Topic2–英語科教育 –The Educational Hierarchy:Approaches & Methods

•Ateacherisonewhomakeshimselfprogressivelyunnecessary.

• ThomasCarruthers

APPROACH

METHOD

CURRICULUM

SYLLABUS

LESSON

TECHNIQUES

UNITorMODULE

1. Behaviorist2. Input

3.Humanistic4.Constructivist

1.DIRECTMETHOD

2. GTM(GrammarTranslationMethod)

3.ALM (AudioLingualMethod)

4.SLT (SituationalLanguageTeaching/OralApproach)

5.CLT (CommunicativeLanguageTeaching)

6.TBL/I(Task-BasedLearning/Instruction)

7.GBA/TBA(Genre/Text-BasedApproach)

8.CBI/CBT(Content-BasedInstruction/Teaching)

9.CLIL (Content&LanguageIntegratedLearning)

10.IMMERSION

GeneralObjectives(CoursesofStudy)

SpecificobjectivesofCONTENT &SKILLS &

howtheyareORGANIZED inaScope&Sequence

chartofunits

Eachunitisdividedintoanumberoflessons that progressively develop thecontent & skills. Teachersdesign andconstructthese lesson plans detailing

the(1)SpecificOBJECTIVES(2)ROLES (of teacher,learners,materials)(3)TypesofTASKS i.e.learningactivities(学習活動)(4)LessonDEVELOPMENT (timing,parts)

Theactualproceduresthatteachersfollowinordertocarryoutthe parts&tasksin the plan

THEHIERARCHY

An APPROACH is formulated by the designer’s

Language

&

LanguageLearning

• theoreticalassumptionsandbeliefsaboutthenatureof

BEHAVIORISTapproachesAssumptions• Children’sbehaviorandactionscanbeconditioned byadults

tocondition=toaccustomto,(i.e.likeacoachconditionsanathlete)• Childrenareemptycupstobefilledwithknowledgebyteachers• Automaticityisthegoal

Intheclassroom• Mechanicalpatternpractice,choralpractice,drillsandrepetition• Extrinsicrewardsandpraiseforsuccess• inputandoutputisrestrictedandbothpartiesknowwhattoexpect.• Passivelearnersrelyingonteacherforinstructions

People• Fries,Skinner

Methods• Grammar-Translation,AudiolingualMethod

CHARACTERISTICS1. Teacher-fronted.He/sheis

incontrolofcontent&learningprocess

2. Step-by-stepsyllabusandclearlessonplans

3. Englishpatternsarerepeatedthroughdrillsandchoralrepetition

INPUTapproachesAssumptions• ChildrenshouldbeexposedtoEnglishthattheycanunderstandnowandEnglishthatisjustbeyondtheirpresentlevel

• ChildrenusethecontrolledEnglishtheylearnintheclassroomoutsidetheclassroominthesociety

Intheclassroom• Newwordsandpatternscanbeintroducedthroughphysicaldemonstration,gestures,tapes,CDs• Childrendon’thavetoproducelanguageuntiltheyfeelnaturallyreadytodoso• Repetitionofwordsandphrasesanimportantpartofthelesson

People• Asher,Krashen,Terrell,Berlitz&Interlingua

Methods• theNaturalApproach,DirectMethod,SituationalLanguageTeaching

CHARACTERISTICS1. Teacher-fronted.He/sheis

incontrolofcontent&learningprocess.

2. Step-by-stepsyllabusandclearlessonplans

3. Englishwordsandpatternsarelistenedto&repeated

HUMANISTICApproachesAssumptions• Aimtohelpchildrenreachtheirfullpotentialas‘whole’individuals.• Effectivelanguagelearningtakesplacewhench’n areinvolvedindecidingwhattolearn.Thedevelopmentofpeople-to-peopleskills–cooperation,fairnessandconsiderationofothers- isparamount.

Intheclassroom• Childrenlearnattheirownnaturalpaceandlanguageislearntinitsnaturalcontextratherthanbreakingitupintodiscreteparts.• Focusisonchildren(a)buildingmentalmodelsofthelanguage,(b)achievingsuccessonlyafterstruggleandexperimentation,(c)noticing patterns inthe language and making guesses.• emphasizeslearnerautonomyandactivestudentparticipationPeople• Asher,Gattegno,Lozanov,CurranMethods• SilentWay,Suggestopedia,TotalPhysicalResponse,CommunityLanguageLearning,

CHARACTERISTICS1. Stresstheimportanceofinner

thoughts&feelings2. Aimstohelpchildrenreach

theirfullpotentialas‘whole’people..

3. Emphasizeslearnerautonomyandactivestudentparticipation

CONSTRUCTIVISTApproachesAssumptions• Learningoccursaslearnersareactivelyinvolvedinaprocessofmeaningandknowledgeconstruction• Childrenarethebuildersofmeaningandknowledge.Knowledgeisnotgivenbutgainedthroughrealexperiencesthathavepurposeandmeaningtothelearner.

Intheclassroom• thelearnersareactivelyinvolved• theenvironmentisdemocratic• theactivitiesareinteractiveandstudent-centered• theteacherfacilitatesaprocessoflearninginwhichstudentsareencouragedtoberesponsibleandautonomous

• studentsworkprimarilyingroupsandlearningandknowledgeareinteractiveanddynamic.

People• Dewey,Piaget,Montessori,Vygotsky

Methods• Task-basedLearning;Inquiry-basedlearning;CooperativeLearning,Text-based

CHARACTERISTICS1. Group-centered.Students

areincontrolofcontent&learningprocess.

2. Syllabusandlessonplansdynamicanddevelopedprogressively

TRADITIONALvsCONSTRUCTIVIST1.Beginswithpartsofthewhole2.Emphasizesbasicskills3.Strictadherencetofixedcurriculum&syllabus4.Textbooksandworkbooksused5.Instructorgives/studentsreceive6.Instructorassumesdirective,

authoritativerole7.Assessmentviatesting/correct

answers8.Knowledgeisinert&static9.Studentsgenerallyworkindividually10.PRODUCToflearning- theoutput- isparamount.

1.Beginwiththewhole– expandingtoparts2.Pursuitofstudentquestions/interests3.PrimarySources/manipulativematerials4.Learningisinteraction– buildingonwhatstudentsalreadyknow5.Tchr interacts&negotiateswithstdts6.Assessmentviastudentworks,observations,pointsofview,tests.7.PROCESSoflearningisasimportantasproductoflearning8.Knowledgeisdynamic/changeswithexperiences9.Studentsgenerallyworkingroups

METHOD

Language&LanguageLearning

• ThePRACTICALIMPLEMENTATIONoftheassumptionsandbeliefsaboutthenatureof

thataparticularAPPROACHuses.

INFLUENTIALMETHODSOFLANGUAGETEACHING

• DIRECTMETHOD

• GBA/TBA(Genre/Text-BasedApproach)• CBI/CBT(Content-BasedInstruction/Teaching)

• IMMERSION

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=developsnaturallythroughoutchildhoodTheoryofLanguageLearning =makeL2languagelearninglikeL1

languagelearning

METHOD1

Characteristics:- NotranslationfromL1oruseofL1atall- Speakonlyinthetargetlanguage(i.e.theL2)- Usegesturesanddemonstrationifnecessary- Noparticularfocusongrammarrulesbutratherteachersencourage

directandspontaneoususeofL2.Learnersinduce grammarrules.

Heyday:late1860s- 1920s- originatedinBostonUSA,butmainlypopularinEurope

DIRECTMETHOD

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=languageissystematic&structuredatalllevelsTheoryofLanguageLearning =memorizationoftheL2’sfactsand

rulesinordertounderstanditsmorphologyandsyntax

METHOD2

Characteristics:- Student’sL1isthemediumofinstruction- StudyinginvolvesadetailedanalysisoftheL2’sgrammarrulesfollowedbytranslationexercisesintoandoutoftheL2- Reading&writingaremajorfocus(noSpeaking/Listeningfocus)- Grammartaughtdeductively&systematicallywithvocabfromthetexts- Accuracyisemphasized;thesentenceisthebasicunit.

Heyday:1850s- 1940s- OriginatedfromGermanlinguists- FirstappearedinUSin1840s

GRAMMARTRANSLATIONMETHOD(GTM)

TheoryofLanguage=languageisstructuredatalllevelsTheoryofLanguageLearning =languageislearntbydrillingstructurestoform‘habits’oflanguageuse.

METHOD3

Characteristics:- Reliesheavilyonrepetitivedrills- Substitutionbuiltintodrills- Learnersshieldedfrommistakesduetodrilldesigne.g.Teacher:Iamagoodstudent…repeat

Student:IamagoodstudentTeacher:dentistStudent:Iamagooddentist

Heyday:1950s- 1960s- Grewoutofbehaviorism&structurallinguistics- popularinJapanuntilthelate1980s- ’ListeningLabs’producedbySony&courses/cassettetapesbythe‘SEIDO’company.

AUDIOLINGUALMETHOD(ALM)

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=Speechisthebasisoflanguagewhichisapurposefulactivityrelatedtogoalsandsituationsintherealworld.TheoryofLanguageLearning =habitformation

METHOD4

Characteristics:- Grammaristaughtinductivelynotsystematically- Meaningofwordsorstructuresisnotexplained- Studentsdeducemeaningfromthewaytheformisusedinasituation- Materialistaughtorallybeforeitispresentedinwrittenform- Vocabulary&grammartobetaughtcamefromthespoken ‘sentence’- TheL2isthelanguageoftheclassroom

Heyday:1930s- 1960s- Britishappliedlinguists- Superceded byCLT

SITUATIONALLANGUAGETEACHING(SLT)orSTRUCTURALORALAPPROACH

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=languageiscompetenceincommunicationTheoryofLanguageLearning = proficiencyisarrivedatbyusinglanguagecommunicatively

METHOD5

Characteristics:- Studentscompletetasksdesignedtonegotiateandexchangeinformation- Tasksarecooperativesolearningoccursininteractionwithothers- Grammarandvocabularyaretaughtasneeded- Teacherinterventioniskepttoaminimum- Focusisthecommunicativeprocessnotthelanguageformsorstructures(product).

heyday:1980s- current- InitiallydevelopedinInnerCircle(i.e.native-Englishspeaking)countriestoteachEnglish-as-a-Second-Language(ESL)learners.

COMMUNICATIVELANGUAGETEACHING(CLT)

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=itisameansofmakingmeaningTheoryofLanguageLearning =studentslearnlanguageincidentallywhensolvingareal-worldtaskorproblemintheL2

METHOD6

Characteristics:- Studentsaregivenatasktoperformandonlywhenthetaskiscompleteddoestheteacherdiscussthelanguageused,makecorrectionsetc.- Focusisthetask (process)notthelanguageformsorstructures(product)- Speakingandtryingtocommunicateusingavailablelinguisticresourcesisthebasis- Tasksshouldgeneratenegotiation,modification,rephrasing,experimentation

heyday:1990s- current

TASK-BASEDINSTRUCTION(TBI)

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=languageoccursinspecificsocialcontextsforspecificpurposesTheoryofLanguageLearning =languageislearntthroughmasteryofspoken&writtentexts

METHOD7

Characteristics:- explicitteachingaboutthestructuralfeaturesofspokenandwrittentexts- Grammar&vocabularyarehighlightedandstudiedwithinthespecifictext- Thetexttypesthatareusedarelinkedtotheculturalcontextsoftheiruse.- Syllabusisconstructedafteraneedsanalysisofstudents'languageuserequirements,grammar,vocabulary&functionsareselectedfor4-skillsstudy

heyday:current- OriginatedinAustralianESLinthemid-1990s

GENRE-BASEDAPPROACH(GBA)orTEXT-BASEDINSTRUCTION(TBI)APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=atoolforlearningcontentforspecificpurposesTheoryofLanguageLearning =learnedwhenacquiringinformation

METHOD8

Characteristics:- SyllabustakesintoaccounttheeventualusesthelearnerwillmakeofL2- Focusisonmasteryofcontentratherthanmasteryoflanguage- Teachersmustbeknowledgeableinsubjectmatter- Materialsusedinlessonsmustbe‘authentic’- Studentsbringimportantknowledgeandexperiencestothelesson- Contentcanbeorganised thematicallyatlowerlevelsandacrosssubjects

heyday:1990s- current

CONTENT-BASEDINSTRUCTION(CBI)

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=atoolforlearningcontentforspecificpurposesTheoryofLanguageLearning =languageislearnedthroughcontent

METHOD9

Characteristics:- Dualfocusoncontent&language- Startingpointforplanningisasubject’scontent- Grammar&vocabularycomefromlanguageofcontent- Translanguaging isacceptable(useofL1&L2)inalesson- 3Typesoflanguageinalesson:(a)languageFORlearning,(b)languageOFlearning,(c)languageTHROUGHlearning

heyday:1990s– current- OriginatedinEuropeinthemid-1990s

CONTENT&LANGUAGEINTEGRATEDLEARNING(CLIL)

APPROACH

TheoryofLanguage=languageislearnednaturallyTheoryofLanguageLearning =sinkorswim

METHOD10

Characteristics:- NospecificfocusonL2languagelearning- Studentexpectedtojoininregularsubjectlessons- AcceleratedlearningofL2language- NouseofL1inclassroom

heyday:1990s– current- OriginatedinEuropeinthemid-1990s

IMMERSION

APPROACH

OTHERS

SILENTWAY

COMPETENCY-BASEDINSTRUCTION

THENATURALAPPROACH

TOTALPHYSICALRESPONSE

COOPERATIVELEARNING

WHOLELANGUAGEAPPROACH

MULTIPLEINTELLIGENCES

NUEROLINGUISTICPROGRAMMING

COMMUNITYLANGUAGELEARNING

SUGGESTOPEDIA

THELEXICALAPPROACH

TEXT-BASEDINSTRUCTION

Quotationsaboutteaching• 1Whodarestoteachmustneverceasetolearn. JohnCottonDana• 2. Ateacherisonewhomakeshimselfprogressivelyunnecessary. ThomasCarruthers• 3. Agoodteacherislikeacandle- itconsumesitselftolightthewayforothers Unknown• 4. Themediocreteachertells. Thegoodteacherexplains. Thesuperiorteacherdemonstrates. Thegreatteacherinspires. WilliamArthurWard

• 5. Ateacher'spurposeisnottocreatestudentsinhisownimage,buttodevelopstudentswhocancreatetheirownimage. Unknown

• 6. Theteacherwhoisindeedwisedoesnotbidyoutoenterthehouseofhiswisdombutratherleadsyoutothethresholdofyourmind. KahlilGibran

• 7.Educationisnotthefillingofapail,butthelightingofafire.WilliamButlerYeats• 8.Teachersopenthedoor,butyoumustenterbyyourself. Chineseproverb• 9.Teachingshouldbesuchthatwhatisofferedisperceivedasavaluablegiftandnotasahardduty. AlbertEinstein

• 10.Ifachildcan’tlearnthewayweteach,thenperhapsweshouldteachthewaytheylearn.Ignatio Estrada

• 11.Goodteachingisonefourthpreparationandthreefourthstheater.GailGodwin