Notes for chapter 20-22 Chapter 20- The Americas and society and culture in the west Latin America in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries The Wars for Independence -creole elites- descendants of Europeans who became permanent inhabitants of Latin America Nationalistic Revolts in Latin America -first revolt was actually a successful slave rebellion -Toussaint L’Ouverture (1746- 1803) led a revolt of more than 100,000 black slaves and seized control of all of Hispaniola -1810, Mexico experienced a revolt, fueled initially by the desire of the creole elites to overthrow the rule of the peninsulars -Indians and mestizos in Mexico’s revolt against Spanish -Jos_e de San Martı’n (1778-1850) of Argentina and Simo’n Bolı’var (1783--1830) of Venezuela, leaders of the independence movement -Bolı’var liberating northern South America from the Spanish -San Martı’n was concentrating his efforts on the southern part of the continent because he believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any nation was to be free Independence and the Monroe Doctrine -British proposed joint action with the United States against European interference in Latin America -President James Monroe acted alone in 1823, guaranteeing the independence of the new Latin American nations and warning against any further European intervention in the Americas under Monroe Doctrine The Difficulties of Nation Building -wars for independence had themselves resulted in a staggering loss of population, property, and livestock Political Difficulties -new nations of Latin America established republican governments, but they had had no experience in ruling themselves -due to the insecurities prevalent after independence, strong leaders known as caudillos came to power -supported the elites, consisted of autocrats who controlled and often abused state revenues, centralized power, and kept the new national states together -modernizers who built roads and canals, ports, and schools Political Change in Latin America -United States became the chief foreign investor in Latin America

The North American Neighbors: The United States and Canada The Growth of the United States -John Marshall made the Supreme Court into an important national institution by asserting the right of the Court to overrule an act of Congress if the Court found it to be in violation of the Constitution -election of Andrew Jackson (1767--1845) as president in 1828 opened era of mass democracy Slavery and the Coming of War -The cotton economy and social structure of the South were based on the exploitation of enslaved black Africans and their descendants -cotton economy depended on plantation-based slavery, and the South was determined to maintain them. In the North, many people feared the spread of slavery into western territories. - fighting erupted between North and South. The Civil War (1861--1865) -More than 600,000 soldiers died, either in battle or from deadly infectious diseases spawned by filthy camp conditions -Union states of the North mobilized their superior assets and gradually wore down the Confederate forces of the South - war against slavery - 1863, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, declaring most of the nation’s slaves ‘‘forever free’’ -became a nation again The Rise of the United States - Slavery was formally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments extended citizenship to blacks and gave black men the right to vote - Radical Reconstruction in the early 1870s tried to create a new South based on the principle of the equality of black and white people -militia organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, used violence to discourage blacks from voting. Prosperity and Progressivism -1860 and 1914, the United States made the shift from an agrarian to a mighty industrial nation -United States had become the world’s richest nation and greatest industrial power -Progressive Era after 1900, reform swept the United States. State governments enacted laws that governed hours, wages, and working conditions, especially for women and children -Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act provided for a limited degree of federal regulation of industrial practices The Making of Canada

-Under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Canada---or New France, as it was called---passed into the hands of the British. - 1867, Parliament established the Dominion of Canada, with its own constitution. Canada now possessed a parliamentary system and ruled itself, although foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British government The Emergence of Mass Society -mass society- was emerging in Europe, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century as a result of rapid economic and social changes -lower classes, mass society brought voting rights, an improved standard of living, and access to education The New Urban Environment -urban populations grew faster than the general population primarily because of the vast migration from rural areas to cities -city governments set up boards of health to improve the quality of housing and instituted regulations requiring all new buildings to have running water and internal drainage systems -governments were stepping into areas of activity that they would not have touched earlier The Social Structure of Mass Society -between lower middle class and lower class were white-collar workers who were the product of the Second Industrial Revolution. They were the salespeople, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, and secretaries. The Movement for Women’s Rights -Suffragists- the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state -Emmeline Pankhurst (1858--1928) and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle- and upper-class women Education in an Age of Mass Society -began to offer at least primary education to both boys and girls between the ages of six and twelve -better training of teachers by establishing teacher-training schools -mass education- many European states were providing state-financed primary schools, salaried and trained teachers, and free, compulsory elementary education Cultural Life: Romanticism and Realism in the Western World -end of the eighteenth century, a new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged to challenge the ideas of the Enlightenment The Characteristics of Romanticism

-stressing the importance of feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing -revived medieval Gothic architecture and left European countrysides adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with grandiose neo-Gothic cathedrals, city halls, and parliamentary buildings A New Age of Science -Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) discovered the germ theory of disease, which had enormous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices. -Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) in the 1860s classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law -popularity of scientific and technological achievement produced a widespread acceptance of the scientific method as the only path to objective truth and objective reality -nineteenth century was an age of increasing secularization, evident in the belief that truth was to be found in the concrete material existence of human beings -Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The basic idea of this book was that all plants and animals had each evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life, a principle known as organic evolution -some organisms were more adaptable to the environment than others, a process that Darwin called natural selection. Realism in Literature and Art -Realism was first employed in 1850 to describe a new style of painting and soon spread to literature. Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural Developments A New Physics -relativity theory time and space disappear together with the things Sigmund Freud and the Emergence of Psychoanalysis -Freud devised a method, known as psychoanalysis, by which a psychotherapist and patient could probe deeply into the memory in order to retrace the chain of repression all the way back to its childhood origins - By making the conscious mind aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient’s psychic conflict was resolved. The Impact of Darwin: Social Darwinism and Racism -Charles Darwin’s principle of organic evolution was applied to the social order as social Darwinism, the belief that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment

Chapter 21- High Tide of Imperialism The Spread of Colonial Rule The Motives -primary motives behind the Western expansion were economic -reason for this change was the Industrial Revolution -industrializing countries in the West needed vital raw materials that were not available at home, as well as a reliable market for the goods produced in their factories -imperialism- efforts of capitalist states in the West to seize markets, cheap raw materials, and lucrative avenues for investment in the countries beyond Western civilization -colonies brought tangible benefits in the world of balance-of-power politics as well as economic profits, and many nations became involved in the pursuit of colonies as much to gain advantage over their rivals as to acquire territory for its own sake -colonialism had a moral purpose -->to promote Christianity or to build a better world The Tactics -Western presence in Asia and Africa had been limited to controlling the regional trade network and establishing a few footholds where the foreigners could carry on trade and missionary activity -After 1800, the demands of industrialization in Europe created a new set of dynamics -Maintaining access to industrial raw materials such as oil and rubber and setting up reliable markets for European manufactured products required more extensive control over colonial territories -colonial powers sought to solidify their hold over their territories to protect them from attack by their rivals The Colonial System -colonial powers primary objective was to exploit the natural resources of the subject areas and to open up markets for manufactured goods and capital investment from the mother country -indirect rule- goal could be realized in cooperation with local political elites, whose loyalty could be earned, or purchased, by economic rewards or by confirming them in their positions of authority and status in a new colonial setting -policy of indirect rule was not feasible because local leaders refused to cooperate with their colonial masters or even actively resisted the foreign conquest -local authorities were willing to collaborate with the imperialist powers, indirect rule was more common -Some of these variations can be traced to political or social differences among the colonial powers themselves The Philosophy of Colonialism -‘‘might makes right’’ pseudoscientific validity from the concept of social Darwinism, which maintained that only societies that moved aggressively to adapt to changing circumstances would survive and prosper in a world governed by the Darwinian law of ‘‘survival of the fittest.’’

-colonialism was originally an ‘‘act of force’’ undertaken for commercial profit Assimilation or Association? -French, who were most inclined to philosophize about the problem, adopted the terms assimilation (which implied an effort to transform colonial societies in the Western image) and association (implying collaboration with local elites while leaving local traditions alone) -British refused to entertain the possibility of assimilation and treated their subject peoples as culturally and racially distinct India Under the British Raj Colonial Reforms -By the early nineteenth century, British control had been consolidated and led to a relatively honest and efficient government that in many respects operated to the benefit of the average Indian -heightened attention given to education --> new school system was established to train the children of Indian elites, the British civil service examination was introduced and instruction of young girls expanded -British rule also brought an end to some of the more inhumane aspects of Indian tradition -attempted to put an end to the endemic brigandage (known as thuggee) that had plagued travelers in India The Costs of Colonialism -Indian people paid a high price for the peace and stability brought by the British raj (from the Indian raja, or prince) -most flagrant cost was economic -introduction of British textiles put thousands of Bengali women out of work and severely damaged the local textile industry -local gentry increased taxes and force the less fortunate peasants to become tenants or lose their land entirely -lack of local capital and the advantages given to British imports prevented the emergence of other vital new commercial and manufacturing operations Colonial Regimes in Southeast Asia ‘‘Opportunity in the Orient’’: The Colonial Takeover in Southeast Asia -process began after the Napoleonic wars, when the British, by agreement with the Dutch, abandoned their claims to territorial possessions in the East Indies in return for a free hand in the Malay peninsula -Singapore became a major stopping point for traffic en route to and from China and other commercial centers in the region The Nature of Colonial Rule

-Southeast Asia, economic profit was the immediate and primary aim of colonial enterprise -colonial powers tried wherever possible to work with local elites to facilitate the exploitation of natural resources Administration and Education -Indirect rule, however convenient and inexpensive, was not always feasible -slow to adopt educational reforms -introduction of Western education was one of the justifications of colonialism, colonial officials soon discovered that educating native elites could backfire Economic Development -Colonial powers were equally reluctant to take up the ‘‘white man’s burden’’ in the area of economic development -primary goals were to secure a source of cheap raw materials and to maintain markets for manufactured goods -colonial policy concentrated on the export of raw materials -In some Southeast Asian colonial societies, a measure of industrial development did take place to meet the needs of the European population and local elites Colonialism and the Countryside -vast majority of people in the colonial societies continued to farm the land -plantation owners kept the wages of their workers at poverty level -Many plantation workers were ‘‘shanghaied’’ (the English term originated from the practice of recruiting laborers, often from the docks and streets of Shanghai, by unscrupulous means such as the use of force, alcohol, or drugs) to work on plantations, where conditions were often so inhumane that thousands died -population in general increased due to improved sanitation and medical treatment -rural areas could no longer support the growing populations, and many young people fled to the cities to seek jobs in factories or shops Empire Building in Africa The Growing European Presence in West Africa -slave trade itself was in a state of decline because of growing sense of outrage among humanitarians in several European countries over the purchase, sale, and exploitation of human beings -growing European presence in West Africa led to the emergence of a new class of Africans educated in Western culture and often employed by Europeans -tensions with African governments Arab Merchants and European Missionaries in East Africa -Zanzibar had now become the largest slave market in Africa---was undoubtedly a major reason for the rise of Western interest and Christian missionary activity in the region during the middle of the century

The Scramble for Africa -began in the mid-1880s, when several European states engaged in a feeding frenzy to seize a piece of African territory before the carcass had been picked clean -British had consolidated their authority over the Nile valley and seized additional territories in East Africa -‘‘missionary factor,’’ as European missionary interests lobbied with their governments for colonial takeovers to facilitate their efforts to convert the African population to Christianity -life expectancy for Europeans living in Africa had improved -Britain and France wanted parts of Africa Indirect Rule in West Africa -British administrators, the stated goal of indirect rule was to preserve African political traditions The British in East Africa -local government had encouraged white settlers to migrate to the area as a means of promoting economic development and encouraging financial self-sufficiency -To attract Europeans, fertile farmlands in the central highlands were reserved for European settlement, while specified reserve lands were set aside for Africans British Rule in South Africa -growing division between English-speaking and Afrikaner elements within the European population because of the discovery of gold and diamonds in the Boer republic of the Transvaal Direct Rule -Most other European nations governed their African possessions through a form of direct rule -example was the French system, which reflected the centralized administrative system introduced in France -at the top was the official/governor-general -French ideal was to assimilate their African subjects into French culture rather than preserving their native traditions -Africans were eligible to run for office and to serve in the French National Assembly, and a few were appointed to high positions in the colonial administration. -Although the institution of slavery was discouraged, African workers were often subjected to unbelievably harsh conditions as they were put to use in promoting the cause of imperialism Women in Colonial Africa -end to forced marriage, bodily mutilation and polygamy -Missionaries introduced women to Western education and encouraged them to organize themselves to defend their interests

The Emergence of Anticolonialism Stirrings of Nationhood -nationalism refers to a state of mind rising out of an awareness of being part of a community that possesses common institutions, traditions, language, and customs Traditional Resistance: A Precursor to Nationalism -first stirrings of nationalism in India took place in the early nineteenth century with the search for a renewed sense of cultural identity. -Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj created the new organization as a means of helping his fellow religionists defend the Hindu religion against verbal attacks by their British acquaintances The Sepoy Rebellion -sepoys (derived from sipahi, a Turkish word meaning horseman or soldier) were native troops hired by the East India Company to protect British interests in the region -1857, tension erupted when the British adopted the new Enfield rifle for use by sepoy infantrymen because it used paper cartridges covered with animal fat and lard --> broke strictures against high-class Hindus’ eating animal products and Muslim prohibitions against eating pork

Chapter 22- Shadows over the pacific: east asia under challenge The Decline of the Manchus -1800 Manchu dynasty was at the height of its power -long period of peace and prosperity under the rule of two great emperors, Kangxi and Qianlong -humiliated and harassed by the black ships and big guns of the Western powers and collapsed -fell because a) intense pressure applied by the modern West or b) internal changes and self-inflicted problems -began to suffer from the familiar dynastic ills of official corruption, peasant unrest, and incompetence at court -rapid growth in population. Opium and Rebellion -British appetite for Chinese tea created a severe balance-of-payments problem -British solution was opium (a product more addictive than tea) - Lin Zexu, a Chinese official, blockaded the foreign factory area in Canton to force traders to hand over their remaining chests of opium -British were not happy and launched a naval expedition to punish the Manchus and force the court to open China to foreign trade.1 The Opium War (1839--1842) -demonstrated the superiority of British firepower and military tactics (including the use of a shallow-draft steamboat that effectively harassed Chinese coastal defenses) -British fleet sailed to Nanjing and cut off the supply of ‘‘tribute grain’’ from southern to northern China, the Qing finally agreed to British terms -Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, the Chinese agreed to open five coastal ports to British trade, limit tariffs on imported British goods, grant extraterritorial rights to British citizens in China, and pay a substantial indemnity to cover the costs of the war -between China and Great Britain -China’s first conflict with a European power The Taiping Rebellion -Hong Xiuquan hoped to establish what he referred to as a ‘‘Heavenly Kingdom of Supreme Peace’’ in China -local causes: rapid increase in population, official corruption and incompetence, -rebellion gradually lost momentum until it was finally suppressed in 1864 -One reason for the dynasty’s failure to deal effectively with the internal unrest was its continuing difficulties with the Western imperialists Efforts at Reform -weakened state, the court called for a new policy of ‘‘self-strengthening,’’ in which Western technology would be adopted while Confucian principles and institutions were maintained intact

-policy, popularly known by its slogan ‘‘East for Essence, West for Practical Use,’’ remained the guiding standard for Chinese foreign and domestic policy for nearly a quarter of a century The Climax of Imperialism -last two decades of the nineteenth century, the European penetration of China, both political and military, intensified -China was falling apart Opening the Door to China -U.S. Secretary of State John Hay presented the other imperialist powers with a proposal to ensure equal economic access to the China market for all states. -Hay also suggested that all powers join together to guarantee the territorial and administrative integrity of the Chinese Empire -Open Door (it was not a treaty, but merely a pious and nonbinding expression of intent) served to deflate fears in Britain, France, Germany, and Russia that other powers would take advantage of China’s weakness to dominate the China market -Open Door was a positive step that brought a measure of sanity to imperialist meddling in East Asia -came too late to stop the domestic explosion known as the Boxer Rebellion -Boxers were members of a secret society operating primarily in rural areas in northern China were provoked by a damaging drought and high unemployment caused in part by foreign economic activity (the intro of railroads and steamships, for example, undercut the livelihood of barge workers on the rivers and canals) -Boxers attacked foreign residents and besieged the foreign legation quarter in Beijing until the foreigners were rescued by an international expeditionary force in the late summer of 1900 The Collapse of the Old Order -civil service examination system was replaced by a new educational system based on the Western model -most dangerous period for an authoritarian system is when it begins to reform itself, because change breeds instability and performance rarely matches rising expectations The Rise of Sun Yat-sen -first physical manifestations of future revolution appeared during the last decade of the nineteenth century with the formation of the Revive China Society by the young radical Sun Yat-sen -he managed to unite radical groups from across China in the so-called Revolutionary Alliance -organization’s program was based on Sun’s ‘‘three people’s principles’’ of nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood

The Revolution of 1911 -Sun traveling in the United States, the insurrection lacked leadership -The dynasty was now in a state of virtual collapse: the empress dowager had died in 1908, one day after her nephew; the throne was now occupied by China’s ‘‘last emperor,’’ the infant Puyi -program of the Revolutionary Alliance was based on Western liberal democratic principles aimed at the urban middle class, but the middle class in China was too small to form the basis for a new political order -old dynasty had come to an abrupt end before new political and social forces were ready to fill the vacuum Chinese Society in Transition Obstacles to Industrialization -based almost entirely on traditional methods -obstacles: -no uniform system of weights and measures, and the banking system was still primitive by European standards -limited paper money -chaotic transportation system -merchants had to rely more and more on the coastal route, where they faced increasing competition from foreign shipping -problems: -rapid increase in population -rice as a staple of the diet was increasingly being replaced by less nutritious foods -farmers losing land from debt The Impact of Imperialism -created serious distortions in the local economy that resulted in massive changes in Chinese society during the twentieth century -Western presence accelerated the development of the Chinese economy in some ways: intro of modern means of production, transport, and communications; the creation of an export market; and the steady integration of the Chinese market into the nineteenth century global economy -China paid a heavy price in the destruction of its local industry while many of the profits flowed abroad Daily Life -Most were farmers living in millions of villages in rice fields and on hillsides throughout the countryside -lives were governed by the harvest cycle, village custom, and family ritual The Status of Women -During the mid-Qing era, women were still expected to remain in the home

-During the second half of the nineteenth century women began to seek employment in factories -end of nineteenth century, educational opportunities for women began to appear for the first time A Rich Country and a Strong State: The Rise of Modern Japan -beginning of the nineteenth century, the Tokugawa shogunate had ruled the Japanese islands for two hundred years -revitalized the old governmental system -driven out the foreign traders and missionaries and isolated the country from almost all contacts with the outside world -government also intensified its efforts to maintain the nation’s isolation from the outside world, driving away foreign ships that were beginning to prowl along the Japanese coast in increasing numbers An End to Isolation -Western nations began to approach Japan in the hope of opening up the hermit kingdom to foreign economic interests -Japan agreed to the Treaty of Kanagawa, which provided for the return of shipwrecked American sailors, the opening of two ports, and the establishment of a U.S. consulate on Japanese soil The Transformation of Japanese Politics -the new leaders launched a comprehensive reform of Japanese political, social, economic, and cultural institutions and values -abolish the remnants of the old order and strengthen executive power in their hands -hereditary privileges were abolished in 1871, and the great lords lost title to their lands --> given government bonds and were named governors of the territories formerly under their control as compensation -genro,- elder statesmen/ samurai The Constitution of 1890 - the imperalist faction was pacified by the statement that the constitution was the gift of the emperor -Members of the cabinet were to be handpicked by the Meiji oligarchs -upper house of parliament was to be appointed and have equal legislative powers with the lower house, called the Diet, whose members would be elected -core ideology of the state was called the kokutai (national polity), which embodied (although in very imprecise form) the concept of the uniqueness of the Japanese system based on the supreme authority of the emperor Building a Modern Social Structure -hierarchical social order was showing signs of disintegration -Rich merchants were buying their way into the ranks of the samurai, and Japanese of all classes were beginning to abandon their rice fields and move into the growing cities

-lives of all Japanese were determined by their membership in various social organizations---the family, the village, and their social class -Women in particular were constrained by the ‘‘three obediences’’ imposed on their gender: child to father, wife to husband, and widow to son -in education, they adopted the American model of a three-tiered system culminating in a series of universities and specialized institutes -increasingly exposed to Western culture and values, began to imitate the clothing styles, eating habits, and social practices of their European and American counterparts Traditional Values and Women’s Rights -end of the nineteenth century, however, changes were under way as women began to play a crucial role in their nation’s effort to modernize -because women started working more by 1914, Japan was the world’s leading exporter of silk and dominated cotton manufacturing Japanese Culture in Transition -Japanese poets were at first influenced primarily by the British but eventually adopted such French styles as Symbolism, Dadaism, and Surrealism The Meiji Restoration: A Revolution from Above -put Japan firmly on the path to economic and political development -remove the unequal treaty provisions that had been imposed at mid-century. Japanese achievements are especially impressive when compared with the difficulties experienced by China -transition from a traditional to a modern society during the Meiji era was that it took place for the most part without violence or the kind of social or political revolution that occurred in so many other countries