Topic 2-Evolutionary Explanations of Mental Disorders

8/2/2019 Topic 2-Evolutionary Explanations of Mental Disorders

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EvolutionaryExplanations of

Mental Disorders

EvolutionaryExplanations of

Mental DisordersBy

Dr George Varvatsoulias

By

Dr George Varvatsoulias


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DepressionDepression

Although depression is regarded asan abnormal condition with aspectsof maladaptive processes for theindividuals that having it, it is

considered as an experience that ithad evolved, and indeed for thefollowing reasons:

1. Depression has a universal value; it

cn be found in most, if not all,societies with a lifetime risk of around20% (Kessler et al., 1994)

2. Both, traditional as well asindustrialised societies demonstrate

depression as a disorder (Howells,1979

Although depression is regarded asan abnormal condition with aspectsof maladaptive processes for theindividuals that having it, it is

considered as an experience that ithad evolved, and indeed for thefollowing reasons:

1. Depression has a universal value; it

cn be found in most, if not all,societies with a lifetime risk of around20% (Kessler et al., 1994)

2. Both, traditional as well asindustrialised societies demonstrate

depression as a disorder (Howells,1979


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Two major theories for theevolutionary value of depression

Two major theories for theevolutionary value of depression

Social Navigation Hypothesis (SNH)

- SNH assumes that depression has evolvedto serve two social problem-solvingfunctions (Watson & Andrews, 2002):

1. Limited cognitive resources for individualsto find their way out of complex socialproblems, known as social ruminationfunctions

2. It elicits help from potential conspecifics(partners, relatives, spouses, families, kin)

- social motivation hypothesis - but because in this way byeliciting help from others one doesmaximise ones fitness in terms of feeling

Social Navig

ation Hypothesis (SNH)

- SNH assumes that depression has evolvedto serve two social problem-solvingfunctions (Watson & Andrews, 2002):

1. Limited cognitive resources for individualsto find their way out of complex socialproblems, known as social ruminationfunctions

2. It elicits help from potential conspecifics(partners, relatives, spouses, families, kin)

- social motivation hypothesis - but because in this way byeliciting help from others one doesmaximise ones fitness in terms of feeling


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The social competition

hypothesis (1)


hypothesis (1) Depression is argued as a process ofadaptive responses of losing aposition or status over a conflictwhich took place within a group, and

as part of unfulfilledinterrelationships. That occurs interms of a threefold account:

1. Ceasing competitions against others

2. Acceptance by withdrawal from theconflict

3. Submissive behaviour (Price et al.,1994)

Depression is argued as a process ofadaptive responses of losing aposition or status over a conflictwhich took place within a group, and

as part of unfulfilledinterrelationships. That occurs interms of a threefold account:

1. Ceasing competitions against others

2. Acceptance by withdrawal from theconflict

3. Submissive behaviour (Price et al.,1994)


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hypothesis (2)


hypothesis (2) Depression is considered an adaptiveresponse because individuals by having lost astatus from higher-rank others, they look tooccupy the lost space via subordinatingthemselves to a position that wont affect thedominant hierarchy

In such a way, conflicts are not continuedand depression proves to be related to a lossof energy, moody behaviour, and lack ofconfidence: all typical characteristics of

depression Most likely, evolutionary explanations on

depression refer to unipolar depression, andnot to bipolar depression, which may also beconnected to physiological changes(neurotransmitter and hormonal levels)

Depression is considered an adaptiveresponse because individuals by having lost astatus from higher-rank others, they look tooccupy the lost space via subordinatingthemselves to a position that wont affect thedominant hierarchy

In such a way, conflicts are not continuedand depression proves to be related to a lossof energy, moody behaviour, and lack ofconfidence: all typical characteristics of

depression Most likely, evolutionary explanations on

depression refer to unipolar depression, andnot to bipolar depression, which may also beconnected to physiological changes(neurotransmitter and hormonal levels)


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Evaluation of the social

competition hypothesis


competition hypothesis Depression is a yielding signal: An importantaspect of this theory is that depression is thesubordinate behaviour of the loser comingout of the winners dominance over asituation that the former was unable to fightfor. For the loser to overcome from thecompetition he lost, reconciliation should takeplace, so social harmony to be restored andpersonal damage to be kept at a less possiblelimit (Brown et al., 1995)

Is depression an adaptation? Depression maybe an adaptation at its less emotionallyexpression level. On the other hand, the caseabout depression should be that it can bedeveloped to a serious medical problem. Byinhibiting dangerous and wasteful

temptations in view not to challengeauthority, or the system, it does not mean

Depression is a yielding signal: An importantaspect of this theory is that depression is thesubordinate behaviour of the loser comingout of the winners dominance over asituation that the former was unable to fightfor. For the loser to overcome from thecompetition he lost, reconciliation should takeplace, so social harmony to be restored andpersonal damage to be kept at a less possiblelimit (Brown et al., 1995)

Is dep

ression an adaptation? Depression maybe an adaptation at its less emotionallyexpression level. On the other hand, the caseabout depression should be that it can bedeveloped to a serious medical problem. Byinhibiting dangerous and wasteful

temptations in view not to challengeauthority, or the system, it does not mean


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The social rumination

function of depression (1)


function of depression (1) Divorce or unemployment are at riskin triggering a depressive episodebecause they place great cognitivedemands to the individuals concerned.

In order, such a situation to be dealtwith, individuals shut downinvolvement in other interests oractivities, so to focus more at theproblem in hand

The SNS speaks about anhedonia(lossof pleasure in previously enjoyedactivities) as a result of a displacedcognitive effort that hasnt been

fulfilled

Divorce or unemployment are at riskin triggering a depressive episodebecause they place great cognitivedemands to the individuals concerned.

In order, such a situation to be dealtwith, individuals shut downinvolvement in other interests oractivities, so to focus more at theproblem in hand

The SNS speaks about anhedonia(lossof pleasure in previously enjoyedactivities) as a result of a displacedcognitive effort that hasnt been

fulfilled


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function of depression (2) Individuals who do not suffer fromdepression tend to interpret theirbehaviour in terms of a self-serving bias(SSB) by attributing their successes to

their abilities, and their losses to chances,or to a lack of effort. Individuals who dosuffer from depression, they do notattribute their successes or losses as theabove individuals, displaying therefore adepressive-attributional style (DAS).However, it is clamed that those with SSBhave a distorted view of reality, and thatthose with DAS may be more accurate(Ackermann & DeRubeis, 1991)

Individuals who do not suffer fromdepression tend to interpret theirbehaviour in terms of a self-serving bias(SSB) by attributing their successes to

their abilities, and their losses to chances,or to a lack of effort. Individuals who dosuffer from depression, they do notattribute their successes or losses as theabove individuals, displaying therefore adepressive-attributional style (DAS).However, it is clamed that those with SSBhave a distorted view of reality, and thatthose with DAS may be more accurate(Ackermann & DeRubeis, 1991)


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The social motivation



function of depression (1) Depression is costly anddepressive individuals influencetheir social milieu either by

asking for help or by sufferingmany personal costs.Depressives are looking forinvestment in order to fulfill their

normal activities, and in this waythey impose on others the needto be alleviated by the condition

Depression is costly anddepressive individuals influencetheir social milieu either by

asking for help or by sufferingmany personal costs.Depressives are looking forinvestment in order to fulfill their

normal activities, and in this waythey impose on others the needto be alleviated by the condition


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function of depression (2) Depressives by eliciting help frompotential others, they ask from them toextort their moody feelings in ordernot only to have a better life, but also

in view to reducing the tension-suffering costs which the entire societyis shouldered because of them. This iscalled extortionary depression, afitness-extortionary alarm, because inthis way depressives navigate throughtheir current problem the need to behelped and assisted (Andrews, 2002)

Depressives by eliciting help frompotential others, they ask from them toextort their moody feelings in ordernot only to have a better life, but also

in view to reducing the tension-suffering costs which the entire societyis shouldered because of them. This iscalled extortionary depression, afitness-extortionary alarm, because inthis way depressives navigate throughtheir current problem the need to behelped and assisted (Andrews, 2002)


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navigation hypothesis (1)


navigation hypothesis (1) Displaced cognitive effort: Thefact that depression serves asocial rumination function comes

from studies showing thatdepressives exhibit reducedperformance on cognitivelydemanding tasks (intelligence

tests, memory tasks) indicatingthat probably they are focusedelsewhere

Displaced cognitive effort: Thefact that depression serves asocial rumination function comes

from studies showing thatdepressives exhibit reducedperformance on cognitivelydemanding tasks (intelligence

tests, memory tasks) indicatingthat probably they are focusedelsewhere


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navigation hypothesis (2) Suicide as a signal of need: Depressionserves the lack of motivationalfunctions, and it is being evidencedthat proper interrelationships

(marriage, partnership, etc.) havereduced the need for suicide fromdepressive individuals (Hawton &Fagg, 1992). Under the extortionhypothesis, attempts of suicide imposea risk of loss on all those associatedwith the depressive individual (Watson& Andrews, 2002)

Suicide as a signal of need: Depressionserves the lack of motivationalfunctions, and it is being evidencedthat proper interrelationships

(marriage, partnership, etc.) havereduced the need for suicide fromdepressive individuals (Hawton &Fagg, 1992). Under the extortionhypothesis, attempts of suicide impose

a risk of loss on all those associatedwith the depressive individual (Watson& Andrews, 2002)


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Evaluation of the socialnavigation hypothesis (3)

Anti-depressant medication:

According to the SNH,antidepressants may hinder an

individuals progress towardsovercoming the condition bytaking drugs that can be anobstacle to the depressives

motivational efforts. N such away, depressives are able tocontrol their social environmentby setting aside personal efforts

against their condition

Anti-depressant medication:

According to the SNH,antidepressants may hinder an

individuals progress towardsovercoming the condition bytaking drugs that can be anobstacle to the depressives

motivational efforts. N such away, depressives are able tocontrol their social environmentby setting aside personal efforts

against their condition


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Anxiety disordersAnxiety disorders

Anxiety is often associated withfear that something may happento an individual against the

individuals fitness as well as itsprogress in life. Anxiety may berelated to the evolutionaryprocess, or may be part of it,

assuming that we carry itforward from our ancestral past(EEA), where potential dangerswere experienced

Anxiety is often associated withfear that something may happento an individual against the

individuals fitness as well as itsprogress in life. Anxiety may berelated to the evolutionaryprocess, or may be part of it,

assuming that we carry itforward from our ancestral past(EEA), where potential dangerswere experienced


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Crying out our needsCrying out our needs

The purpose to stay alive is not onlybecause our psychological needs, but itpresupposes also biological reactions.

ANS & CNS are associated with our

biological reactions when we face orfaced by potential dangers in ourenvironments

Biological reactions have also a social

dimension. Social circumstances mayevoke specific fear responses. As anexample, small children cry out theirneed to be removed from the sight ofa stranger, because they see him/her

as a potential threat to their existenceDal & Wilson 1988 Smith 1979

The purpose to stay alive is not onlybecause our psychological needs, but itpresupposes also biological reactions.

ANS & CNS are associated with our

biological reactions when we face orfaced by potential dangers in ourenvironments

Biological reactions have also a social

dimension. Social circumstances mayevoke specific fear responses. As anexample, small children cry out theirneed to be removed from the sight ofa stranger, because they see him/her

as a potential threat to their existenceDal & Wilson, 1988 Smith, 1979


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The evolution of fears and

phobias (1)

The evolution of fears andphobias (1)

Preparedness

- Instead inheriting rigid behavioural responsesto particular situations that may well changeover time, a more flexible arrangement could

be needed in terms of an innate readinessover difficult life stressors

- Seligman (1970) spoke of preparedness toindicate an innate ability of an organism tobiologically been ready to learn how to dealwith potentially life threatening experiences

over specific situations- What Seligman implied with the aspect of

preparedness, is that we are biologicallyinclined to react against life-threateningsituations via certain associations able to takeus out of potential dangers

Preparedness

- Instead inheriting rigid behavioural responsesto particular situations that may well changeover time, a more flexible arrangement couldbe needed in terms of an innate readinessover difficult life stressors

- Seligman (1970) spoke of preparedness toindicate an innate ability of an organism tobiologically been ready to learn how to dealwith potentially life threatening experiences

over specific situations- What Seligman implied with the aspect of

preparedness, is that we are biologicallyinclined to react against life-threateningsituations via certain associations able to takeus out of potential dangers


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Evaluation of the

preparedness explanation (1)

Evaluation of thepreparedness explanation (1)

- Evidence from animal studies:Evidence for biologicalpreparedness comes mainly from

non-human animals (primates).Cook & Mineka (1989) in theirstudy on the fear of snakes inmonkeys, which had never seen

a reptile before and reactedfearfully, it means that fear of anunknown and assumedthreatening animal is due toevolutionary factors rather thanlearning

- Evidence from animal studies:Evidence for biologicalpreparedness comes mainly from

non-human animals (primates).Cook & Mineka (1989) in theirstudy on the fear of snakes inmonkeys, which had never seen

a reptile before and reactedfearfully, it means that fear of anunknown and assumedthreatening animal is due toevolutionary factors rather thanlearning


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Evaluation of the

preparedness explanation (2)

Evaluation of thepreparedness explanation (2)

- Cultural differences: Althoughbiological preparedness may bethe case in explaining anxiety

disorders, it does not seem tohave a universal value in termsof cultural presuppositions of thesame fear in different societies,

such as the fear of spiders ormice (Davey, 1994; Reuner,1990; Bristowe, 1945)

- Cultural differences: Althoughbiological preparedness may bethe case in explaining anxiety

disorders, it does not seem tohave a universal value in termsof cultural presuppositions of thesame fear in different societies,

such as the fear of spiders ormice (Davey, 1994; Reuner,1990; Bristowe, 1945)


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Obsessive-compulsive disorder

- According to Abed & Panew(1999), OCD is a result of

adaptive responses in respect toincreasing reproductive success(fitness) with those who do nothave it. Osborn (1998) argues

that unwanted thoughts andcompulsive dispositions (washinghands repeatedly) are assumedto be ritualistic behaviours

across cultures

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

- According to Abed & Panew(1999), OCD is a result of

adaptive responses in respect toincreasing reproductive success(fitness) with those who do nothave it. Osborn (1998) argues

that unwanted thoughts andcompulsive dispositions (washinghands repeatedly) are assumedto be ritualistic behaviours

across cultures


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- All the above is supported by theaspect of modular mind which refers toa number of specific systems(Darwinian algorithms) that evolved to

carry out specific tasks for survivalreasons

- According to the IRSGS (InvoluntaryRisk Scenario Generating Syndrome) -

an adaptive self-protection function - itrefers to the development ofbehavioural strategies able to protectindividuals from harm, as well asanticipating any risks in real-life

situations

- All the above is supported by theaspect of modular mind which refers toa number of specific systems(Darwinian algorithms) that evolved to

carry out specific tasks for survivalreasons

- According to the IRSGS (InvoluntaryRisk Scenario Generating Syndrome) -an adaptive self-protection function - itrefers to the development ofbehavioural strategies able to protectindividuals from harm, as well asanticipating any risks in real-life

situations


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Evaluation of the evolutionaryexplanations of OCD (1)


- OCD is pervasive and universal:The evolutionary explanations ofOCD indicate that obsessions

and compulsions are theconsequence of a psychologicaladaptation that most humanspossess. This is thought to be

consistent in findings amongdifferent studies (Osborn, 1988;Rapoport & Fiske, 1998),because OCD is universal acrosscultures

- OCD is pervasive and universal:The evolutionary explanations ofOCD indicate that obsessions

and compulsions are theconsequence of a psychologicaladaptation that most humanspossess. This is thought to be

consistent in findings amongdifferent studies (Osborn, 1988;Rapoport & Fiske, 1998),because OCD is universal acrosscultures


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- Gender differences: Surveys of studieshave shown that mainly males sufferfrom that condition rather thanfemales. Research shows that females

engage in risk-taking behaviours lessfrequently than males (Browne, 1988).It was also shown that genderdifferences in age are again plausible:males are more high-risk takers before

puberty, whereas females afterpuberty: females in greater risk ofOCD due to increased activity of theIRSGS - both assumptions arecontradicted in terms

- Gender differences: Surveys of studieshave shown that mainly males sufferfrom that condition rather thanfemales. Research shows that females

engage in risk-taking behaviours lessfrequently than males (Browne, 1988).It was also shown that genderdifferences in age are again plausible:males are more high-risk takers before

puberty, whereas females afterpuberty: females in greater risk ofOCD due to increased activity of theIRSGS - both assumptions arecontradicted in terms


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Schizophrenia (1)Schizophrenia (1)

- Schizophrenia seems to be adisorder with strong evidenceabout genetic components. It is

observed in families with MZtwins as being at a higher riskthan DZ ones - it is alwaysquestioned this assumption/I

dont think schizophrenia is dueto genetic factors, although adiathesis-model may also besustained

- Schizophrenia seems to be adisorder with strong evidenceabout genetic components. It is

observed in families with MZtwins as being at a higher riskthan DZ ones - it is alwaysquestioned this assumption/I

dont think schizophrenia is dueto genetic factors, although adiathesis-model may also besustained


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Schizophrenia (2)Schizophrenia (2)

- There are two aspects for theevolutionary onset ofschizophrenia: some see it as a

disadvantageous condition;some others as an advantageousone. The first is supported bythe relationship between

schizophrenia and language; thesecond by the group-splittinghypothesis

- There are two aspects for theevolutionary onset ofschizophrenia: some see it as a

disadvantageous condition;some others as an advantageousone. The first is supported bythe relationship between

schizophrenia and language; thesecond by the group-splittinghypothesis


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Schizophrenia and language(1)


- Schizophrenia and language seemto have evolved almostsimultaneously (around 15000 yrs

ago). They are thought to be dueto a genetic change (mutation)which affected the development ofboth brains hemispheres,resulting probably to the so-called

cerebral asymmetry (Crow, 2000),albeit there is counter-evidencethat the brains of schizophrenicstend to be more symmetrical

(Zaidel, 1999)

- Schizophrenia and language seemto have evolved almostsimultaneously (around 15000 yrs

ago). They are thought to be dueto a genetic change (mutation)which affected the development ofboth brains hemispheres,resulting probably to the so-called

cerebral asymmetry (Crow, 2000),albeit there is counter-evidencethat the brains of schizophrenicstend to be more symmetrical

(Zaidel, 1999)


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- Right-handedness is a preferenceobserved in most humans. People withschizophrenia seem to be less right-handed and indeed ambidextrous

(Francks et al., 2003)- The difficulty in distinguishing between

thought and speech is another aspectconnecting schizophrenia to language:inconsistent thinking; thoughts thatare controlled by others; thoughts thatare being broadcast, or thoughts thatare represented by the vices of others

- Right-handedness is a preferenceobserved in most humans. People withschizophrenia seem to be less right-handed and indeed ambidextrous

(Francks et al., 2003)- The difficulty in distinguishing between

thought and speech is another aspectconnecting schizophrenia to language:inconsistent thinking; thoughts thatare controlled by others; thoughts thatare being broadcast, or thoughts thatare represented by the vices of others


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Evaluation of the schizophreniaand language hypothesis (1)


- The wider problems ofschizophrenia: Schizophreniaseems to be closely connected

with language dysfunction.Language dysfunction impactsheavily on social behaviour. Also,delusions and auditory

hallucinations are experiencedwithin the context of normalsyntax (Polimeni & Reiss, 2003)

- The wider problems ofschizophrenia: Schizophreniaseems to be closely connected

with language dysfunction.Language dysfunction impactsheavily on social behaviour. Also,delusions and auditory

hallucinations are experiencedwithin the context of normalsyntax (Polimeni & Reiss, 2003)


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- Punctuated equilibria: For arelationship between language andschizophrenia it has been suggestedthat it may be even a result of a

common gene (Deacon, 1997).Although, we cannot precisely know ifthis is the case, it has also beensuggested that both aspects relate toeach other by sharing the same idea in

looking for well-being fulfillment viaaccurately observing whatenvironmental needs ask fromindividuals - a quite unclear idea, not

even research-sake justified!

- Punctuated equilibria: For arelationship between language andschizophrenia it has been suggestedthat it may be even a result of a

common gene (Deacon, 1997).Although, we cannot precisely know ifthis is the case, it has also beensuggested that both aspects relate toeach other by sharing the same idea in

looking for well-being fulfillment viaaccurately observing whatenvironmental needs ask fromindividuals - a quite unclear idea, not

even research-sake justified!


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The group-splittinghypothesis

The group-splittinghypothesis

- Steven & Price (2000) have suggested thatschizoid personalities in the ancestralenvironment proved to be able to splitlargehuman communities. However, personalities,according to that theory, were able to form

sub-groups in terms of creating a newcommunity with anew world view. So, doesschizophrenia means creativity as well?,destructiveness?, or what else? And if so,one way or another, could its whereabouts besupported by considering them according tothe survival of the fittest principle, to theexpense of others? Does schizophrenia haveto do with counter-evolution of the humanmind, or is it part of the social struggle in acommunity (Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, andothers)?

- Steven & Price (2000) have suggested thatschizoid personalities in the ancestralenvironment proved to be able to splitlargehuman communities. However, personalities,according to that theory, were able to form

sub-groups in terms of creating a newcommunity with anew world view. So, doesschizophrenia means creativity as well?,destructiveness?, or what else? And if so,one way or another, could its whereabouts besupported by considering them according tothe survival of the fittest principle, to theexpense of others? Does schizophrenia haveto do with counter-evolution of the humanmind, or is it part of the social struggle in acommunity (Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, andothers)?


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Evaluation of the group-splitting hypothesis (1)

Evaluation of the group-splitting hypothesis (1)- Schizophrenia and Shamanism:

Shamans are central charismaticfigures of a community whose

aspirations lead the tribe. Could it be

related to religious activities -performing magic, speaking to spirits,etc. - to explain schizophrenia as auniversal form of personal delusion tothe expense of communities unable to

react logically to what the Shaman isinducing to their society (Reiss, 2002;Brewerton, 1994); or couldschizophrenia be regarded as a form ofbehavioural specialisation in doingthings that will elicit awe from others?

- Schizophrenia and Shamanism:Shamans are central charismaticfigures of a community whose

aspirations lead the tribe. Could it be

related to religious activities -performing magic, speaking to spirits,etc. - to explain schizophrenia as auniversal form of personal delusion tothe expense of communities unable to

react logically to what the Shaman isinducing to their society (Reiss, 2002;Brewerton, 1994); or couldschizophrenia be regarded as a form ofbehavioural specialisation in doingthings that will elicit awe from others?


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Evaluation of the group-splitting hypothesis (2)

Evaluation of the group-splitting hypothesis (2)- Genetic advantages: The benefits of a disorder,

such as schizophrenia, lie with the conditionitself (Nesse 1999). Its effects are bothcognitive and emotional. The benefits of agenetically based disorder may be found in

those inheriting the gene of the condition -without necessarily exhibiting or having thedisorder. The benefits may have nothing todo with the changed mental life of a person,but probably with guarding the individualfrom infections. This could be the case whentesting the relatives of people withschizophrenia for traits that would have beenprobably advantageous in our ancestralenvironment

- Genetic advantages: The benefits of a disorder,such as schizophrenia, lie with the conditionitself (Nesse 1999). Its effects are bothcognitive and emotional. The benefits of agenetically based disorder may be found in

those inheriting the gene of the condition -without necessarily exhibiting or having thedisorder. The benefits may have nothing todo with the changed mental life of a person,but probably with guarding the individualfrom infections. This could be the case whentesting the relatives of people withschizophrenia for traits that would have beenprobably advantageous in our ancestralenvironment


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SummarySummary

Evolutionary explanations on abnormalconditions, such as depression, anxiety,and schizophrenia refer to therelationship of the individual with his/her

environment Depression is a state of hopelessness in

which individuals are unable to cope witheveryday difficulties

Anxiety is thought to have been evolved

because of the adaptive values of fearsand phobias

Schizophrenia is thought to be related tothe evolution of language, and theforming of new communities in terms of

handling problems associated with the

Evolutionary explanations on abnormalconditions, such as depression, anxiety,and schizophrenia refer to therelationship of the individual with his/her

environment Depression is a state of hopelessness in

which individuals are unable to cope witheveryday difficulties

Anxiety is thought to have been evolved

because of the adaptive values of fearsand phobias

Schizophrenia is thought to be related tothe evolution of language, and theforming of new communities in terms of

handling problems associated with theenvironment


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HomeworkHomework

Outline and evaluate oneexplanation of depression

from an evolutionaryperspective (12 marks)

Critically considerevolutionary explanations ofone or more anxietydisorders (24 marks)

Outline and evaluate oneexplanation of depressionfrom an evolutionaryperspective (12 marks)

Critically considerevolutionary explanations ofone or more anxietydisorders (24 marks)

Topic 2-Evolutionary Explanations of Mental Disorders

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