replenishment Policies with linear Demand Trend. 320

TSUBONE, H.; SOSIDRODA, M.; MURAMATSU, R.: Production Model for Agricultural Processing Industry. 326

WAGHODEKAR, P. H.; SAHU, S.: Plant Layout with Multiple Objectives: PLAMO. 332-

cc: Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing 337

IUDICA, N. R.: Application of Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Computer Aided Design: A Case Study. 339

BERARD, Ch.; BRAUD, V.; DOUMEINGTS, G.: Guiding Techniques for Manufacturing System Using Artificial Intelligence. 345

SCHEER,A., W.: Data Communications between Production Planning and Control Systems and Computer Aided DeSign/Computer Aided Manufacturing. 351

WITTEK,D.: An Integrated Software System for Use Within the Design Office. 357

SOEDA, M.; AZUMA, Y.: An Application of a CAD/CAM in Software Productions. 362

KOSANKE, K.: CIM - Integration Beyond Manufacturing. 366

HUGHES, D. R.;MAULL, R. S.: Design of Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems. 372

HANDKE,G.: Computer Integrated and Automated Manufacturing Systems in Aircraft Manufacturing. 380

BALACHANDRA,R.: Successful Implementation of CAD/CAM 389

OBA, F.;KATO, K.; YASUDA, K.; TSUMURA, T.: CAFPLAN-I: Computer Aided Factory Planning System - I. 395

CHU, C., C.; MOODIE, C., L.: An Adaptive Control Strategy for Material Handling Components in a Computer Integrated Manufacturing System. 401

XVII

HOLLIER, R. H.; SHACKLETON, P. J.: Computer-Aided Estimation. 409

EMAN,K.F.: A New Approach to Form Accuracy Control in Machining. 416

FUH, K., H.; WANG, G., CH.; THAI, CH., CH.: Computer Aided Design for Different Drill Geometries by the Quadratic Surface Model. 425

MARINESCU, I. D.; RUSE, G., H.; BODEA, I.: The Double Bunker - Utilization of the Computer in Design. 431

AA: Assembly Automation 439

GAIROLA, A.: Design Analysis for Automatic Assembly. 441

NEERLAND, H.: Workplace Organization in Flexible Automated Assembly Systems. 448

WARNECKE, H. J.;WALTHER, J.; SCHLAICH, G.: Flexible Automated Wiring Harness Assembly.

HOLMQVIST, U.; STHEN, T.: Flexible Assembly Automation with New Robot Station.

ADACHI, T.; KOBAY AKA WA, S.; KOH, H.; INOUE, I.: Bridging the Gap between a Product Design Sector and a Production Sector: Conceptualization and a Support Tool.

TANCHOCO, J. M. A.; OCCENA, L. G.: Unit Load Delivery Strategies for Assembly Lines.

WO: New Concepts in Work Organization

DAR-EL, E. M.: An Organizational Structure for Productivity Improvement.

SVENSSON, L. C.: Management and Quality Control.

KORNDOERFER, V.: Qualification in the Use of Industrial Robots.

FALCK,A.: Improvement of Productivity in Finnish Metal Industry in Cooperation with Employers' and Employees' Organizations.

BROEDNER, P.: Skill Based Production - The Superior Concept to the "Unmanned Factory".

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XVIII

FUJITA, A.; MIY AZAKl, H.; MURAMATSU, R; YADA, H.: The Relationships among Workers' Desires and Design Factors of Production Systems which Harmonize Workers' Desires with Workshop Oroductivities. 506

KUBA, Y.; YAMAZAKI, G. The Effective Machines Assignment to Fixed Number of Workers. 512

SASSANI, F.: Simulation of Intra-Cell Sub-Batch Workload Transfer in Group Technology Cells.

MIT AL, A.; CHALAKA, A.; KARWOWSKI, W.: The Demands and Responses· of Machine Paced and Self Paced Material Handling Tasks.

WATANABE, K.: Study on the Character of Workers by Job.

RS: Robots and Sensors

WALLACE, R A. D.; GOLDENBERG, A. A.: A Tactile Sensor Incorporating PVF2 as the Transduction Medium.

MAURER, G. F.;GARBINI, J. L.;JORGENSEN,J. E.; LEE, K., L.: A Sensor for the On-Line Determination of Drilled Hole Dimensional Parameters.

RAU, N.; HDBNER, G.: The Assessment of Surface Structures with an Optical Sensor.

STRZELECKI, T. W.: Graphical Description of the Structure of Displacement Industrial Manipulator Driving Mechanisms.

DOEMENS, G.: Intelligent Sensors for Process - and Product Control.

CHERRINGTON, J.; LEWIS, H. J.; TOWILL, D. R: Predicting Performance Times of Robot Systems.

KO, B. K.; CHO, H. S.: Active Force Feedback Control for Assembly Processes Using a Flexible and Sensible Robot Wrist.

YAP, K. T.; LWIN, D.: Optimization in Robotic Interfacing with Automated Materials Handling.

KIM, S. D.; CHO, H. S.; LEE, C. W.: Performance Enhancement of a Grasping Force Control

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System for Robot Grippers via a Modified On - Off Controller. 585

STREET, N. J.;MIDDLE, J. E.; SHERPED, P. R.: Development of an Adaptive Robotic Welding System.

HOENER, S.;MELLERT, F. TH.: Offline Programming of Industrial Robots.

CS: Corporate Strategies

HIRAKI, S.: Designing a Management Information Decision System for the Short Term

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Profit Planning under Uncertainty. 605

AHLMANN, H. R.: Capital Productivity, Maintenance Effectiveness and Economic Models in Capital Intensive Manufacturing Systems.

JOHANNSON, M. I.: Effectiveness of Production Systems - a Problem Concerning Information to the Design Department.

LINDER,J.: Product Work Shop Organization - An Evaluation of the Impact

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on Production Management. 622

VOGELE, A. A.; MACIEJEWSKI, P. G.: Office Automation as a Strategic Cimension.

PRIEST, J. W.: Implementing Design for Reliability and Producibility in the Corporate Computer-Aided Design Strategy.

1M: Industrial Engineering: Mathematical Models

AHMED, A.: Creative Thinking and Design.

GERNERT, D.: Technological Systems of Extreme Complexity and Human Cognitive Capacity.

TURKSEN, I. B.: Fuzzy Sets and Systems and its Applications in Production Research.

KLIR,G. J.;KORNWACHS,K.: Application of Reconstructability Analysis in Industrial Engineering.

KARWOWSKI, W.; EVANS, G. W.: Contributions of Fuzzy Methodologies to Production Management.

SCHMIGALLA, H.: Systems Equations - A Contribution to the Theory of Discrete Production Systems.

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WARSCHAT, J.: Optimal Production Planning for Cascaded Production Inventory Systems. 669

ANDREATTA, G.; FILIPPINI, R.;JACUR, G. R.: Total Cost Minimization in Assembly Systems of Flexible Type by Branch and Bound Techniques. 675

GOYAL, S. K.;MAHMOUD, E. H.: Determination of Economic Production Policy with Dynamic Demand and Production Capacity Constraint. 680

TAWARA, N.; KAINUWA, Y.: A Study of Control on the Fluctuation of Production Quantity and Iventory Level 685

MING, L.; JIAFU, B.: An Algorithm of Conjugate Direction Method in Optimization Design. 691

POWELL, N. K.: An Identification of four Examples of Fuzzy Set Membership Classes in Production Function Modelling at Micro and Macro Levels. 695

ZELENOVIC, D. M.; COSIC, I. P.; SORMAZ, D. N.; SISARICA, Z. D.: An Approach to the Design of Production Systems of Higher Effectivity Level. 699

RASHED, A. F.;METWALLY, M. AL-KHALlFA, A. A.: A New Techniques for the Required Design Objectives and Performance of Items. 707

MOORE, J. M.: Quality Control Spreadsheets. 714

PICKETT, E. E.; WHITING, R. G.: Performance Monitoring Through In-Process Product Quality Measurement.

IC: Industrial Engineering: System Analysis & System Handlung

AHMED,A.: Management Information System for Industrial Projects.

LUBICZ,M.: Computer Aided Design of Organisation of Industrial Quality Inspection.

WORRALL, B. M.; SMITH, M. D.: Application of Computerized Time Study to Establish Time Standards.

LETTERS, F.: Simulation as an Aid to Assembly Planning.

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JOHN, E. G.; IDGGINS, S.: An Analysis of the Perfoimance Rating Ability of Experienced Observers. 757

KOTHER,R: Improving Productivity in Model Mix Assembly.

KUROSU, S.; SOSIDRODA, M.; MURAMATUS, R: Analysis of Waiting Time and Idle Time in Job Shop.

BULLINGER, H.-J.; SCHAD, G.; LENTES, H.-P.: INT AKT - Interactive Assembly Line Balancing.

RETTICH, u.; SCHEIFELE, M.: PRESIS - a Processor Tool for the Simulation of Flexible Assembly Systems.

LEE, H. L.; ROSENBLATT, M. J.: Effects of In Process Inventory on an Assembly Line.

KORNWACHS, K.; SAUER, H.: A Simulation Model for Capacity Scheduling of Assembly Systems.

HORIUCID, M.; FURUKAWA, H.: A Study of the Classification Method for the Function of Machine Parts Material in the Evaluation Method.

LEUNG, L. C.; TANCHOCO, J. M. A.: Economic Replacement of Multiple Machines.

IC: Industrial Engineering: Case Studies

njBIN,M.: Tool Monitoring in a Flexible Turning Cell.

GRIEVE, R J.;GRIFFITHS, B. J.: A Further Economic Analysis of Multi-Cutting and Derformation Region Tools.

PARK, R. D.; PEIRCE, E. A.; GRIEVE, R. J.: Some Aspects of the Preparation of Workpieces for Use in a Flexible Manufacturing System for Small Prismatic Parts.

KARLSSON, U.: Research & Development and Product Integration.

WORRALL, B. M.: A Problem in Material Flow in a Distribution Centre.

AUCH,M.: The Application of Multidimensional Scaling for Recognizing Similarities and Production Planning.

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HE: Human Factors and Ergonomics 841

MURAMATSU, R; SOSHIRODA, M.; MIYAZAKI, H.; ISHII, K.·; SEKI, Y.: The Influence of Factory Automation on Worker's Desires in Manufacturing Industry. 843

ASHIKI,K.: A Study of the Consciousness of the Employees Working for the Subcontract Enterprises of the Automobile Industry in Japan. 849

De JONG, J. R: Organizational Aspects of the Consideration of Human Factors in Industrial and other Organizations.

PARSONS, R; GLOBERSON, S.: Multi-Factor Incentive Schemes.

RAOUF, A.; OGAWA, I.; MOROOKA, K.: Effect of Information Load on Human Performance in Terms of Perceptual Motor Load and Heart Rate Variability in a Two-Stage Combined Manual and Decision Task.

TURKSEN, I. B.; MORAY, N.; FULLER, K.: A Linguistic Rule-Based Expert System for Mental Workload.

FAHNRICH, K P.; RATHER, CH.: Human Computer Interaction in Production - a Systematic Approach to the Design of CNC - Tools.

KUMASHIRO, M.: Aspects of a Common Mental Stress in Paced Work Conditions -Conveyor-Paced Work and Computor-Paced Work with VDU.

KlSHIDA, K; SAITO, M.; HASEGAWA, T.: Workload of Managers and Time Structure of their Daily Lives in two Local Factories.

HASEGAWA, T.: A Comparison of Middle to Elderly and Young Workers on Pain, Working Posture and Working Load.

KOHN, F. M.; LAURIG, W.: Computer Aided Rating of Work Load when Applying MTM.

BAUER, W.; LORENZ, D.: New Methods of Ergonomic Work Design.

MITAL, A.: Use of Anthropometry and Dynamical Strenght in Developing Screening and Placement Procedures for Workers.

FAHY,J.;GALLWEY, T.J.: An Application of Psychomotor Tests to Estimate Worker Performance.

* Manuscript was not available.

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910

Poster Sessions Abstracts

Flexible Manufacturing Systems And Manufacturing Technology

CHINGHUA, C.; FEE, M. J.: A Study of Various Factors Influence on Surface Roughness in Microcutting of Non-ferrous Metal by Cemented Carbide Precision Turning Tool& Diamond Turning Tool.

HAMMOUCHE, A.; WEBSTER, D. R: Dynamic Modeling of a Multiclass Flexible Manufacturing System.

KUMAR, V.; HAWALESHKA, 0.; KAPUR, J. N.: A Comparison of Performance Measures for Closed and Semi­Open Network of Queues Models for Flexible Manufacturing Systems.

NOSOWSKI, W.; SANTAREK, K.: Simulation of Integrated Manufacturing Units.

WIECZOROWSKI, K.; BRUKWICKI, J.; ANDREJEWSKI, M.: An Analysis of Friction Phenomenon in The Machining Process with The Application of Additonal Current Flow via the Contact Zone.

WIECZOROWSKI, K.; BRUKWICKI, J.; ANDREJEWSKI, M.: The Control Elements of the Surface Layer State in the Technological Process of Cutting with the Additonal Current in the Set.

Production, Planning & Control

ARMSTRONG, F. B.; TANCHOCO, J. M. A.: A Simulation Analysis of Order Release Strategies for Cellular Manufacturing Systems.

CZARNY, T.: The Model of Planning Production and Repair Processes.

DRISCOLL, J.: The Sequencing and Allocation of Machine-Centre Moves during the Reorganisation of Production Facilities.

ERSCHLER, J.; ROUBELLAT, F.; THURIOT, C.: F. M. S. Control by Using Periodic Release Strategies.

FUJ!I, S.; SANDOH, H.: Production Planning of Multicornrnodity for Multiple Factories.

KASHIWADO, T.: Determination of Multi-Machine Assignments by a No-Mo Graph - The Case of the Same Product and the Same Machine -.

XXIII

917

919

919

920

921

921

922

923

**

925

**

925

926

926

XXIV

SUMIYOSHI, K.: Production Planning of Seasonal Goods - Basic Rules and their Applications -. 927

WROBLEWSKI, K. J.; KRAWCZYNSKI, R.: Priority Rules in Production Flow Control. 927

ZAMOJSKI, M.: Probabilistic Model for Balancing Production Tasks and Capacities. 928

CAD/CAM 929

FUH, K.-H.; CHANG, Y.-F.: A Geometrical Adaptive Control System for Conventional Lathe. 931

IWAINSKY, A.; MAY, M.; MEISSNER, A.; MENNECKE, P.: Computer-Aided Schematics in the Field of Factory Automation. 931

MILNER, D. A.: Computer Integrated Manufacturing System for Cold-Rolling Manufacture. 932

AUTOMATION AND WORK-ORGANIZATION 933

ARNDT,G.: Towards Appropriately Balanced Factory Automation. 935

GIVENS, R.;JESWIET, J.: A Study of Small Foundry Automation. 935

KALTNEKAR, Z.: Rigidity or Elasticity of Production Planning. 936

WILSON,F.: Skill and its Meaning. 937

ROBOTS AND SENSORS 939

DAS, B.; HOUGH, C. L.: ImprovingMaterial Handling at the Workplace Through the Use of Industrial Robots. 941

HORNG, S.-Y.: A Robotic Drilling System with On-Line Sensing and Quality Control. 941

MARTIN,K. F.: A New Tactile Sensor. 942

MOHAMMAD, H. A. AI; OSORIO, A.; MOUHAMED M. AI: Tactile Image Acquisition by Toch Sensor. 942

RIVIN, E. I.: Optimization of Mechanical Linkages in Robot Manipulators. 943

CORPORATE STRATEGIES

BLACKBURN, J.;MILLEN, R.;POPPER, E.: Process Based Strategies for Growth.

mZUKA, S.;YAHAGI, T.: A Poorly Performing Division can Revitalize a Company if it is Managed Strategically: An Empirical Study

IMAI,H.;YAHAGI, T.: Degrees of Corporate Diversity and Diversification: Their Impact on Corporate Performance.

MAGGARD, M. J.; GLOBERSON, S.: Employee-Cross Training: A Croporate Strategy For Increasing Productivity.

SPENGLER, M. L.: Maximizing Corporate Productivity Gain Strategy Through Teambuilding and Group Creative Problem Solving.

YAHAGI, T.: Test of Market Share Myth: Key Determinat of Corporate

xxv

945

947

947

948

948

949

Profitability? 949

YAMANASm, T.; YAHAGI, T.: Corporate's Competence in Formulation and Implementation of Strategy: Its Impact on Corporate Performance. 950

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 951

BORISOV, A.; NAGLIS, L.: Individuality Function Based Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Choice in the Design of Multi-Robot Installations. 953

DAS, B.: Assessment of Alternative Assembly line Arrangements with Variable Operation Time.

HAQ,A.: Application of a Computerized line Balancing Technique.

MING, L.;CHUAN - QI, LI;MING, N. X.;XIAO - GE. Diagnosis of Rolling Bearing Malfunction.

NAKAYASU, H.: Development of Data Processing and Management Information System in Fatigue Testing.

RAHIM, M. A.: An Expected Cost Model for Acceptance Sampling Plan where Variables and Attributes Quality Characteristics of the Products are Simultaneously Controlled.

953

954

954

955

955

XXVI

ROLL, Y.; ROSENBLATT, M. J.: "Shifting" Policies in Warehouse. 956

ZU10NIK, J.: The Level Formation of Rejects Detectability in a Production Cell. 956

HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS 957

CHERRINGTON, J. E.; LIPPERT, S.; TOWILL, D. R.: The Effect of Prior Experience on Learning Curve Parameters. 959

KUME, Y.; MURATA, A.; HASHIMOTO, F.: Effects of Localized Vibration on the Ability of Discrimination for the Difference of Surface Roughness through Tactile Sense. 959

MAEDA, S.; KUME, Y.: Temporary Threshold Shift of Finger-Tip Vibratiory Sensation Induced by Exposure to Intermittent Vibration. 960

SHAN,H. S.: Man-Machine System Analysis of Welding. 960

** Abstract was not available.

Toward the Factory o/the Future H.-I. Bullinger, H. 1. Warnecke (eds.)

OPENING ADRESS

XXVII

XXVIII

Toward the Factory of the Future H.-J. Bullinger, H. J. Warnecke (eds.) XXIX

TOWARD THE FACTORY OF THE FUTURE

H.-J, Bullinger, H.J. Warnecke, H.-P. Lentes

Today, the enterprises are facing a large number of demands from the market, technology, legislation and society. The major aspects of these influences and their effects will be described in this contri­bution. using examples from the most varied areas of an enterprise and.the tasks to be performed. An attempt is made to point out the path to the factory of the future.

1 INTRODUCTION

The development of industrial produc­tion can be described by three radical and far-reaching structural changes. The first change which started at the end of the 18th century was character­ized by the replacement of human ener­gy by machines. The era of power engi­neering had begun with the innovation of the steam engine.

The second big industrial evolution started at the end of the 19th centu­ry. The use of electricity linked with inventions for its utilization - such as electric motors - resulted in a de­centra11zation of driving energy. The baSis for the mechanization of opera­tions was thus established. This was the beginning of the era of mechaniza­tion.

Today, we are in the era of au toma­tion, which started with the advent of electronic data processing around 1950. This third industrial develop­ment phase has been characterized above all by the drastic development of the information technology in re­cent years. It will have a decisive influence on the ·future of the factory and, thus, on the factory of the fu­ture.

Like the first and second phases of development, this phase, too, in which industrial production 1S now and will be in the future, will not be charac­terized by technological developments alone. Economic and social changes can be regarded, now as before, as deci­sive influencing factors, which will determine the kind and tempo of the changes coming up to us. Even with the technological feas1bility given, these two factors will have a decisive in­f luence on whether the factory of the

future will be an unmanned factory and, thus, the Automatic Factory. It is more realistic that the factory of the near future will be the Automated Factor~ apart from some exceptions, of course. An automated factory is a fac­tory in which fewer people will be working with a higher output than to­day.

Since the experience made in produc­tion technology has shown that innova­tions take ten to twenty years until they will have fully penetrated all sectors, the development of the facto­ry of the future is to be demonstrated by means of the trends that are clear­ly emerging already at the present time.

2 THE FACTORY OF THE FUTURE - TODAY'S CHALLENGE TO ENTERPRISES

2.1 Major Influences and Trends

In all phases of their development the structural changes of industrial pro­duction have been influenced by v·a­rious factors to a different degree. The influences coming from market and technology, society and law, and act­ing on the enterpr ises have been des­cribed in numerous publications /1,2, 3/ and discussed at many national and international meetings.

The complexity of these influencing factors, their mutual interlacement, which is sometimes hard to demonstrate satisfactory, and the lack of know­ledge regarding the relations between cause and effect, partly have led to controversial discussions on the fac­tory of the future .. These were inten­sified even more by the uncertainties associated with forecasts and by the different subject-specific aspects, which had an influence on the point of

xxx

view from which these factors and their effects had been discussed.

It is often neglected in these discus­sions that the factory of the future is not the inevitable consequence of some laws of nature or a must due to the power of the word, as described by futurologists, but that it is man who concei ves the elements of such a fac­tory and decides on its dep'loyment.

Despite these restraints and uncer­tainties it would be dangerous and wrong to ignore the emerging develop­ments and the accompanying problems and to wait for a better secured data base regarding the decision on the measures to be taken now and the stra­tegies to be developed now, as is de­monstrated by negative examples from different sectors in various countries.

Positive examples clearly demonstrate the efforts made by these enterprises in facing the challenges of the fu­ture, in order to be able to survive in competition.

Even if the factors influencing the enterprises are different from sector to sector and from country to country, so that both the effects of these fac­tors on the enterprises and the mea­sures to be taken for coping with the effects may be very different, it is, nevertheless, possible to give a sum­mary of some general tendencies.

Nearly all industrial enterprises are finding themselves faced with increas­ingly keener national and internatio­nal competition. There are various causes for this. On the one hand, they can be traced back to saturated mar­kets, cyclical influences, and a grow­ing number of competitors within a market segment by diversification of the product programme of the respec­tive enterprise, and the building up of excessive capacities. On the other hand, traditional buyer countries are facing enormous financial problems, so that no money is available for pur­chases, and the industr ial nations of the west are forced to finance their exports themselves through their banks.

The growing competition and the neces­sity linked with it to comply with the specific customer requests to a still larger degree than in the past does not only lead to a considerable pres­sure on prices and, thus, to the ne­cessity to cut costs by measures of different nature. To achieve this.

automation is only one possibility. At least to the same extent, the require­ments made by the customer lead to an almost explosive increase in the va­riety of types, smaller lot sizes, short delivery periods, fluctuations in quanti ties, higher demands on the quality of the product and the quality of the after-sales service.

The market-oriented adaption of the product supply does not only le'ad to the factor that shorter deadlines will have to be economically controlled in all areas of an enterprise in re­search and development, in design and production; on the contrary, on the part of the technological development, this trend will be reinforced by shor­ter product life cycles, shorter in­tervals of product and processinnova­tion and by the development in the field of microelectronics that can be outlined as dramatic.

Apart from these factors, the work de­sign and work organization in the en­terprises are inf~uenced by outline conditions which can be derived e.g. from legislation, collective bargain­ing or standardization. The develop­ment of society in the form of higher educational levels or also of greater affluence lead to the desire for more attractive jobs and more flexible mo­dels of working hours. The growing en­vironmental consciousness results in the demand to learn fr,om the negative effects of the uncritical exploitation of the natural resources and, linked with it, a greater involvement of the aspects of environmental protection in the planning projects.

Fig.l: Qualitative changes of the factory automation market

The consequences of the developments just b~iefly indicated above a~e shown inFigu~e 1, using machine tool build­ings as an example. The trends shown in this figure will not influence the machine tool builders alone, but at least to the same extent all other in­dustries which, in the broadest sense, are machine tool users.

To survive in the competition by an as great as possible adaptation to the requirements of the market - this goal can only be achieved, if the produc­tion plant takes on the nature of a service business in that it has the adequate flexibility in all its areas. That is why the capability to adapt to the market (economy of scope ) plays a much more important role than produc­tivity alone (economy of scale). The traditional production philosophy is no longer suitable for this. A new production philosophy and, linked with it, the abandonment of old-established patterns of thinking is necessary (Fi­gure 2) . Reor ientation and adaptation processes have become inevitable, so that it will be possible to improve the competitiveness of the enterpri­ses. In this process, an increase in flexibility can only be one out of a number of goals. An improvement of the competitiveness will also mean higher productivity by cutting the total ma­nufacturing costs on the one hand, and increasing the product value on the other /4/.

MANUFACTURING PHILOSOPHY I traditional -I for flexible systems

DIVISION OF LABOUR ••• "r" .1 pOllib'e ••• IUUe .I. posslb ..

. ".p'-: .ark with .... ~"'I' - qUlllf~ _OI"k with .u qUillIlORd wege c.alegorle poslible .tII" •• poulbl •

• 50. hapUeation of work • high l ... pUc..lian of WOf"k

- lMRy inlerfK'!ong ~t. A f •• In'erfeelng points

EXECUTiON OF LABOUR - batehwlM I -occ:o<ding CO _nd - one .1~ .her U. olhllr - overloapping A -bt"ingA,obIfg.iUon-' - · fe tf::hlng -obIi9l Ikln-'

uUllution- Of'"tented Dr"OCI!'U - OI"tef'led

TIME REQUIRED fOR EXECUTION - Mw-.h"UIIII pe" oper,Uon I -.dn ...... por ... dor - .a.ilRUlll output per- minute - 1ftIIlltillUJill utllh,.tlon per pcriod

MATERIAL- ANO INFORHATiONFLOW - "Plr,te can!lilder.Uon J -IntqaUon

Fig.2: Manufacturing philosophy -traditional and fo~ flexible systems

I

XXXI

As analyses have shown, increases in productivity can be achieved most ef­fectively by measures which include the following goals, in descending or­der /4/: . o incrase in the value of the product o reduction in the material costs o lowering the information costs o reduction in wage costs o minimization of capital costs.

2.2 Success based on Innovation

The innovation of products and proces­ses is decisive for the success of en­terprises, since these will then be able to obtain the greatest competi­tive advantage, if they manufacture innovative products as economically as possible. The latter, in turn, will often require the use of new produc­tion methods and also the use of new materials.

current technology IIUIrke:t segmentation

source : Japan Economic Journal

Fig.3: Growth potential of new technol,ogies

XXXII

For this reasons, it is important to recognize and make use of the growth potential of product and process inno­vation (Figure 3). The fact that this has been already practised bY success­ful enterpr ises in the past is shown in the example of a company in the electrical industry (Figure 4). More than half of the turnover of this com­pany is currently being generated from the scale of products developed in the last five years.

Products

developed :

in the last 5 years

6- 10 years ago

more than 10 years ago

Innovation

SHARE OF SIEMENS SALES

1969 / 70 1975 /76 1977 /78 1982 / 83

Source: Siemens

Fig.4: Innovations: Share of sales

Individual enterprises as well as whole industries, which fail to tackle the above task, will not be able to survive in the future. This has .been evidenced by developments of the ~ast, e.g. the problems of the watch-and­clock-making industry in Germany or the steel industry in the U.S.A.

Therefore, it is the task of the en­terprises to detect and eliminate the existing weaknesses in the field of product and process innovation (Figure 5). This reduces two risks leading to a decrease of competitiveness:

Strategically, regarding markets and products and operationally, regarding their manufacturing technology.

i '" U :l e Q.

c 0

~ 0

'" • 0 c

'" u "0.

~ operative

know- how on production __________

source: Prof. Schiele, KSB

Fig.5: Competitiveness by know-how­intensive products and pro­duction

This shows that, due to positional conditions, the metal-working industry will, in future, be competent in only those branches and market segments re­quiring great technical know-how and capability either for the product or for the manufacturing process. Which measures for the elimination of stra­tegic gaps are particularly successful in individual cases certainly depends on the technological and market condi­tions of the particular industrial branch and cannot be answered in a ge­neral manner. Independent from the branch, however, the risk created for companies and employees by an opera­tional gap must be approached with the consistent utilization of the rationa­lization and automation reserves re­maining available presently in produc­tion technology.

2.3 Cost Reduction in Production - Meeting Conflicting Requirements

The innovation of products and proces­ses requires that the enterprise makes investments in the field of research and development as well as in the field of production. There is no en­terprise which has unlimited capital resources at its disposal. Every en­terprise must increasingly conduct re-

search and development work. It is therefore important to realize the greatest possible flexibility and pro­ductivity with tying up as little ca­pital as possible in production, so that adequate funds will be available for achieving the strategical goals.

In production, the capital is tied up through the production equipment in the form of fixed assets and through the material employed in, the form of current a~sets (Figure 6). It is the task of any enterprise to strive for four goals, in order to make optimum use of the capital employed and, thus, to cut costs. These four goals, which are partly conflicting, are the fol­lowing:

o high capacity utilization o high productivity o short throughput time o much flexibility.

Fig.6: Optimization of capital re­quirement within the production system of objects

Conflicts of goal arise between capa­city utilization and throughput time and between productivity and flexibi­lity.

In the past, the enterprises above all aimed at reducing fixed assets by high productivity and high capacity utili­zation - two goals between which there

XXXIII

are no conflicts. In recent years, changing market conditions, however, called for more flexibility of produc­tion and a shorter product 'throughput time. Meeting these requirements led to lower inventories and, thus, to a reduction of the current assets, but in the past this also caused lower productivity and capacity utilization.

In recent years, it has been possible to weaken the indicated conflicts of goal thanks to the developments in the field of microelectronics. The techni­cal and organizational facilities for flexible automation have been estab­lished and will be further improved in the future, as will be demonstrated in the following.

2.4 Information as a Factor of Pro­duction

In addition to the classic factors of production - land, la~)Q~r an.d capi tal

information is galnlng lncreasing importance as a further factor of pro­duction. The availability of data and its processing into information rele­vant to decision-making will more and more become a factor deciding on mar­ket shares. Today's data processing is only conditionally suitable to cope with the tasks associated with this, since it is not yet information pro­cessing. In the ma jor i ty of cases, da­ta is only processed in machines today and only made into information mate­rial with great effort after it has been handed over to the user. Data al­ways becomes information only through man, information that must be weigh­ted, rated and processed. The catch­word - information flooding of the en­terprises commonly used today 1S wrong. At the present time, there is a flood of data and at the same tiIile a lack of information in the enterprises.

Three general demands for the future can be concluded from the above /5/:

o The information necessary for the work and decision-making process will have to be selectively filtered out of the existing data and infor­mation flood and it will have to be available for decision-making in an improved condition.

o The concept of economy will have to be more in the foreground in the handling and processing of informa­tion in the future. Information will then turn from a cost factor to an income factor.

XXXIV

o The information problem will have to be understood as an all-embracing technical-organizational task.

To meet these essential demands, it is necessary that an organized ·informa­tion management should be built up (Figure 7).

STRATEGIC LEVEL

~ , scopes of company ::~; ; .~~ ~-------r-r-es-e~a~rc~h-/~--~----r-------I

-g , dis- developm.1 production/ industrial ~.. tribution/ design/ material economics on :

E ; L-__ S~_I_eS __ ...L.":~_~_~-:~_~_~;:'~....L.ma __ n_;-;::-m_e_n ... t,--__ .=-__ .... :: J ; '~:. 'information management"", ~: ~~ 0,"

:i : • information organization ~ ~ g- ;. • internal/external information N •

: 8 J-__ --:--:.;--_in-:~_:_or ... m-a-t-io-n-Sry-s-te-m-sw==;::----I; 2 ; , C information information! 10..

~ ~ processing infra-structure 0: ~ I

. ~: • information tools ..... ~ .... :. \. • contents of .~ ~.~ "information

• information handling ; ~ ; • information flow QI

• right of access ~ : .... ; ..... on , .= , j ~ r---·-=----r---·-'---I---·----,-;:in::d;:-~::s;:tr::;:ia:;l-,

, ~ : market product production economics '. ~ 'data data data data ,.

:J : ~ata acquisition/-processing (formalized dataflow ~ OPERATIVE LEVEL

Fig.7: Organized information management

2.5 Integration of the Islands of Automation

A wide variety of technical facilities for the automation of discrete manu­facturing processes was developed over the past years and decades. With a few exceptions, these have been implemen­ted in the form of island solutions. Today's challenge is to integrate these island solutions, both within the manufactur ing components and bet­ween the manufacturing components. Furthermore, 1 t is also necessary to establish a link between planning and implementation.

One goal of the integration that has been already achieved in most cases or can often be achieved at short notice is the combination of tasks within the manufacturing components~ Dependent on the concrete task involved, the fol­lowing aspects may be dominant in this connection /6/:

o Manufacturing equipment The integration aims at the combina­tion of different manufacturing pro­cesses in one machining centre.

o Material hand~ing equipment Here, the task of integration is seen as the design of uniform inter­faces between different handling components, as e.g. between an auto­mated guided vehicle system and an automated storage and retrieval sy­stem.

o computer control equipment Integration of the computer control equipment through a network of some kind.

Provlded that manufacturing, mate­rials, and computer control eqUipment are integrated in a confined area of production, then this cell may be called an island of automation. There are also relevant examples for this situation.

The decisive step towards the factory of the future is the interlinking of these islands of automation and the realization of a continual information and material flow for the entire busi­ness, both vertical and horizontal. Whether or not this step will be suc­cessful greatly depends on the neces­sity that the factory of the future should be regarded as an all-embracing system. It is necessary that this thinking in terms of a system and the necessity for integration should be considered in the development and rea­lization of the components and, in this connection, particularly when de­signing the interfaces in the material and informatlon flow.

3 ELEMENTS OF THE FACTORY OF THE FU­TURE - CURRENT STATE AND TRENDS

3.1 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Flexible automation and the integrated use of computers in all areas of .the enterprise associated with production are the essential features characteri­zing the factory of the future. There­fore, Computer Integrated Manufactur­ing (CIM) is not only a catchword, it is a goal all future-oriented enter­prises are striving for. Under an overall CIM concept - as shown in Fi­gure 8 /7/ the individual modules are currently being developed step­by-step and integrated. The degree of development and installation, however, greatly depends on the industrial sec-

tor involved (Figure 9). In this con­nection, the car manufacturing indu­stry plays a leading part.

P"OSJnm piIInnlng

• job shop scheduling - ...chine to.d - order control - •• npower scheduling

• production data capturing - orders - _.chines - personnel - mIIteria' - tools - tranlporbtion

CAQ COIIIputer ~ded quality control

assembly II shipping

Fig.8 CIM - Computer Integrated Manu­facturing

In manufacturing to customers specifi­cat~ons, tne design department has a decisive influence on the costs of the product and on the throughput time during the preparation of offers. To relieve the design engineers of repe­titive tasks and to reduce design hours, CAD systems are increasingly used.

xxxv

<II .... INDUSTRIAL ~

<II t: E CI) .~ .111 U .~ :l :l ..c III t: t:

SECTORS 0 a. 0 t: .s:: t: E <II ... III .... 0 0 .... .s:: 3: III .... ... u u 0'" :l CI) CI) CI) ... CI) III III Qi E 01 a.

programmable e ~ ~ ~ 20% controllers --_._----------

robots a ~ ~ ~ 25%

------------------

computer-aided a a ~ ~ 30% design .-

computer-aided 'it ~ ~ 0 30% manufacturing ------_._----_._----

computer-aided ~ 0 0 0 30% process planning

----_._-----

computer-a ided ~ 0 ~ 0 30% testing

-------"-~----

networking ~ 0 ~ 0 30%

o full penetration o no penetration

Source: Booz-Allen & Hamilton

Fig.9 Application of computer tools in different industrial sectors

In the field of CAP, all data and do­cumentation required for production are generated under computer assis­tance. The CAP systems include program packages for computer-assisted prepa­ration of work plans, for automatic generation of parts lists, assembly plans and inspection plans. All this is based on the information origina­ting from the development and design engineering department and stored in a data base (Figure 10).

The automatic generation of the NC programs to be used in machining and testing machines is gaining increasing importance. For this purpose, the geo­metrical and technological data nor­mally used in CAD und CAP and stored in a shared data base are utilized, using standard programming languages~ Functions of this kind enlarge the concept of CAD and mark the transition to integrated CAD/CAM systems.

XXXVI

r'" ... thod. :; r-.... • CAD • dimensioning

.'go4'"ith .. s

• FE ..

• ........ ....-

r::. ..... -. .::; • EXAPT.

COMPACT II • dec',1on

table Intltrpr.tflt"

• '''l.IUon

~ --

CAD - product dII! s ign t--. . ..... ....-

. nodI!:ls

~ • .... u .. tlon ~ ~ : :;::.;; ~ru • COftIpU1.t ion " • • plottlng(Clrlllllling) ...,-

'-... --

C ... O/C ..... - p,odYctlon pI.nning h ------..... • He ~ progra.ranling ~

I.h"II .. C~ I¢O • COIIIpUtf:r aided . I' I ~ . procen pl .. nnlng

• layout planning ~ • tOOl design

• Ne - pf"Ogr •• s • produc:;tton

plans • ..chines • toob • stand:l,.d times

-.!

Fig.lO Integrated system for product deSign and production planning

Tasks of operative production control and process inspection are performed in the field of computer Aided Manu­facturing (CAM).

Due to the comprehensive calculations to be performed, the large volumes of data to be managed, the frequent repe­tition of routine jobs and the heavily networked relations of information, the field of Production Planning and Control (PPC) has been a traditional EDP application in industrial organi­zations. The increasing attention to individual internal marginal condi­tions and the improved flexibility of standard software associated with it resulted in an unexpectedly sudden growth of the implementation of stan­dard software systems.

The general development of Production Planning and Control systems is cha­racter ized by two trends - the "push" approach and the "pull" method.

The "pull" method has become known here as the "KANBAN· system. This sy­stem is to achieve "ptoduction on call· on all production levels. The process is driven by the final stage of assembly, which passes a request tag for its immediate material re­quirements to the preceding stage. This approach is pursued in upstream direction up to the raw material le­vel. The advantage of this method is the fact that there is no work-in-pro­gress (WIP) inventory. The goal of the

"reduction of current assets· is thus arrived at. The disadvantage is, how­ever, that " KANBAN " calls for a con­stant demand on ,the par t of the cu­stomers. Modifications of the "KANBAN" method are termed JIT (Just In Time) and OPT (OptimIzed Production Techno­logy) •

The "push" approach as implemented in systems of Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is based on the ac­tual and future external demand. It goes beyond the previous approach of Manufacturing Requirements Planning (MPR) in that MRP II comprises a sy­stem for the integrated planning, ~on­trol and inspection of material, ma­chines, labour and funds covering all areas of an organization /8/. The ad­vantage of an MRP system is its capa­bility to quickly respond to customer requests. Linked with it, however, is the disadvantage of a large work - in­progress (WIP) inventory. Therefore, the further development of production planning and control systems will aim at combining the advantages of MRP no order backlogs with those of "KANBAN" - low WIP inventory.

The linking of the island solutions only indicated here into an integrated overall concept cannot be confined to the software alone. On the contt;ary, it is necessary to integrate the com­puters already available today and those to be installed in the future into a hardware hierarchy (Figure 11).

eucuUon .....

Fig.ll Five-level hierarchy of com­puters

In the USA, for example, a large re­search project dealing with this topic is presently being organized at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), Washington. This project, named AMRF (Automated Manufacturing Research Fa­cility) mainly serves the investiga­tion of computer hierarchy and inter­facing pOints . Particular questions are summarized in Figure 12. Specific problems have been defined for the distribution of tasks among the diffe~ rent hierarchy levels.

Plant:

Workshop:

Information management

production planning production controlling

order processing short-term manufacturing controlling

Manufacturing cell : processing of work provision disposing putting into readiness and delivering

Working place : setting-up resetting programming clamping and unclamping

Machining station : machining measuring tool handling workpiece handling

Fig.12 AMRF-project

Integration in the above sense does not only call for compatibility and appropr iate deSign of the interfaces. What is more, integration also re­quires the need for communication. A fundamental prerequisite for communi­cation is the connection of the compu­ters by suitable networks.

Assuming that exclusively computers of the same manufacturer are to be con­nected, then this is a task that can be solved quite easily today. The de­velopment of "open" systems or net­works will permit computers of diffe­rent manufacturers to be intercon­nected in the future.

Furthermore, CIM calls for the possi­bility of access to a common data base which consists of a wide variety of ~ata (Figure 13). To keep pace with the development of computer hardware, software and networks, the data base technology will also have to be fur­ther developed. Hierarchical Data Base Management systems (DBMS) will increa­singly be replaced by relational data bases. The problem of Semantic Data Base Management Systems is already

subject of intensive research.

geometry data .

p rod""t d .... II>9.

____ ~obot- . control data

~~sor-I \ eqUlpmentj .nd taol data

B L:::J

'-'------~T~-------~ product ion ma in d ata

control data

XXXVII

Fig.13 Structure of a production data base

3.2 Intelligent computer Systems ,

The machines available to this day are capable to do the jobs of man only to an extremely limited extent. The com­puters of these machines do not have the feature of the intelligence of man, i.e . the capability of successful adapt ion to each situation by correct behaviour, particularly if it is a new situation. Ther efore, the research in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) includes approaches to make com­puters and, thus, machines more intel­ligent.

Although it is still rather disputed today whether it will ever be possible to develop a.rtificial intelligence to such a degree that it will be on man's level of intelligence or even superior to it, intensive research work has been going on in many subareas of ar­tificial intelligence for years. Such subareas are, e.g., pattern recogni-

XXXVIII

tion or computer vision, natural lan­guage processing, game playing, robo­tics and expert systems.

In the field of industrial production, the developments in these subareas will lead to intelligent machines for the solution of manufacturing, as­sembly, and inspection tasks as well as to intelligent robots and mate­rial-handling equipment. These will become integrated in the' material and informat~on flow of intelligent CIM systems.

The qual i ty of the results to be ex­pected from this will surely be influ­enced by the quali ty of the informa­tion flow. However, the manner in which the decision-making processes will be performed on the different le­vels of a CIM system is of greater im­portance. Since these decision-making problems are complex in nature and mostly ill-structured, expert systems lend themselves as problem-solution aids for improvement of the quality and timeliness.

Michie /9/ defines expert systems as follows: "An expert system embodies in a computer the knowledge-based compo­nent of an expert skill in such a form that the system can offer intelligent advice, and, on demand, justify its own line of reasoning."

Several expert systems have been suc­cessfully developed and used already for application in the most different areas. So, e.g. MYCIN for the diagno­sis of bacterioses and for working out suggestions for thei r therapy, or EX­PLAN tor the diagnosis of car break­downs.

In the engineering area, e.g. XCON has been developed for the configuration of VAX computer systems from the pre­ceding stage RI.

According to Stefik /10/ six generic tasks are performed by experts and have been attempted by developers of expert systems /11/:

o Interpretation The analysis of data to determine their meaning (e.g. part location or orientation).

o Diagnosis The fault-finding in a system based on data interpretation (e.g. machine failure analysis).

o Monitoring The continuous interpretation of signal data in order to trigger an alarm when some action is necessary (e.g. quality control).

o Prediction The forecas"t of future events baaed on past and present data (e.g. de­mand forecasting).

o Planning The creation of programs that can be executed to attach given goals (e.g. production scheduling).

o Design The determination of specifications to create objects that satisfy given requirements (e.g. facilities de­sign).

All of these tasks are required in a CIM-System. The appropriateness for applying AI/ES technology is shown in Figure 14 based on an analysis of se­lected fields of manufacturing pro­blems and their characteristics /12/.

The developement of the current expert systems for the area of production is predominantly in the research stage. Examples of this are:

o ISIS An operation scheduling system which performs order analysis, capacity scheduling and machine assignment of tasks.

o FADES This system addresses the facilities design problems, including equipment selection, capacity analysis and layout.

Even if it is still a long way off that intelligence in the strict sense of the word can be imparted to ma­chines, nevertheless, these few ex­amples show that the factory of the future will be more and more know­ledge-based. This does not only apply to the components involved in the pro­duction process, but also to the as­sistance of man in the solution of complex planning tasks and decision­making processes.

IMPLEMENTATION .~ r...::-.... _ _ ~""".' ':>~.(I~, ~

product production production floor phlnnlng phlnnlng scheduling control

.rtlflel.1 Intelligence computer ~~*iWt--*.*6d-syst... aided _ _ --nature

problem definition

responce time

informaUon relloblII Iy

probl ... complexity

cost of failure (risk)

current successes

perspectlv.

level of Integration

poyoff

low

low

high .~ ~. ~>;.o .

ze.ro

brood 6iU&t¥¥i€,3i!:; "'\"'"

high m~}~~ti\l!f,k'iliM

h igh IliWm\i\NN

tool control (unit

process control)

high

min/sec

high

low

low

narrow

1-

low

Fig.14 Decision making levels in a elM-system

3.3 Planning Processes - Trends

The already discussed factors influ­encing an enterprise, in connection with the constant lack of time lead to planning work in a more hectic way, and this, in turn, will cause a reduc­tion in planning quality and in the vertical range of planning. The exter­nal problems are added to the internal planning problems (Figure 15). Their indicators are often imperfections in the organization of planning and in­adequate use of methods and aids /13/.

To also do justice to the quality of the workplaces besides the costs, a change of the planning process is ne­cessary. This changed planning process is based on the following premises.

XXXIX

CLOI ... 1- TAINDt PlANNING ",0IL1»5

~-L1L • SI't:(O- UP lIN ''''''ottl'''' .. ... O"CAtHIATION Of THE nCHHOU)GICA\. nl.l'flliClllo ..--- - Pt.ANNIHC ToUK l)('WILOftMI.NT -7t::;g_ . P'roct4uru

• CHANCINe -""'-: -- . O'9N'lfJltlan

SALB MAuns .,;' .... ,- . I"l.,.nlt~

~- II> f"\"ANHINC .. (THeM

• CHANC INe;

~ ... I't.ANH INC TOOLS

LA.OIIt. r.u.JlllC tT S

Fig.lS Planning problems resulting from current trends

o Interdisciplinary team work (project management)

o All-embracing planning o Extended goal system o Reinforcement of the conceptual

phase.

The widening range of problems in com­peting objectives led to an easing in the division of tasks recently, also in the design and work planning de­partments. Groups of problem solvers such as workshop- or quality-circles were organized. With the participants properly selected, the risk of a limi­ted consciousness of the problems is counteracted by such an organization (Figure 16). Similarly, this also ap­plies to the organization within a planning project leading to a team of experienced members from the most different disciplines. Such team work requires a great faculty for coopera­tion. This eases the rigidity of old­established divisions of tasks. This is also necessary, since the atten­dance to future-oriented forms of work includes the necessi ty to develop new models for planning, management, and for the operation of such work struc­tures in interdisciplinary cooperation.

.,... "'-0

Fig.16 principles for problem consi­deration

XL

As already indicated, such planning work currently concentrates on the technology of the production systems. One of the fUndamental premises of the planning process, however, is the all-embracing consideration of the da­ta and requirements of departments not invol ved in planning (Figure 17). The technocentered approach "technology controls man" - pursued so far cannot live up to this all-embracing ap­proach. On the contrary, it is neces­sary that the anthropocentered ap-proach "man controls technology" should be emphasized. In this connec­tion, the following categories will have to be integrated /14/:

o Technical cat€gories "man as tool"

o Ergonomical categories "man as a biological organism"

o Psychological categories "man as an active, thinking and eva­luating individual"

o sociological categories "man in the social context"

o Educational categories "man as a learner".

Fig.17 Integrated planning concept

To be able to meet the requirements of anthropocentered design of technology associated with these categories, Le. thinking in system terms and interdis­ciplinary teamwork are urgently re­quired.

The consideration of an extended goal system is necessary during the plan­ning phase, since, in connection with' new technologies, the proportion of those factor s will increase, which cannot or only with great difficulty

be quantified in monetary terms. This applies to such goals as increasing the flexibility, quicker information, better quality of working life. The traditional methods of profitability calculation are no longer adequate for evaluating the reaching of these goals. They will rather have to be supplemented by methods which permit the rating of factors that are diffi­cult to quantify.

New production systems often call for higher capital expenditure in the form of higher investment. The capital tied up in the fixed assets must be inten­sively utilized. This avoids incom­plete information and inadequate plan­ning methods in the conceptual phase. By emphasizing them in the planning process, it should be tr ied as ear ly in the planning stage as poss ible, at a somewhat higher expenditure (Figure 18), to secure a system working as ef­ficiently as possible from the begin­ning, to avoid adaptions as far as possible, and to arrive at the break­even point earlier, despite potential higher investment.

Irw;rened pIMnlnt ~O&I .•

pf'Odut:lUWli ..

~Iplac:...nt of lhill braak- WVWI pminl

Fig.18 Increased planning effects mag­nify return-on-investment

The planning methods required for this purpose are being increasingly im­proved. This applies to the advanced software tools such as simulation or expert systems as well as to the inte­gration to make up integrated, compu­ter-assisted planning and information systems (Figure 19).

Fig.19 Main tasks of computer aided process planning

3.4 Development in the Office

It is not only the production in the factory of the future that is marked by the development of the information technologies. On the contrary, these technologies have considerably greater influence on the technical and admini­strative offices.

Office automation technology from its structure has a lot in common with technology in product ion systems, al­though there are several differences (Figure 20):

o Reproducing is not the main goal in office tasks - in production it is.

o storage and retrieval is a major task in office systems it is not that much in production.

o The distribution process is an im­portant factor in both systems.

o Because of the nature of the tasks and the worker's qualification, man's posi tion in off ice systems is stronger than in production systems. Only parts of his abilities will be substitutable.

o To improve th~ logistic system is in both systems a main task for the fu­ture, although in production it is by far more developed.

... .

. -'.

;

- • " • • ' ••• 0' • ' . ~ •• - . - .- 0' 0"' . : - ~ •

: :: e FU. -.Ne - tool ----..

Flexible Nnufactor .... g syste ..

• Typewriter --. i ',: • FUe _ ::')

O.UI - IMse -.. :.~. Knowledge - beN ._

:. -:

Worciproc.eltor ~ Workstation

InfOf' ... tion/U.tedal - Flow/OlltrlbuUon .: r---------------------------~

{, : . • Indu.'riill trU(;k --- • Mill -,-.' tUgh- Utt fork IlKklng 'ruck - Tel.tex -

. :- Indue"..,.. c;ontroled whee:l-barl"'Ow ISDN. LAN

::~ • ' ,- : ',,: ',: ,0,. o- ~. '::. ' lOw:" • .: ~ .-•• ~ : '. ,0.: OW -0-:' . '-". or , : : - ',

Motn - Machine - InterKtlon

~,;j . phYlal KU",iUel­: ~{ MnsomDlork: ac.tlvW ••

• MnsotnOtoric ~tlvlties---. mental activlUu

Fig.20 Generalized structure of pro­duction and office automation systems

XLI

, . '. '

,'j

." ~ ...

, '

o In production systems, the logistic system shifts out , of the main pro­duction system. This does not have to be the case for office systems, due to qualification of people and intelligence of devices.

In developing those computer based logistic systems in office automation (time scheduling, project management, run-off control, systems for the re­presentation of transactions, follow­up systems), there are many questions to answer. They include the taylorism discussion, general questions of fle­xibility and the centralization/de­centralization discussion.

Office work (roughly speaking) can be divided into the following main areas (Figure 21):

o Managerial roles o Technical/professional rolei o Administrative roles o Secretarial roles.

A lot of effort has been directed to­wards centralized concepts of work al­location computer centres, typing pools, ·function oriented treating of transactions·. Since about 5 years a trend can be seen towards more pro­duct/market-oriented task allocation.

FleXible secretary groups and reinte­gration o~ supporting functions into administrative functions are examples.

XLII

MANACERIAL ROLES TECHNICALIPROFES- ...... SIONAL ROLES

• to manage, to motivate • to make repbrts eta communicate eto realize projects

eta representate • to develop methods

earea and event oriented • project oriented einitiativ • global specifications. ebackgroond knowledge initialiv

essential

" / " • Know-how essential

/ ADMINISTRATIVE ROLES " SECRETARIAL ROLES " • to treat transactions • to supply internal services

• to adjust contacts • to treat fractional transactions

eta document • to assist

• transaction or event • event oriented oriented

• extraneons initiated eorganized

• Know-how less important

" • Know-how important

/ " /

Fig.21 Types of office roles

From the discussion about work struc­turing in production (job enlargement, job enrichment, job rotation) the idea of "Mischarbeit~ (adequate mix of work elements) was derived. Technology can support this idea. What we have learned from production automation as well is that you cannot force people to "rotate".

In summary, some conclusions can be drawn regarding the deveiopment in the office /15/:

o supporting administrative functions in future can be substituted to a high degree.

o Typing functions stitutable. The higher qualified secretarial or elements.

become partly sub­trend is towards

jobs and integrated administrative work

o Administrative functions cause a lot of subsequent work elements. The trend is towards reintegration of some of those elements and towards product/market oriented work proces­ses.

o The professional or knowledge worker (first line management included) can be supported technologically at the work place. Those professional tasks will have fast growing importance for our companies.

o The middle line management and the executives will rely at least for the next decade on the "operator principle"

3.5 Development in the Production of Parts

The development in the production of parts is above all characterized by technical and- organizational measures aiming at both higher productivity and more flexibility. These initially in­clude measures which permit a better utiliiation of fixed assets.

In the 8760 hours available to us per year, the invested capi tal in a pro­duction plant is used only to an ex­tremely low degree: in single-shift operation only approx. 10% of the time, two-shift operation lies at ap­prox. 15%. If it is possible, however, by increasing automation, to put the manufacturing plant into the position where it can operate alone with a small supervision team during breaks, allowance and recovery times and even into the night, an enormous capacity gain and increase in capacity produc­tivity may be achieved. The available capacity field of a manufacturing plant (Figure 22)~ which we have so far only utilized upwards in a vertical direction by increasing the output time unit, is now to be stretched by temporal utilization, whereby we are attempting to operate the machine not only in groups of eight hours per working day, but "for a much longer period. In the first step, automation for 35 minutes of operator free operation already brings about considerable gains in utilization.

strong ytflld Inc,rea!5l! with IrtCreilIses In rete of production ~ In machine Dpl!:raling t ime

Fig.22 Increasing yield

·'IUJOUC T ION ~ ~~~ ~ ~t • ' ACILlTU:S

~Ol\ TU. tIIING t;;;>.. --., ,.1 ' ~

I I • ~ , -- .... lhI! . Ilh NC .. .. Nt . h l\ F~.~

0- v"O .. H' .... --0 _u.... tk 'f~nlnog ~11 ~;!';:,~Ifto DID "'vl.-..lcd

...... ~~J -Ikp.-.... ' .... " _-"9;...c-_lr.ilfl"t_ 1 ~ .-_0f"~ __ 1i10l""'''

u ... I"-"J.nd~ BIO:$lo.l-!2:~ *":::::a -," "'40«.1_ ~lr'II!:"""_Jj~n.J

'lll(w1op1ltU.tor<ll)lt

Wg,r~ tl'1IIOiI 1, .. I st- 1

Fig.23 Stepwise automation of turning

Other measures aim at achieving a high degree of automation with increasing economy. Here, it is already possible to automate the subfunctions shown in Figure 23 with the facilities of the current state of the art.

In conventional, manually operated ma­chines, the work is prepared, machined and prepared again to be transported onward - all manually. In the past the operation process was increasingly automated by controls. Today however, the work is prepared in a magazine by a transport system, partly already driverless. The machine operates alone, works off the order and maga­zines it for further transport. Flex­iole manufacturing systems are charac­terized by the fact that several such machines are interlinked in automated material flow and information flow controlled by a computer. In the ex­treme case, the aim is that each work­piece in the magazine be different. This means that the manufacturing unit is able to produce overnight the parts required to assemble the product the next day and then to del i ver it the day after. This results in a consider­able decrease in the stock of half-fi­nished and finished goods with a si­multaneous, very high utilization.

Technically, however, this means that the machine must be able to monitor itself (Figure 24). Sensors must be developed, e.g. to monitor t~e wear and breakage of tools. The machine can control characteristic measures it­self; it records its work and is equipped with a diagnostic system which indicates failures occurring and shows their causes, to allow these to be corrected as quickly as possible. Automatic removal is also included.

PR[R[QUISITI[S fOR UNATTENDED SHIfT

AUTOMATIC OPERATION Of MoIoNUfAClURING CEll

o.

Fig.24 prerequisites for unattended shift on a machining center

XLIII

A basic condition for the step-by-step increase in degre,e of automation is that the individual components be com­patible among themselves as well as • upwardly' with regard to their ma te­rial and information flow interfaces. The standardization followed thus far (although not closely enough) of solu­tions available on the market today for handling and . linking facilities, as well as control systems, requires a greater cooperative effort between component manufacturers and research institutes.

Through an industry-wide standardiza­tion of, for example, purely opera­tion-specific interfaces such as pal­let dimensions or transfer heights, the application of universal transport systems and aids could be realized in­dependently of the degree of automa­tion for the entire system. A step in this direction is the concept deve­loped by the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automa­tion in cooperation with various manu­facturers of machine tools and automa­tion facilities for an alterable maga­zine of modular construction in the conventional Europallet format for turned workpieces (Figure 25) • The goal of current development work is a modular magazine capable of receiving in order workpieces of various weights, sizes and process states, transporting the workpieces safely, and then placing them in the correct location for the handling facilities

XLIV

at the m~chine tools. Through stan­dardization of the interfaces between machine and handling facilities, high compatibility of the solution deve­loped should result.

Workpiecet

WOI'"kpiece- spec:.iflc

Workpleee-gl"o~

Fig.25 Modular magazining system

Software will play an increasingly large role in automated production sy­stems. At least 30% of investment will not be for machines, but rather for software development" and the trend will rise (Figure 1). Software, with its many interfaces, and programming will become increasingly a serious cost factor. The efforts toward flexi­ble automation must concentrate more intensely on the design and standardi­zation of information-technical inter­faces; otherwise software problems will become a serious bottleneck in the development toward consistent com­puter-aided information flow from de­sign of products up to their highly­automated manufacture and assembly.

3.6 Developments in Industrial Robotics

In ihternational comparison of indu­strial robotics, Western Europe and the USA are positioned approximately equally, while Japan has a lead in the number of applications (Figure 26), but not in technology. The areas of application of industrial robots in West Germany (Figure 27) are primarily spot welding, painting and, increa­singly, arc welding as well as load­ing and unloading of machines. The hi­ghest growth rates have been predicted for industrial robots in assembly

technology. Despite 'the strongest re­lative increase in industrial robots in assembly, one will still have to await further developments during the coming one to two years. The problems in the area of assembly automation area are only seldom due to the robot itself, the necessary peripherals po­sing the major obstacles.

0,'" '.'

'I • 00' 1 lID Sl 1] 000 6. 71

'''' 2623 6'

Source, : 1) OECD Labour FCIII"«

+---+---1 ~~ ~~~15h Indu!Llrlal Robot """"iOI_11-l

+-_-+---1 :: !:F~ IS~~~:~t Robot Auoc:latbl " BRA BJ"ltish Robot ASHCI,Uon 7) SIR I It,H,n Robot Anac:.iIIllon

Fig.26 "Industrial Robot Density" selected countries

in

'DOD

~ 19'. 2 lDO ,.obotSf-----1

1 ---''---.-1 1 tal 1 ~o r'obUts 191] II 800 ,.OOOtS

nn '600 ,.000"'1- ----1 I-I-====n=

ISlO

-I"'" ! IIDJ

~ 1203

~'~--III .-.-----~

""

Fig.27 Application fields for indu­strial robots in Germany

In viewing future developments to be expected in the area of robotics, one can also see existing weak links:

o Sensor technology will develop very rapidly and will enable robots to adapt with more "feeling" and "in­telligence" to given tasks and to be able to work even within suboptimal­ly-prepared environments. Thus the development work for pro­blem-specific periphery is reduced.

o The industrial robot - designed for flexibility and universal suitabi-1 i ty - is developi ng more and more into a specialist (painting robot, welding robot, commissioning robot). This is due foremost to the special know-how inherent in the process and the periphery adapted to it.

o The machine manufacturers have rea­lized that automation in the proxi­mity of their machines allow the achievement of considerably greater economies than the further optimiza­tion of the machines themselves. It has been seen that handling opera­tions especially have drawn machine manufacturer's attention. The goal of this future development will be to offer the handling device as an accessory to the production facility.

o In the medium range, the prices for industrial robots will not be influ­enced greatly. In order to be able to realize a greater number of indu­strial robot applications in the fu­ture, low-cost industrial robots are being developed.

o In order to reduce the cycle time of handling procedures, lightweight ro­bots must be developed. In order to achieve success in this area, deve­lopments in the supply sector must be awaited and at the same time, new directions must be taken in drive technology (power via shafts and mo­tors contained in base).

o Robots will be able to work in a larger wor kspace, i. e. they ar e be­coming mobile. This can be realized, f or example, with inducti vely-gu ided shop transport vehicles (Figure 28), with warehouse stocking devices and additional industrial robots or with large gantry construction. Portable industrial robots will also be deve­loped and applied, e.g. for welding in ship construction.

o programming of industrial robots will be made simpler through other programming techniques (CAD/CAM, speech input, higher programming

XLV

languages, semiautomatic program­ming). Thereby the effort of program development will clearly decrease, allowing economical programminOg).

Fig.28 Tool supply by a mobile indu­strial robot

o New industries and areas of applica­tion will open themselves to indu­strial robots, such as "clean room" technologies and manufacture of large parts (Figure 29).

Fig.29 Automated handling, tacking and welding of large workpieces

3.7 Development in Assembly

In comparison with parts, only a few systems have been

the production of flexibly automated

realized so far in

XLVI

assembly. The potential for its appli­cation will, however, increase when more technical rules for assembly automation are formulated and followed (Figure 30}. Nevertheless, these can only be realized over a longer period of time, so that the prognoses regard­ing the development of assembly auto­mation are vague.

TECHNICAL RULE

1 • .ssetnbly "ecessIUit" system observation

2. minimum no. of individual parts

3.lndlvldual parts and sub-.ssemblies according to drilwings

' . product structure from sub~.ssemblies

S.colleclion of assembly procedures suitable for autOlhlltton

i . handling oriented individual parts

7.ordered magazining of individual parts and sub-anemblie s

• . straight - lined joining movements

9.minimal flexibility demanded of gripper and devices

CONCLUSION

Jo~r.1I con.ldIoraUon ..-.d inclusion In the automation r._', the fiekb : mater~1 pr~r.tion. hIIndling. joining , KlJuiUng . checking and packing

integra' construction

• adhering to size and shilpe tolennee. .consideralion of lolerance CMins • reliable qUilily control .oluervatlon of av.llability of ISseMbly plant

Independent elenlents suitable for assembly and checking

• separation of automatic and manUlI assembly into fieldS

• little pressure in assembly sequence

application of easily rec:ogn ized ordering and positioning features

• separation of paris as late as possible in the manufacturing process I flow production I

.magaz ining of indivdual parts and sub- assemblies •• utotNltk: or INInual pre-ordering • manufacture at the assembly spot

s.II!ndwich construction

• formation of assembly familie s • formilltion of variants at the end of assembly .forlNltion of .,sembly lots to reduce gripper

and fixture chll~

Fig.30 Technical rules for assembly automation

The most important results of a lon­ger-termtechnology prognosis for fle­xible assembly automation by means of a Delphi questionnaire are shown in Figure 31. This shows that a solution is expected for the most important problems for the nineties. As soon as the end of the eighties, it has been prognosed, assembly robots will be available at half the price; for the early nineties, the application of 10,000 assembly robots has been calcu­lated. According to expert opinion, product design for assembly will gain importance already ln the mid-eighties similar to that of part design for ma­nufacture. Measures for assembly­suitable deSign of products are first to be considered in terms of parts handling and second with regard to joining of parts. Product design for ease of assembly leads to reduced ef­fort in automation (or even allows automation in the first place) and re­duces manual tasks necessary for as­sembly.

SOl .lCpoKt a let.r

mm -IIIFftfR II II " .... "L17 "L" .. 'L.; :::- "

t 'PRe of r'C'an .. ,ion

n~

P ilot p"ojKl in ... ala.d

100 Soys'enls running

Fig.31 Delphi-Forecast: Industrial robot application in assembly

..

source : VW

Fig.32 Modular design of an automobile

Design work with view to an easier as­sembly means that the deSign engineers do not only have to think in terms of "parts". Their future task will rather be to think increaSingly in terms of "modules" of which a product is com­posed (Figures 32, 33).

The spectrum of the future assembly systems will essentially be character­ized as follows: o Labour-intensive assembly systems o "Hybrid" assembly systems with manu-

al and automatic workstations o Flexibly automated assembly systems.

3.

source : SAAB

Fig.33 Module concept for a final car assembly

Labour-intensive assembly systems will above all be used for the assembly of bulk-size products in the future. The realization of guidelines for the de­sign of such systems is represented in Figure 34, showing the preassembly of a car engine and transmission as an example.

Fig.34 Planning guidelines realized in an assembly system

XLVII

A major task to be solved in the plan­ning of systems for the assembly of bulk-size products is the integration of making material available in the assembly area on the one hand. On the other hand, it is necessary to achieve flexibilitiy regarding o fluctuations in quantities, and o different types and variants through modular design of the system. ReleVant examples are shown in Figure 35 for the assembly of fork lifters and in Figure 36 for the final assemb­ly of cars.

Fig.35 Fork lifter ~ssembly system using AGVS

A solution of the combination of manu­al and automatic workstations is re­presented in Figure 37, showing the assembly of transverse control arms of a car as an example.

The special problems of the combina­tion of industrial robots and manual workstations are to be dealt with in the following by way of an example, since this situation will increasingly arise in the future.

In a small department of a medium­s ized company, rondes for manufacture cutting-off · grinding wheels were punched from multi-layer, 1.5m wide glass fiber fabric. Four similar re­volving punches are used, which. nor­mally work in two shifts; occasionally three are used for production. Whereas the punching is fully automatic, the reception of the punched rondes from the fabric web is manual. TWO em­ployees are occupied with replenish­ment; of material, one with waste re­move and one with knife grinding.

Because of the work strain (dust, noise, short cycle times) and the high personnel turnover, the reception of rondes was to be automated. A gantry­type unit was selected as the

XLVIII

legend: 1-10 work stations assembly subsystem I

11-20 work stations assembly subsystem II 21 input buffer 22 buffer 23 output buffer 24 AGVS buffer 25 pre-assembly 26 expedite storage 27 material 28 road 29 expedite conveyor

Fig.36 Automobile assembly system using AGVS

most suitable for the presses. Follow­ing a trial run of one of the robots at one of the presses, another two units were to be bought. At the 4th punch, manual reception was retained for special tasks.

- -Fig.37 Assembly line for lower trans­

verse control arm

Because after automation, 2-3 em­ployees were needed for the 4 punches and some tasks have to be done two by two, these employees should work as one team. After a necessary change of the shop-floor layout (Figure 38), the following guidelines could be imple­mented /16/:

o a redundant manual workstation o a clear layout for better superv i­

sion of the robot o optimal layout as regards material

flow and cooperation possibilities o set up of separate, decoupled tech­

nological sy~tems.

HANDLINe SYSTEM '-____ -'

Fig.38 Layout of hybrid production system

D8

Due to the expected high cost of the set up scepticism about this techno­logy within the company, a less com­prehensi ve system was decided on, in­volving only one robot at one of the existing workstations.

The reasons for the currently still limited application of assembly robots are high iniestment cost and set-up time, which remains high even in as­sembly systems wi th industr ial robots due to unsatisfactory flexibility of per iphery .·Up until the present, expe­rience has shown that the costs for periphery and engineering stand appro­ximately one to one in comparison to those for thehandl ing device. It is usually uninteresting today for the user to buy an industrial robot as an automation component. Much more in de­mand are entire system solutions. For the maintenance of a flexible entire system, it is further necessary to de­sign the linking structure flexibly as well, as the flexibility of. the indu­strial robot can only then be put to best use (Figure 39).

Fig.39 Flexible automatic assembly system

Summarizing and comparing the require­ments made on assembly (shorter pro­duct life cycles, smaller quantities per type and variant) with the actual state of today' s a~sembly systems (labour-intensi ve or rigid single-pur­pose automatic systems), the following becomes obvious:

o Factories mainly using manual as­sembly systems will have to increase their productivity by integrating flexibly automated production equip­ment, without loosing any flexibili­ty.

o Factories using rigid assembly auto-

XLIX

mation are forced to increase their flexibility by introducing flexible assembly automation.

Apart from the automation of assembly, work design remains important to as­sembly as an approach to rationaliza­tion, for:

o approx. 50 % of all products are not of interest to automation over the next years, because the quantities are too small. The assembly systems designed for this purpose, will also have to be adapted to the changed requirements,

o approx. 60 % of the assembly opera­tions do not lend themselves for automation without restructuring the assembly system, due to the clock times, and

o a man and machine-oriented division of labour will have to be created by appropriate measures of work struc­turing, since many assembly opera­tions cannot be economically automa­ted on a full scale,

o the path to the' factory of the fu­ture starts from the modular-design product via modular-design assembly systems with the integrated making available of material (Figure 40); the layout of this factory departs from the rectangular shape that has been common so far, and it also fea­tures modules that are expandable at any time (Figure 41).

Fig.40 Assembly system design for large scale products

L

final product

final product

material supply

Fig.41 Modular factory design

4 THE FACTORY OF THE FUTURE - ORGA­NIZATION AND LABOUR

4.1 organizational Development

The development of increasingly power­ful and economic components has led to numerous changes not only in the tech­nical field, but also in the field of organization /1/.

This has been explained in the prece­ding discussion of the more technical­ly oriented aspects. Changes of the structure and flow organization are the inevitable consequence or even the prerequisites for the successful ap­plication of new technologies in the direct areas of production and in the preceding indirect areas of the enter­prise.

The traditional organization of parts production is characterized by the competence of var ious specialized de-

partments for solving the given speci­fic tasks in one and the same produc­tion ar.ea • . These more or less rigid bO\lndar les ln the sense of assignment of duties and spheres of responsibili­ty lead to crelays and waiting times (Figure 42). These non-productive times ~ill even rise with increasing complexlty of the equipment so that it will become necessary to ~econsider the traditional kind of distribution of funct~ons with the aim of achieving a reductlon of delays . This is all the more important, as the advanced equip­ment of the future means the tying up of correspondingly large sums of capi­tal.

TRADITIONAL ORCANIZATIONAL CONCEPT FOR

PARTS MANUFACTURINC

source : General Motors

TEAM CONCEPT

l .... handling III tasks

_ Idle time

~producUv. ~ti ....

Fig.42 Team concept in parts manu­facturing

The thinking in terms of organization forms with centralized tasks and ver­tical distribution of functions that has been practised so far will be su­perseded for these reasons by the in­tegration of all functions which are necessary for performing a task' at a workstation or in a work group . All tasks to be done will e. g. be handled by a production team (Figure 42) /17/.

The application of technical aids can no longer be planned without taking the organization into account, as was often the case in the past. Technology and organization will have to be re­garded as an entirety and used in a

mutually harmonized form. This is shown in Figures 43 and 44, using the application of CAD as an example.

Fig.43 Technical models for CAD-users

r OIllC"NII"lIOHItL MO D~I ·L5"

Fig.44 Organizational models for CAD­users

If the path to the factory of the fu­ture starts from shop-oriented manu­factur ing and leads to product-or ien­ted manufactur ing in production, then this also applies to the field of planning in the figurative sense. Ac­cording to the principles of Scienti­fic Management of Frederick Taylor, specialized departments were created here also, which exclusively dealt with a quite specific subject. Process planning, e.g., is done in a different department than the development and design of the tools and fixtures re ­quired for performing the process. Here, it is also necessary to create organization forms, in which all spe­cific tasks will be integrated in in­di vidual areas, in a product-or iented manner. This is illustrated in Figure 45, using an example of the car manu­facturing industry /18/.

Ll

fun c • Ion _ 1 ·0 r I • n t. t '0 n

layout J[ ~.t,lal II MCfttnery JI pl'Oduct .... p ..... nlng Pf'OCH·lng _19n planning

""gin_ring

~ ~

~ ~ , . ' , ' . " . . ."

PRODUCTION SYSTEM . . - .. - . . -. " . .'

ct.1I1, l co' body ....... ,y

... . - -. .. ' -.. ."

I o ptoduc:tlon plannlng o production p&ennlng o production plann"'" o ... hl.,....,. ... lgn o IMChlnery dn'9n o _hlnery -'lin o industrial procnlln9 o lndu.t"~1 proces.1ng o lndu.tr'" PI"OCIe'11ng

erti1neermg -olneer1ft9 engineering o layout planning o "yout p"nnlng o layout planning o Inopoctlon plannlnv o InspKtlon p&ennlnog o W\tpee:don p'-nnlng .. . .. . .. .

aource : BMw . Fig.45 ~ew organizational approach:

Integration of functions

Such changes of organization inevitab­ly lead to a comprehensive approach of the integration concept of CIM. If it was above all the integration of the hardware and the software as well as the integration of information that

.was understood by this in the past, then it will be necessary in the fu­ture to think more intensively in terms of the integration of human ac­tion.

4.2 The Role of Man in Future Produc­tion Systems

The human wlll play an increasingly decisive role in production. There will, nowever, be for the most part different work content than in the past. Routine activlties and purely operational functions will disappear with ~lexible automated manufacturing; the new point of emphasis lies in planning, regulating and checking ac­tivities. Sensomotor demands will give way to intellectual ones.

In these activities, the human will be supported more and more by infoimation and decision-aiding systems modelled through use of problem-adapted struc­tured data and procedural bases. This leads to a change in the staff structure and qualification of labour (Figure 46).

We must consider anew the division of labor, the design of task content and of course also the demands upon and qualification of the employee. TO be emphasized in the latter area is, be-

LII

-sides communication of new special knowledge, especially an active broa­dening of understanding for technical relationships and operational proce­dures. The current observable reduc­tion in complexity of specialist work with its tendency toward dissolution of specialist-intellectual competence is, therefore, to be avoided. The pro­ducti vi ty of the individual increases in proportion to his new qualification and makes training an economic neces­sity. Here too, the global change from extensive to intensive economic growth leads to the consequence: quality re­places quantity.

Fig.46 CAD/CAM changing personnel's qualification and number

The higher productivity and automation degree of future manufacturing systems and the progressive decoupling and transformation of human labor in these manufacturing systems poses the demand for a new and more flexible working time arrangement. Various models for flexible arrangement of working time offer various groups the potential of individual adaptation of their needs to working time rules. In contrast to the introduct ion of new technologies, a change in working time models is being strongly opposed by strong for­ces from the tariff partners' side. Constructive solutions must be found to be borne by all interest groups and those affected to lead to an improve­ment in working and living conditions.

The efficiency of the application of new technologies and the requirements made on education do not only result from the technology as such, but actu­ally only from its utilization. For optimum utilization, qualification is mandatory. This assessment is based on the following thoughts:

o Qualification is necessary for the planning of mechanization: The plan­ner must master the technology.

o Qualification is necessary for the utilization of the technology: The operating a~d maintenance staff must be able to utilize and maintain the technologies.

o Qualification is necessary to cope with psychological stresses and strains: Someone who anticipates any trouble, because he masters the technology, can take preventive ac­tion and, thus, avoid hectic work and pressure of time.

o Employers and employees are inter­ested in qualification in new tech­nologies: For improvement of the sy­stem utilization and the product quali ty on one hand, and for income guarantee on the other hand.

o Qualification decides on the chances on the labour market.

The technical qualification require­ments will be specified in more detail using the example of the application of industrial robots - other require­ments to be mentioned are the organi­zational and social requirements (Fi­gure 47).

The following distinctions are made:

o device-related requirements, o system-related requirements, and o process-related requirements.

The device-related requirements are currently posing extraordinary diffi­culties, due to the low degree of standardization of the controls, espe­cially in industrial robots, Since in­terdisciplinary training courses e.g. similar to those of the CNC tech­nology - can hardly be offered. Thi s means that the individual enterprise has to develop its own qualification programme.

Different qualification requirements also result from the given production task of the individual enterprises and from the given form of organization. The spectrum of the requirements of the different work structures is il­lustrated in the structures shown in Figure 48.

The qualification requirements accord­ing to structure A are character isti c of work systems with a pronounced di­vision by category and with little flexibility requirements. On the other hand, structure B can be characterized by a largely integrated work content in work structures with a high degree

of flexibility. Since the increasing complexity of work, high innovation pressure and modern management systems no longer allow a high degree of divi­sion structure B will establish itself.

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

"'OR INDUSTRIAL ROBOT SYSTEMS

device requirements

• teaching and storing of welding spots • program test • program debugging

r-- • program optimization • set up • operating • maintenance •

~1 keybord programming

~1 play-back

~1 textual programming

L1 keybord programming with menu technique

system requirements

r---- • material input and output • control and monitoring of peripherals • organization of rework

•

process requirements

~ • product check • rework • tool and grab adjustment •

tool manipulation

o arc welding

r---- o spot welding o coating o deburring o assembly 0

part manipulation

o diecast metal/injection diecasting o forging. pressing

- o handling o deburring o assembly o packing 0

Fig.47 Quality requirements for industrial robot systems

I I I

• polarized qualification

- many poor qualified workers - few high qualified workers

• support through system-external serv!ces necessary

• functional and topographical centralized system control

• only simple manipulations possible (blackbox, fool-proof)

• efficient for systems with

- sJight flexibility requirements - exceptional manipulations

• personnel for the night shift

• r-elatively inflexible

• homogeneous qualification - skilled worker

• almost autonomous system

LIII

• hierarchical system control with detailed user-guidance

• any intervention posslbje (system is transparent)

• efficient for systems with high flexibility requirements

• qualified per-sonnel

• developable. adaptable

sour-ce: B. Lutz

Fig.48 Different structures of technical organizations

5 SUMMARY

Despite all uncertainties inherent to a look at the future, the path to the factory of the future has been marked out. The individual steps involved have been briefly described before. It is the goal of the individual measures to ensure that the factory of the fu­ture is an integrated system of people, equipment, mater ials, informa­tion and energy. The chances to achieve this goal lie above all in the developments in the field of informa­t ion technology. TO make use of these chances, reorientation and adaptation processes on the part of the staff on all hierarchy levels of the enterpri­ses will be increasingly necessary. This also includes that the develop­ment of engineer ing and even less the application of it is left to the engi­neers alone. Ortega y Gasset put it like this: "In order to practise engi­neering, it is not enough to be an en­gineer". This contribution is also in­tended as an aid, in order to achieve this goal.

REFERENCES:

/1/ Bullinger, H.-J.; Lentes, H.-P., The future of work. Technologi­cal, economic and social chan­ges, Int. J. Prod. Res. 20 (1982) 259-296.

LIV

/2/

/3/

/4/

/5/

/6/

/7/

/8/

/9/

/10/

/11/

Bullinger, H.-J., Die Vedinderung de-r menschli­chen Arbeit durch die Technik, in: Kindlers Enzyklopadie "Der Mensch" (Kindler, Munchen, 1983) •

Warnecke, H.J., produktionstechnik und Automa­tisierung: stand und Entwick­lungstendenzen, Fordertechnik 53 (1984) No.9, 19-22.

Suh, N.P., Die Zukunft der Fabrik aus der Sicht des M.I.T, in Pro­duktionstechnischesKolloquium '83, Vortragsband, Berlin 1983.

Bullinger, H. -J.; Voegele, A.; Litke, H.-D., Informations-Management. Zuvie­Ie Daten, zuwenig Information, Management Wissen (1983) No. 12, 40-42 and (1984) No.1, 56-57.

Tompkins, J .A., successfull facilities planner must fulfill role of integrator in the automated environment. Ind. Engng. 16 (1984) No.5, - S. 54-58.

Waller, S., Die automatisierte Fabrik, VDI-Z 125 (1983) 838-842.

Neunheuser, B., Materialflua in Fertigung und Montage. Anforderungen der Pro­duktion, VDI-Berichte No. 520 (1984) 1-6.

Michie, D., Expert systems: past problems and new opportunities, Procee­dings of IBM Engineering/ scientific Study Conference (poughkeepsie, New York, 1983) 19-45.

Stefik, M. et al., The organization of expert sy­stems, a tutorial, Artificial Intelligence 18 (1982) 135

Nof. S. Y., An expert system for planning/ replanning programmable facili­ties, Int. J.. Prod. Res. 22 (1984) 895-903.

/12/

/13/

/14/

/15/

/16/

/17/

/18/

Fisher, E.L., Expert systems can lay ground­work for intelligent CIM deci­sion making, Ind. Engng. 17 (1985) No.3, 78-83.

Bullinger, H.-J., Rationa1isierungspotentiale richtig erkennen. Vorgehenswei­se zur Planung und Realisierung von Fertigungssystemen, Techni­sche Rundschau 76 (1984) No. 12,5-7.

Bullinger, H.-J., Anforderungen des Technologie­trends an Forschung und praxis, in Bullinger, H.-J. (ed.), Henschen-Arbeit-Neue Technolo­gien (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985).

Bullinger, H.-J. and Fahnrich, K.-P., The future of office work -resul ts of production research, 7th Int. Conf. on Prod. Res., Windsor, 1983.

Bullinger, H.-J., Vogel, P., Application of principles of work structuring for the plan­ning of robot systems, in Mar­tin, T., Design of work in automated manufacturing systems wi th special reference to small and medium size firms (VDI-Ver­lag, Dusseldorf, 1983) 125-128.

Haas, V., Team-Konzept-Mitarbeiter planen und betreiben ihr Arbeitssy­stem, in Bullinger, H.-J. and Warnecke, H. J (eds.), Wettbe­werbsfahige Arbeitssysteme problemlosungen fur die Praxis (Fraunhofer-Institut fur Ar­beitswirtschaft und Organisa­tion (IAO), Stuttgart, 1983).

Lederer, K.G., EDV-unterstutzte tionssysteme in der industrie, FB/IE 33 1, 23-29.

Kommunika­Automobil­(1984) No.

Toward the Factory o/the Future H.-I. Bullinger, H. I. Warnecke (eds.)

INVITED LECfURES

LV

LVI

Toward the Factory of the Future H.-I. Bullinger, H. 1. Warnecke (eds.) LVII

Change in the Philosophy of Work

(Condensed Version)

Ernst Ulrich von Weizsacker

Director, Institute for European Environmental Policy

Abstract Production contributes to the increase of ordered complexity. Quantita­tive growth in energy' or other resource consumption may, beyond certain thresholds, be unimportant, if not destructive to "production" in that sense. In certain cases, an equivalence can be stated between production and negative consumption. High efficiency in the use of energy and environmental resQurces is becoming an indicator of technological pro­gress.

High productivity leads to the need for redistributing work. Leisure work becomes more indicative of personalities than stupid professional work. Individual combinations of work elements (both paid and unpaid) rather than standardized professions will characterize people in the fu­ture.

Introduction

Production research ought to be con­cerned with the philosophy of work for two differ~nt reasons. First, there are the philosophical and economical ques­tions of production itself: what is production, what is added value, what is work? And second, therE;! is the question of what implications will the present transformation of industrial production have on work productivity, on employment and on the nature of work? I shall de­vote almost equal time to the two ques­tions.

What is production?

For a biologist it is hard not to think of biological production first. The creation of high-order molecules out of the primordial soup, the genesis of organisms out of those molecules, and the further evolution leading to organ­isms of an astonishing degree of sophi­stication and to highly complex ecologi­cal systems may be a paragon of produc­tion. Some lessons can be learned from the paragon. The flux of energy through the biosphere seems to have declined for geophysical reasons through the ages. Nevertheless, the degree of complexity (which may be the most obvious indicator of successful evolution) appears to have steadily increased. Hence, '''pro­duction" can be decoupled, up to a cer­tain limit, from the supply of energy (and matter). ,Lesson number two: if there is an oversupply of energy (think of volcano eruptions, lightning or man-made explosions) destruction rather

than production takes place. Similarly, if biological entities, e.g. cancer cells, viruses or pests are oversuccess­ful, the result is also destruction. Hence, production in the biosphere re~

quires mechanisms to limit success or "fitness".

Coming to economics, I should like to start again with energy. When you freeze, you will find heating most wel­come. When it's agreeably warm, you can do without heating. The use of energy for heating and, in a similar fashion, for other purposes, depends on your need. Economic production is generally dependent upon demand. To be sure, de­mand c~n be created, but there will al­ways be limits beyond which supply is oversupply.

Equivalence of production and negative consumption

Our ing most of this century, until the ear ly seventies, energy technology was the technology of the production and transformation of energy. Only after the oil pr ice shocks of' the seventies did the interest of engineers and indus­trialists shift to energy savings tech­nology. More and more it became appar­ent that in the energy field the best invested dollar by far was the dollar invested in energy savings. Energy savings were accorded ;Fe honorary label of an "energy source". Moreover, it appears that "energy efficiency", Le. the efficient use of energy in various production sectors, has advanced most in the technologically most advanced coun-

LVIII

tries 2 , thereby making energy efficiency an attractive indicator of technologi­cal progress, while not long ago energy consumption was used as an indicator of economic progress.

The technological achievement of decoup­ling economic growth from energy growth is as much a sign of progress as it apparently is in biological: evolution'. Economic production, therefore" may have more to do with the intelligent use of resources than with the overall increase in the supply of raw materials, inclu­ding energy. A change in the philosophy of production is quietly taking place, and I see it as a matter of cultural maturity fo'r a country to support and to accelerate this change.

The philosophy of work evidently depends on the philosophy of production. It may be noted that the aforementioned achievement of decoupling involved work trom various sides: from engineers, from managers and from consumers (who received their work remuneration by paying less for energy). An economic equivalence appears to exist between "productive work" and "negative consump­tion work". This does not hold only for "negative consumption work" on the side of the consumer, but also for intel­ligent energy and material savings work on the manufacturer's side.

One may go one step further: in some cases a renunciation of consumption may lead to higher satisfaction, even, in extreme cases, when you have to pay for negative consumption, such as for a fasting cure. Even fasting can be equi­valent to any other "work" contributing to your health.

It is not unusual to revolt against such enlarged notions. This is very under­standable considering the fact that during most of history, (and even today in most countries of the world), poverty has led people to striv~ for additional consumption and to consider "negative consumption work" as an unwanted exercise at best. However, as prosperity .replaces poverty and res'ource limi­tations become apparent, the enlarged notions of production and work need to be acknowledged. At least the notion of energy efficiency as an indicator of technological and perhaps economic pro­gress will have to be accepted.

Production at minimum loss' to the environment

Energy is but one of the factors of pro­duction. After the astonishing stagna­tion in energy production and consump­tion. attention is now shifting to other environmental parameters in which limi­tations have become visible.

The most alarming develop~ent, in my view, is the extinction of species.' Rough estimates by Thomas tovejoy in the famous Global 2000 report seem to sug­gest that nearly a thousand species are becoming extinct every week, perhaps three hundred or more during the time of this Conference. Admittedly, Lovejoy bases his estimates on unproven assump­tions on the overall number of existing species which he estimates far above the number of scientifically known species in the world. The irreversible loss of genetic material will in future cen­turies certainly be weighed immensely higher than the fire that destroyed the famous library of Alexandria in Egypt which contained most' of the treasures of classical literature.

Much of the loss of genetic diversity can be attributed to the loss of ecosy­stems, by air pollution, by the destruc­tion of tropical forests, by water pollution, including the oceans, and by the general spreading of civilization; hunting and fisfing account only for minimal effects. What appears to be needed is a mechanism as effective as the oil price increase, or more, to dis­courage industry and consumers from the exaggerated use of natural resources. In Japan, pollution has been made so ex­pensive for industry (partly through lawsuits victims have won against 'in­dustry) that industry was forced to ini­tiate a revolution of clean technolo­gies. Hence, what happened in the energy field in all industrialized coun­tries, has already h~pened with regard to pollution in Japan. Clean technolo­gies tfre being developed in all coun­tries , and they are introduced the more rapidly the more stringent the environ­mental regulations are. In analogy to the energy efficiency mentioned, an "environmental efficiency" could be established, denoting the efficiency with which economic values are 'created at a minimum loss to the environment. Environmental efficiency could easily become an indicator for technological progress and long-term economic success.

Both energy efficiency and environmental efficiency are important components of productivity in a world of limited re­sources. Usually, however, the term productivity is used only for capital or for human labor. Almost the entire literature on productivity deals only with those two tradi-tional production factors. It is time, so it seems, to add energy and environmental considera­tions to our understanding of produc­tivity.

Increase in productivity means economic rationalization. Typically, rationali­zation in the past meant to substitute the production factor work by technology and/or cheap energy or other resources. Binswanger· calls this rationalization investments type I, in order to contrast them with .rationalization investments type II, which would be investments to reduce emissions and resource consump­tion per production unit, ev.pn at the expense of higher labor costs·. He and other authors, chiefly of the Inter­national Institute 8foi Environment and Society in Berlin, favour a policy shifting rationalization investments from type I, to type II in order to achieve two objectives at the same time: more employment and a better environ­ment. In macro-economic considerations of such proposals the avoidance of societal losses play~ an important role. Wicke and Brunowsky use figures from the Federal Office for Employment which indicate that the fiscal costs. of every unemployed person in the Federal Repub­lic of Germany amount to 24.000 OM per year, which means that a programme offering employment to one million per­sons may cost the State up to 24 billion OM .per year and would still lead to gains in the public budget; in that cal­culation environmental considerations are yet omitted.

Productivity, work and leisure

Productivity increases have, in any case, led to a shrinking of the overall number of working hours, namely in as much as productivity gains were not used for higher production and consumption. Despite a considerable shortening of the average workday, still an increasing humber of persons have lost employment. A heated debate is going on in .many countries on a compulsory reduction of working hours for all, in order to re.,. lieve the unemployment situation.

As productivity grows faster than con­sumption demands (and as negative con-

LIX

sumption work substitutes some elements of production), the proportion of time spent on paid work is shrinking. The key societal question is now: "How should the shrinking cake be distri­buted?" Without going into the details of the controversy, my general proposi­tion would be that a very substantial redu.ction of the standard working hours should be agreed upon, e,g. dOf8 to 20, 30 or 35 working hours a week • Sub­stantial deviations upwards and down­wards should be allowed for groups of workers or individuals, and also a re­allocation of time (e.g. 40 hours work weekly, but 4 additional weeks of vaca­tion) should become negotiable for indi­viduals. Payments could be negotiated by the unions for both the standard time and deviations. That proposition might be the core of a compromise. that could be palatable to both the unions (fearing a loss of influence from other schemes of individualized work) and the em­ployers (fearing OSSification and rising labor costs from schematic work time re­ductions at constant weekly salaries).

By encouraging individuals to reflect on their priority between production work on the job, productive work at home and negative consumption work, the proposed model builds on insights won from the energy discussion above. This leads us to a final consideration in this paper on the philosophy of work.

A few hundred years ago when family names were introduced in Europe, people were easily described by their profes­Sional work as a taylor, a carpenter or a baker. Today, most people would strongly object to being named after their professions, such as taxidriver, telephone operator, or insurance sales­man. Most of the modern jobs allow'for no real identification and are .not sta­ble either. This is not to say that work has generally become insignificant, but the value attached to work has less to do with the contents of the profes­sional work. It has more to do with the earnings for one's living and thereby with enabling people to do a decent work in the time of "leisure".

Leisure, on the other hand, is no longer the period defined by non-work and characterized by exhaustion. Rather, .it becomes the center of people's identifi­cation. An· insurance salesman might find it less disturbing to be named a mountain.climber or a radio amateur. He might als·o try to establish a small com­pany in his spare time (according to "Financial Times" of 14th May 1985, more

than 300 such ~soft company model- com­panies weI"e succesfully launched in and aI"ound CambI" idge , Eng land in I"ecent yeaI"s, all of them beginning with spaI"e­time activities of theie foundeI"s); the insurance salesman could thereby change his work identity , using the ample spare time he has . The intention , however , of this reasoning, is not to challenge pre­sent family names but to indicate that "work at leisure- has to be taken much mOI"e seriously today .

In German , a tTrm coined by Chr i stine von Weizslicker in the mid- seventies, "Eigenarbeit- , has made its way into t he everyday language; it signifies the kind of WOrk that you can ~own· and charac­teristic . The idea is· that Eigenwork should not be "colonized" by the offi­cial economy; much coloni ~'tion has been diagnosed by Ivan lllich for much of

whiCh he then denote!'; '~i;~~:':.. lie rightly says that f a danger of work at home

being "bl"";" t o the dominant official economy; even eating and sleeping could be reduced to serving the purpose of regenerating the working capacity . The distinction between Eigenwork a nd shadow wo~k may not be easy to draw; it may , in many cases , be a matter of attitude r a ther than a matteI" of objective mea­suring .

If circumstances permit , people will be­come very creative in selecting and even tailoring individual combinations of work clements . Such patterns would en­compass elements for the necessary in­come, some barter activities , some un­paid social and SOCietal work and some family and leisure activities . Alvin Toffler, when advocating the "prosumer" (contraction of producer/con~~mer) had similaI" thoughts in his mind . It is time to develop a philosophy of work that accounts for the technological changes and their SOCietal implications .

REFERENCES

(1,

(2)

(3(

Meyer-Abich, Klaus (Ed.), Energie­einsparung als neue Energiequelle , (Hauser Verlag, MUnchen , 1979) .

Chandler, William U., Energy Pro­ductivity: Key to Environmental Protection and EconomiC Progress, Worldwa tch Paper 63 , worldwatch Institute, Wa!3hing t on 1985 . See also ChapteI" 7 in Lester Brown et a!. (Eds.), State of the World 1985 , Worldwatch Institute , Wash­ington , 1985 .

Lovejoy , Thomas, A Pr0.iection of

(4)

(S(

(6,

(7,

(8,

(0'

(10)

(11 )

( 12)

(13)

Species Extinction, in : The Glo­bal 2000 Report to the PreSident , (Penguin , HamondswoI"th , Essex, 198 2, p . 328- 331) .

Wolf, EdwaI"d C . , Conserving BiO­logical Diversity , in Lester Brown et a!. (Eds . ) e . c . , p. 124-146 .

Tsuru, Shigeto and Weidner, Hel­mut, Ein Modell fur uns : Die Er­folge der japanischen Umweltpoli­tik (Verlag Kiepenheuer , Witsch, KBln) .

Ott, Heinrich and Van den Akker, Frank (Eds . ) , Clean Technologies : Current status , prospects , orien­tations for research and develop­ment in the European Communities (Commission of the European Com­munities , 1983) .

Binswanger , Hans Chr. et al. , Wirtschaft und Umwelt- Instrumente einer Bkologievertr~glichen Um­weltpolltik , (Frankfurt , 1981) .

e.g . Leipert , Christian and Simonis , Udo Ernst, Arbeit und Umwelt , in : AuS Politik und Zeit­geschichte - Beilage zur Wochen­zeitschrift Oas Parlament, in the PI"eSS 1985 .

Wicke, Lutz and Brunowsky, Ralf­Dieter , Der 1jkoplan - Durch Um­weltschutz zum neuen Wirtschafts ­wunder, (P iper , Munchen, 1984) .

This relates to but Should not be mixed up with proposals by "green ~green· thinkeI"s who propose -20 hours work/week, at proportional income reductions , plus 1000 OM monthly, guaranteed minimum in­come" Opielka , Michael, 1jkolo­gische Sozialpolitik, in: Opielka M. (Ed . ) , Die Bkosoziale Frage Alternativen ZUllI Sozialstaat (Fischer Taschenbuch 1985).

see e . g . von Weizs~cker , ChriS ­tine and Ernst Ulrich , Recht auf Eigenarbeit statt · Pflicht ZUllI Wachstum, Scheidewege 9, p. 221 -234 , 1979 .

Illich , Ivan , Schattenarbeit oder vernakul~re T~tigkeiten .

Zur Kolonisierung des i nformellen Sektors , in : Technologie und Politik, 15 (Rowohlt Taschenbuch , Re l nbek, 1980) .

Toffler , Alvin , The Third Wave, (w . Collins, London , 1980) .

Toward the Factory a/the Future H.-/. Bullinger, H. J. Warnecke (eds.) LXI

HUMAN ASPECTS IN INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (ICOMS)

Gavrlel Salvendy

School of Industrial Engineering Purdue University

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 USA

ABSTRACT

The technological evolution which contributed to the early development of Integrated computerized manufacturing systems (ICOMS) Is presented and the significance and same characteristics of USA manufacturing are Illustrated. The human aspects In the design and use of manufacturing systems are outlined. Some solutions to human Issues In ICOMS are mentioned.

INTRODUCTION

Integrated computerized manufacturing systems (ICOMS) Include a variety of dllferent components depending on the speCific purpose of the system. Generally speaking, ICOMS have two main components: computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). The common Ceatures of both are fiexlbllIty In design and manufacturing through software support.

The features of a CAD system are computer hardware and software with hardware Interface methods to Interact with the display of the computer terminal. CAM typically consists of NC machines, robots and transfer lines all of which can be· controlled by a central computer. The technological evolution which contributed to the early development of ICOMS Is presented In Table 1.

The paper will first review the relevant statistics which may Impact on the development and elfectlve utilization of ICOMS, then discuss the role oC humans In such systems and how such systems can be designed and operated by elfectlve Integration of good human factors principles and practices.

SIGNIFICANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF USA MANUFACTURING

Less than one-quarter of the total USA labor force Is employed as blue collar workers In manufacturing while the majority of the labor force Is employed In clerical, professional and service work (Table 2). Average earning potentials for employees In manufacturing are stili twice as high as In retail Industries (Table 3).

The contributions to the USA economy of the dllferent Industry groups are presented In Table 4. It reveals that continuous process Industry generates over 40 percent of total value added dollars and discrete part manufacturing contributes over 55 percent.

Table 5 reveals that larger manufacturing establishments have higher output per man-hours than smaller establishments. This Is presumably because larger establishments are more mechanized and automated than smaller ones. For example establishments with less than 100 people employ 25.3 percent of total manufacturing employees but contribute only 20.5 percent to the total manufacturing output whereas the manufacturing establishment of over 1000 people employ 27.5 percent of. total labor force but makes a 34.2 percent value added contribution. Thus the value added contributions per employee Is 48 percent higher for larger manufacturing establishments (with over 1000 employees) than tor smaller ones (under 100 employees). "

The notion that larger p·roductlon facilities are associated with Increased use of mechanized technology and hence Increased productivity Is well documented In the farming Industry where In the USA In 1950 the average farm size was 220 acres and the farm population was 23 million whereas In 1985 the average farm size Is 440 acres and the farm population Is only 5 million. .

Because of the need for high capital Investment, specialized technical know-how and certain characteristics of production volume mix hence the Introduction and use of computerized high technology Is generally the province of the larger manufacturing cooperations. Thus If computerized manufacturing and the resulting productivity and product quality to be achieved In Industrial SOCieties than the size of the smaller manufacturing operations would have to be Increased Similarly to the re-structurlng of farm sizes In the United States.

Table 6 Illustrates that the proportional Investments In structure and equipment for manufacturing Industries remained about the same for the 50 year period from 1880 to 1930 whereas this ratio changed drastically, at an accelerated rate, during the next 50 years (from 1930 to 1980) such that In 1980 the cost

LXII

Table 1. History ot some ot the early Inventions which Influenced the development ot manufacturing technologies

Invention Date Inventor Nation Micrometer 1636 Gascoigne English AIr pump 1650 Guerlcke Germany Electric battery 1800 Yalta Italian Electroplating 1805 Brugrratelll Italian Electromagnet 1824 Sturgeon English Magnet, electro 1828 Henry USA Rubber, vulcanized 1838 Goodyear USA Lathe, Turret 1845 Fitch USA Burner gas 1855 Bunsen German Steel 1856 Bessemer English AIr brake 1868 Westinghouse USA Welding, electric 1877 Thomson USA Cathode ray tube 1878 Crookes English E)lglne, automobile 1879 Benz German Transformer, AC 1885 Stanley USA Motor, AC 1892 TESLA USA Photoelectric cell 1895 Elster German Diesel engine 1895 Diesel German Assembly line 1913 Ford USA Steel, stainless 1916 Brearly English Condenser microphone (telephone) 192O Wente USA Transfer line 1922 Smith USA Television, Icorroscope 1923 Zworykln USA Clrclut breaker 1925 Hilliard USA Coaxial cable system 1929 Atren, Espensched USA Computer, automatic sequence 1939 Alisen et.al. USA Electron spectrometer 1944 Deutsch, Elliot, Evans USA Transistor 1947 Strockley, Brattain, Bardeen USA Numerical control (NC) machine 1954 Parsons USA

Table 2: Employment In the United States (1982 Statistics)

Total OccuDatlon (In millions) Clerical 18 Professional and technical 17 Service workers, except private household 13 Craft 12 Managers and administrators 12 Operations, except transportation 9 Sales 7 Laborers, except farms 5 Transportation equipment operators 3 Farm managers and laborers 3 Private household 1

Total 100

Table 3: Average Earnings In Select USA Industries

1985* 1985* Earnings Employment

Industrv fin USA dollars) fin millions) Manufacturing 20,640 26 Service 14,040 14 Retail 10,233 4

* Pro.lected from 1982 statistiCS.

LXIII

Table 4: Percentage of Value Added (lgSl data)

Industrv GrouP % Value Added* Machinery, excluding electrical 13.3 Transportation equipment g.g Chemical g.6 Food g.6 Electrical and electronic equip. g.5 Fabricated metal products 7.4 Primary metal Industries 5.g Printing and publishing 5.g Paper 3.g Instruments 3.S Petroleum 3.2 Apparel 3.1 Rubber and plastics products 3.1 Stone, clay and glass products 3.0 Textile 2.3 Lumber 2.0 Miscellaneous manufacturers 1.7 Furniture 1.5 Tobacco O.S Leather 0.6 * Because of rounding error, total

does not exactly add to 100%.

Table 5: Manufactures-Summary, By Employee Size-Class (1977 Statistics)

Percent Distribution All

Item establishments Under 20 2(}'99 1O(}'249 25(}'999 1,000 and over . 1

Establishments (1,000) 351 67.5 22.3 6.1 3.4 .6

Employees1 (1,000) lS,515 6.5 lS.8 18.0 29.1 27.5

Payroll1 (mil. dol.) 242,032 5.7 16.0 15.6 27.4 35.4

Value added (mil. dol.) 585,166 5.1 15.4 15.8 29.5 34.2

Shipments2 (mil. dol.) 1,358,526 2.2 15.6 16.2 29.8 33.6

1 Excludes administrative offices and auxiliary units.

2 Individual size-class data do not add to total because they were derived from separate tabulations.

Table 6: Index for Manufacturing Industries of Purchases of Structures and Equipment In the United States (lSS0=100)

Year Structure Equipment lSS0 100 100 1900 200 200 1920 1,400 1,100 1930 SOO gOO 1940 700 1,300 1950 1,500 4,000 1960 2,SOO 7,400 1970 5,700 16,600 19S0 11,500 4g,SOO

LXIV

Invested In equipment was 500 greater than 100 years earlier whereas the Investment In structure for the same time period was only 115 times higher.

The new Inventions (Table I), the rapid accelerated Investment In manufacturing equipment (Table 6) and the Increased technological Innovations (such as the Increased USA patents from 60,000 In 1983 to 71,830 In fiscal year 1984) have changed drastically the workplace In manufacturing Industries. This resulted In a situation In the USA that· In 1981, 13.5 million production" workers represented 67 percent of all manufacturing employees. These workers, an average per worker, had a $62,000 value added which resulted In a 3.95 value added per dollar of worker's wages. This value Increased by 50 percent In 30 years. In 1981 the assets In manufacturing Industries per employee were $31,000. During this period the utilization of manufacturing capabilities varied from 70 to 86 percent. High percentage utilization could have further elevated the value added dollar per worker.

When technology Is Implemented It Is vital that It be done effectively (Table 7) since It Is not the technology per say but the effective utilization of It which contributes to raising Industrial productivity, quality of working life and standard of living.

Table 7: Criteria for Evaluating Effective Practices of New Manufacturing Technologies

1. Technical

1.1 Utilization of capabilities 1.2 Robustness and reliability 1.3 Flexibility and adaptability 1.4 Compatablllty with other technologies

2. Economic

2.1 Return on Investment 2.2 Quality 2.3 Cost reduction 2.4 Service enhancement

3. Soclar

3.1 Human development 3.2 Dignity 3.3 Motivation 3.4 Labor - management relations 3.5 Utilization of capabilities

HUMAN ASPECTS IN THE DESIGN AND USE OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Before one transfers speCific human aspects assOCiated with the design and use of computerized manufacturing systems from one nation or culture to

another we have to consider these differences very carefully. Some of the Items to· consider In these situations have been outline and discussed In Chapanls (1975). For example, a simple statistical comparison between the Federal Republic of Germany and the U.S.A. (Table 8) reveal that the Federal Republic of Germany has ten times higher population density and read twice as many newspapers per Inhabitant than the U.S.A. Whereas the U.S.A. has per unhabltant six times more radios, two times more televisions, twice more telephones and 60 percent higher birth rate than In the Federal Republic of Germany. These variables may Impact "the way jobs are organized and on the supply of future labor force.

Table 8: Some Comparative 1Q82 Statistics Between the U.S.A. and the Federal Republic of Germany

Fed. Rep. Item Considered of Germany USA Population density (per sq. miles) 642 64 Per capital income (in USA $) 11,142 11,107 Newspapers (per 1,000 pop.) 584 27Q Telephones (per 100 pop.) 36 81 Radios (per 100 pop.) 34 203 Television (per 100 pop.) 32 60 Life expectancy at birth

Male 67.2 70.8 Female 73.4 78.2

Birth (per 1,000 pop.) 10 16 lnfan t mortality 13.5 11.2

Perhaps the most Significant contributions to ICOMS Is the microelectronics technology. An example of two of these devices are Illustrated In Figure 1. But It Is the Integration of computers and communications a term COined by Kojl Kobayashi, Chairman of the Board and Chief Ex.ecutlve Officer of NEC Corporation which Is the key tool· to the· development and operation of the factory of the future. Figure 2 Illustrates the developments In computers and communications and on how they are Interrelated to form the strategy of Integrating computers and communications.

In a study conducted by 25 people In 12 nations on automation and work design (Butera and Thurman, 1984) for the International· Labour Office documentation Is presented on case studies which Illustrate the Impact of automation on work content, organizational design and quality of working life. Out of the 19 case studies presented In both process and desereate part manufacturing Industries In eight cases the Introduction of automation resulted In de-skilling of many workers and changing the task content to strlcly monitoring. In eight of the case" studies Introduction of automation Increased the demand for skilled work and provided a reacher job content. In three of the case studies job content did not change marketly with the Introduction of automation.

The main Issues emerging from the Implementation and utilization of computerized technology are discussed by OTA (1984) and summarized In Table 9.

LXV

Figure 1: lIIustrates the size of the two large scale Integrated circuits abbrevi­ated VLSls shown with a quarter to give an Idea of size. On the right Is a 256 klloblte dynamic random access memory device con­taining about 600,000 transistors and capacitors. On the left Is a 16-blt microprocessor (courtesy of NEC Corporation, reproduced by permission from Kobayashi, 1QS5).

The summary table reveals that the Items presented In It are generic and represent critical Issues also In non-computerized manufacturing. It thus appears that the generic human Issues In CAD/CAM are the same as In non-computerized manufacturing setting but the solutions to these Issues In CAD/CAM environment appear dllIerent. This dllIerence Is due to changes In human skills levels (Table 10), cognitive processes required or deslngers In CAD systems (Table 11) and the social Implications of robot dllIuslon (Table 12 and FIgure 3) and supervisory control (Table 13) together with significant Increases In capItal control under human supervision In CAD / CAM systems.

SOLUTIONS TO HUMAN ISSUES IN INTEGRAT­ED COMPUTERIZED MANUFACTURING SYS­TEMS

Before solutions can be provided to human Issues In ICAM, first a methodology has to be developed and the system analyzed to determine the relative capabilities and limitations or humans and machines (Including computers) In order to derive an allocation function between the two. Such analysis for ICAM systems have been carried out by Nor, Knight and Salvendy (1QSO) ror robotics systems; by Kamall, Moodie and Salvendy (1QS2) for combining humans In fixed and fiexlble automation; by Barfield, Hwang, Chang and Salvendy (1QS4) Cor fiexlble manufacturing systems and by Barfield,. Bailey and Salvendy (1QS5) for computer aided design (CAD) systems.

Next, expert knowledge (In specific human activity domain) Is extracted from the human expert. Based on this Information and knowledge, an expert system Is constructed In order to derive a more elIectlve system design.

Based on the above Information, Table 14 summarizes some of the key human Issues and solutions In the design and operation of ICAM.

LXVI

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LXVIII

Table 0: Summary of Overall Thm .. EmeaInr froID OTA" CaM Sludl .. of CoIDp..:.MI CotItldeffi! Leadlnr Uteri cI CAD/CAM TMbllOloQ (from OTA. 1084)

~ IA KIll trwbTmrpy IWI «(IIPllma] Il.I:lIrJ.II.IL 'l'bon WN a \.tlldtllt)' \0

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lelldtod. to I"IKI\II.., ~ KIn..

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to "pall'" Ill. 111..,1>.10 .. to wbleb UM:,. "lftJ'e _ped.

IIl.UUKlI. IDltrd.Mpd.n" Tb. IlllroducCJoo 01 PA b!'OUChl aboul a lJ'eak. IDt.o:l'depndmn _r produeUoa worttrs, lJ'eatoer toIlabonlloa ........ , malll",naaee worterl, IJId III. neeo.lly for 1II ... ued eOOPt.atJoo belween prodUCUOII IIId malnl<:nanc. worhrl.

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attoemPI on Ibe plll1. of mlJlactm.1I11O .,.Iabllsb an even ftow of Pan. IblOUrh lb. pllJlllUld OllllformatloA Ihrouch lb.. (omp....,.

awcm. dpwp!!mc 8ee..- cI lb. fOmp\exl1y cI procrammal>Je IIfAOIDII &lid U..I. blCb I.,.~I of 11I!.t11""atloa. tb. etreell of prubl~D11 wi", lUI,. ullreUllb1e elellltlll cI U>e II)"lltm "'nd too IP"..:!. aft'eellnr lb. wort pace of produeUoo worbf'l and PIIWnC 1J'e'" praollAl on u.o.e Involved III \.he IQIJ.aIt ..... c .... \.he I)'WIotID. I)ooQUme_ d ........ willi bel", • .,..um deli.rD IUId IDOft J'ellabl. e<>"'_tlllI.

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TabJ~ 10; Levels 0( Human SkHbt In Automated Manufacturin&" (from Sh .. lI, ChaD&" alld Sal vend ,., I QS8)

elanA.Iu: lIU1 Q.nplzatlgp.ak.ll.ll

• D«lde wh ich product4 should be maDllfactll~ and how milch

• Decide on product p riorities · Allocate bUman and mau:rla l re.c>u r<: .. • "Wbtn: to automate • Coordlll .. te prodllctlon o perallon. buwun

racllltl .. • CoordlDale Illform.tlon t'tom lupe rvbor,.

controllers

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Inteml. automated m .. U r!al b&lldlilll &lid otber lublyateml

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• Mllp teDI.IICe operltors • Huma.n NC operators • HumlUl-robot tuh • Itum lUl IIlI!M:mbly OPtrlto ..

Table 11: Cognitive Process Required of Designer (from Barfield, Chang and Salvendy, tOS8)

1. Elimination of hidden lines or hidden surfaces: Lines or portions of lines and surfaces which nor­mally would be behind objects are not shown. However, perspective wire-frame drawings of objects often do not provide sumclent depth cues to eliminate possible ambiguities (e.g., the Necker Cube illustration, see also Figure to).

2. Perspective: Perspective can help distinguish the am blguous Interpretations of wire-frame drawings. When the designer knows that the projected objects have many parallel lines, perspective con~ veys depth because the parallel lines seem to con­verge at their vanishing pOints.

3. KInetic depth eIJect: This technique for displaying depth relies on the motion of the object relative to the Vlewer·s position. A very revealing motion Is rotation about a vertical axes: lines close to the Viewer move more rapidly than those far away; lines on opposite sides of the rotating axis appear to move In opposite directions (Foley and Van Dam, tOS4).

4. Intenslty cues: This method for showing depth Involves modulating the Intensity of the lines: lines which are far away will appear fainter than those nearer the CAD-user. Foley and Van Dam (t084) point out that as the complexity of the displayed Image Increases, the elJectlveness of this depth technique decreases.

5. Depth clipping: Another depth cue can be provided to the CAD-user by a technique called "depth clip­ping". The back clipping plane (Z~axes) Is placed to cut through the object being displayed. By varying the back clipping plane the user can dynamically display depth Information.

8. Artificial texturing: Texture Is an Important sur­face characteristic which provides a great deal of Information about the nature of a surface Includ­Ing depth Information. The microstructure of a surface provides a somewhat regular pattern for visualization. The changes In this pattern, or tex­ture gradient, give strong cues regarding the orien­tation and depth of a surface (Schweltzer,-toS3). The three mali!. characteristics of texture which provide perceptual Information are: size, shape, and density. Changes In these components due to standard perspective and projective transforma­tions provide knowledge about surface depth and changes In orientation of the surface.

LXIX

Table 12: Social impacts or robot diffusion (~odifled from Hasegawa, 1982).

Positive Imnacts Nesrative Imnacts 1. Promotion of worker's 1. Unemployment problems

welfare 2. Improvement of 2. Elimination of pride in

productivity old skills 3. Increase in safety of 3. Shortage of engineers

workers and newly trained skilled workers

4. Release of workers from 4. Production capacity time restrictions non proportional to the

size of the labor force 5. Ease in maintaining 5. Decrease in flow of labor

quality standard force from under-developed to developed countries

6. Ease of production 6. Safety and psychological scheduling problems of robot

interaction with human 7. Creation of new high- 7. Great movement of labor

level jobs population from the second to the third sector of Industry

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Table 13: Long Term Social Implications of Super­visory Control (from Sheridan, lQ86)

1. Unemployment. This Is the factor most often considered. More supervisory control means more effiCiency, less direct control, fewer jobs.

2. Desoclallzatlon. Though cockpits and control rooms now require 2-3 person teams, the trend Is toward fewer people per team, and eventually one person will be adequate In most Installations. Thus cognitive Interaction with computers will replace that with other people. As supervisory control systems are Interconnected the computer will mediate more and more Interpersonal contact.

3. Remoteness!J:Qm ~ Product. Supervisory control removes people from hands-on Interaction with the workpiece or other product. They become not only separated In space but also desynchronlzed In time. Their functions or actions no longer correspond to how the product Itself Is being handled or processed mechanically.

4. Deskllling. Skilled workers "promoted" to supervisory controller may resent the transition because of fear that when and If called upon to take over and do the job manually they may not be able to. They may also feel loss of professional Identity built up over an entire working life.

5. Intimidation ~ 12 ll!gljfi ~ Supervisory control will encourage larger aggregations of equipment, higher speeds, greater complexity, higher cost of capital, and probably greater economic risk Ir something goes wrong and the supervisor doesn't take the appropriate corrective action.

6. Discomfort In ~ assumption 2! ~ The human supervisor will be forced to assume more and more ultimate responslblllty. Depending upon one's personality this could lead to Insensitivity to detail, anxiety about being up to the job requirements, or arrog;ance.

7. Technological IIllteracy. Supervisory controllers may lack the technological understanding or how the computer does what It does. They may come to resent this and resent the elite class who do understand.

Table 13: (Continued)

8. Mystification.· Human supervisors of computer­based syst.ems could become mystified, superstitious about the power of the computer, even seeing It as a kind of magic or "big brother" authority figure.

Q. ~ 2! llQ! ~ productive. Though the efficiency and mechanical productivity of a new supervisory control system may far exceed that of an earlier manually controlled system which a given person has experienced, that person may come to feel no longer productive as a human being.

10. Eventual Abandonment 2! Responslblllty. As a result of the factors described above supervisors may eventually feel they are no longer responsible for what happens; the computers are.

LXXI

Table 14: Some of the key human Issues and solutiOns l.n the design and operation of ICAM

Variable Key Considered Issues Some Solutions

Job Security Use of IeAM .wlll ICAM must be effectively Implemented. This would result In Increased lead to Increased productivity which would lead to unemployment decreased hours of work. The weekly hours of work

In American Industq has not changed for the past 40 years - a decrease Is now eminent.

Skills and Decrease The Implementation of ICAM ls sumclently slow to Training conventional skills allow the utlllzation of all trained personnel In

utlllzation and conventional manufacturing jobs. Analytical training Increase training methods such as proposed by Salvendy and Seymour needs In new skllls. (1973) will have to be developed and utilized for each

Situation - especially for maintenance, troubleshooting, and for training In technological literacy.

Stress ICAM Increases (1) Provide Immediate performance feedback to workers stress. reduce stress (Knight and·Salvendy, 1980).

(2) Allocate tasks to the operator according to the Inverted 'U' shape concept. Eliminate strlckly monitoring tasks and extremely high mental load tasks (Hwang and Salvendy, 1985). (3) Increase autonomy and worker participation (Karasek, 1979).

Safety Eliminates old (1) Properly designed VDT terminals which have been conventional effectively Incorporated In job designs are safe to use hazards and creates and create no. health problems. Improperly designed new safety and VDT's and jobs do effect worker's safety and health. health problems Hence human-factors speCialists should be utilized to especially with the effectively design VDT based jobs. Introduction of (2) Safety Issues with robots arise mainly during computer visual repair and maintenance and sometimes when the display terminals operator works adjacent to robots. From a (VDT) and robotics humanized work environment humans should never systems. work adjacent to robots. When effective sottwares are

designed and when the operators are trained tor tollow rigid safety procedures than the probability of human-robot accidents occurring Is very low.

SOCial The use of VDT's These Issues cannot be tully resolved. However. social Isolation prevents social Interactions can be made through electronics

Interactions and communications. In order to overcome the physical physically Immobility assoCiated with the workplace more constrains the frequent rest pauses need to be provided to the operator to the workers. Part of the break period may be used for workDlace location. muscle relaxation and Dart for social Interactions.

LXXII

REFERENCES

(1) Barfield, W., Bailey, M. and Salvendy, G., The Role of the Human In CAD Systems, Unpublished report, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University University, (1985).

(2) Barfield, W., Jr., Chang, T.C. and Salvendy, G., Technical arid Human Aspects of Computer­Aided Design (CAD), In Salvendy, G. (ed.), Handbook of Human Factors (John Wiley & Sons, NY, scheduled for 1986 publication).

(3) Butera, F. and Thurman, J.E. (Editors), Automation and Work Design, (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1984).

(4) Chapanls, A., (ed.), Ethnic Variables In Human Factors Engineering (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(10)

Hasegawa, Y., How Robots Have Been Introduced Into Japanese Society, Presented at the Micro-Electronics International Symposium, Osaka, Japan (7-19 August 1982). Hwang, S.L. and Salvendy, G., Human SuperVisory Control In FleXible Manufacturing Systems: Allocation of Functions and System Size, Unpublished report, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University (1985). Hwang, S.L., Barfield, W., Chang, T.C. and Salvendy, G., The Role of the Human In the Operation and Control of Flexible Manufacturing Systems, International Journal of Production Research 22, 5, (1984) 841-856. Kamall, J., Moodie, C.L. and Salvendy, G., A Framework for Integrated Assembly Systems: Humans, Automation and Robots, International Journal of Production Research 20, 4 (1982) 431-448. Karasek, R.A., Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign, Administrative Science Quarterly 24 (1979) 285-308. Knight, J.L. and Salvendy, G., Effects of Task Feedback and Stringency of External-Pacing on Mental Load and Performance, Ergonomics 24, 10 (1981) 757-764.

(11) Kobayachl, K., Man and 'C&C' -- NEC·s Corporate Strategy presented at the Fifth Annual Humanities-Engineering Lecture, Purdue

University, West Lafayette, Indiana, (11 April 1985).

(12) Nof, S.Y., Knight, J.L. and Salvendy, G., Effective Utilization of Industrial Robots: A Job and Skills Analysis Approach, AIlE Transactions 12, 3 (1980) 216-225. Translated Into Japanese and reprlnt,ed In IE Review 22, 3 (1981) 100-109.

(13) OTA,' Computerized Manufacturing Automation: Employment, Education and the Workplace, (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-CIT-235, Washington, D.C., April 1984).

(14) Salvendy, G. and Seymour, W.D., Prediction and Development of Industrial Work Performance (John Wiley & Sons, ,NY, 1973).

(15) Sharlt, J., Chang, T.C. and Salvendy, G., Technical and Human Aspects of Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), In Salvendy, G. (ed.), Handbook of Human Factors (John Wiley & Sons, NY, scheduled for 1986 publication).

(16) Sheridan, T.B., Supervisory Control, In Salvendy, G. (ed)., Handbook of Human Factors (John Wiley & Sons, NY, scheduled for 1986 pul;>lIcatlon).