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Topic 12The Biodiversity Crisis
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Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
Use ValueEconomic profitsMedicinal sourcesEcological services
Nonuse ValueAetheticsEnjoymentCultural inspiration
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Ecosystem Services
This is the idea that nature provides many services beyond economic goods that are not accounted for: Gas regulation Water purification Waste remediation Nutrient cycling Soil formation Etc….
Worth $16-54 trillion US dollars, on average $33 trillion (Costanza et al. 1997)
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Biodiversity & ecosystem functioning
Ecological communities with higher biological diversity are more resilient* and stable** than those with low biodiversity.
Both species and functional diversity levels are important factors in maintaining ecological communities. Species diversity: the number of different species it contains
(species richness) combined with the abundance of individuals within each of those species (species evenness).
Functional diversity: the number of different species performing specific roles in the community (eg diversity of primary producers or decomposers)
*Resiliency is the ability to recover from a disturbance.
**Stability refers to the maintenance of trophic levels and interspecific interactions.
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Fig. 4-12, p. 93
Tertiary
Bar width represents relative number of living speciesEra Period
Species and families experiencing
mass extinction
Millions ofyears ago
Ordovician
Devonian
500
345
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Extinction
Extinction
Pal
eozo
icM
eso
zoic
Cen
ozo
ic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Permian
Current extinction crisis
Cretaceous
Extinction
Extinction
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
250
180
65Extinction
ExtinctionQuaternary Today
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The Biodiversity Crisis
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Endangered & Threatened Species
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Some species have characteristics that make them vulnerable to ecological and biological extinction.
AT RISK SPECIES
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Generalist and Specialist Species: Broad and Narrow Niches
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SPECIES GONE OR AT RISK
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes an annual Red List
They place species into 9 categories
The 2010 Red List contains 18,351 species at risk for extinction out of 55,926 evaluated (33%).
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SPECIES EXTINCTION
Species can become extinct: LocallyEcologicallyGlobally (biologically)
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Global Extinction
Some animals have become prematurely extinct because of human activities.
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Dodo
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Steller’s sea cow
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SPECIES AT RISK
Percentage of various species types threatened with premature extinction from human activities.
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U.S. STATSThreatened species by broad taxonomic
grouping:Mammals: 37Birds: 74Reptiles: 32Amphibians: 56Fishes: 177Molluscs: 273Other Invertebrates: 258Plants: 245
U.S. FWS
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Reasons for biodiversity loss
H:habitat destruction and degradation
I: invasive species
P: population growth in humansP: pollution
O: overexploitation
HIPPO
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H: habitat degradation or loss
Terrestrial Deforestation
Loss of grasslands
Aquatic and marine Benthic habitat loss Erosion Eutrophication
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TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
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Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?
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HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION EXAMPLES
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Commercial fishing
BEFORE
AFTER
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I: invasive speciesNon-native species Not all exotics are invasive
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Characteristics of invasives
Many invasive species have qualities that make them successful in novel environments
Also depends on qualities of the habitats they are introduced to
© US FWS
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Zebra mussel
ecological & economic damage
~2 months
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Zebra mussel impacts
NegativeDecreased
populations of native shellfish
Altered water chemistry
Disruption of trophic dynamics
PositiveIncreased water
clarityIncreased light
penetration into water column
Increased photosynthesis
Increased populations of some other organisms
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Cane toad (Bufo marinus)
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P: pollution
Terrestrial Acid deposition Toxic dump sites Litter Pesticides Inorganic fertilizers Tropospheric ozone
Aquatic and marine Cultural eutrophication Pollutant deposition and
leaching Litter
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Pollutant Impacts: Litter
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Pollutant Impacts: Nutrient loading
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Pollution
Each year pesticides are estimated to kill:Kill about 1/5th of the U.S. honeybee colonies.67 million birds.6 -14 million fish.
And to threaten 1/5th of the U.S.’s endangered and threatened species.
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Peregrine Falcons: a success story
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O: overexploitation
HuntingCommercial fishing
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OVEREXPLOITATION
Figure 11-16Figure 11-16
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Over-fishing: About 75% of the world’s commercially
valuable marine fish species are over fished or fished near their sustainable limits.Big fish are becoming scarce.Smaller fish are next.30% of the fish that are caught are discarded.Bycatch
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Tragedy of the Commons Some resources are widely available and owned by no one (or everyone,
depending on your perspective). Many fisheries operate by the concept “if I don’t take it, someone else will”.
(A) Trajectories of collapsed fish and invertebrate taxa over the past 50 years (diamonds, collapses by year; triangles, cumulative collapses). Data are shown for all (black), species-poor (<500 species, blue), and species-rich (>500 species, red) LMEs. Regression lines are best-fit power models corrected for temporal autocorrelation. (Worm et al 2006, Figure 3A)
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Local examples
Figure 1. Frequency distributions of maximum known declines among marine fish populations over periods of at least 10 years, shown
(a) for all 232 populations (the median decline of 83% is identified by a vertical line) and for 3 families:
(b) Clupeidae (n = 56, median decline = 91%; includes Atlantic herring,Clupea harengus);
(c) Gadidae (n = 70, median decline = 80%; includes Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, and haddock,Melanogrammus aeglefinus); and
(d) Pleuronectidae (n = 30, median decline = 74%; includes flatfishes such as flounder, sole, and halibut).
Hutchings and Reynolds 2004
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Fig. 12-A, p. 255
Fish farming in cage
Trawler fishing
Spotter airplane
Sonar
Trawl flap
Trawl lines
Purse-seine fishing
Trawl bagFish school
Drift-net fishingLong line fishing
Lines with hooks
Fish caught by gills
Deep sea aquaculture cage
Float Buoy
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Shark finning
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Bycatch
Incidental capture of non-target Incidental capture of non-target aquatic animals in fishing operations aquatic animals in fishing operations (commercial or recreational)(commercial or recreational)
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Discards in US Fisheries (2002)
Source: Harrington et al., 2005
FISHERYFISHERY DISCARD DISCARD WEIGHT WEIGHT (mt)(mt)
DISCARD DISCARD RATERATE
SPECIESSPECIES
SEUS, G. of Mexico SEUS, G. of Mexico shrimp trawlsshrimp trawls
507,845507,845 4.394.39 Snappers, mackerel, Atlantic Snappers, mackerel, Atlantic croaker, crabs, porgies, croaker, crabs, porgies, menhadenmenhaden
Northeast groundfish Northeast groundfish fisheryfishery
97,68897,688 1.791.79 Spiny dogfish, skates, Spiny dogfish, skates, butterfish, monkish, hakebutterfish, monkish, hake
West coast West coast groundfish fisherygroundfish fishery
23,29723,297 0.880.88 Flatfish, skates, halibut, Flatfish, skates, halibut, whiting, sharkswhiting, sharks
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Global Discards (1992-2001)Global Discards (1992-2001)
Source: Kelleher, 2005
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Commercial whaling: another tragedy of the commons
1925-1975 1.5 million whales killed
8 of 11 major species reduced to levels not profitable to hunt any more
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Commercial whalingCurrent pop. sizes: Humpbacks 10,000 Fin 56,000 Minke 149,000 Blue 10,000
Pre-exploitation pop. sizes:Humpbacks 240,000Fin 360,000Minke 265,000Blue 200,000
Roman & Palumbi 2003
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International Policies
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, 1946 to regulate global whale stocks (est.’d the IWC)
Mission was to set sustainable quotasMoratorium 1986 (US ended commercial
whaling in 1970)
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Commercial Whaling
Despite ban, Japan, Norway, and Iceland kill about 1,300 whales of certain species (minke, fin, humpback) for “scientific purposes”.
Figure 12-5Figure 12-5
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Lake Victoria
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Whooping cranes: a fledgling success story
Current Whooping Crane population: Wild #: 407 (99 pairs) Captive #: 167 (34 pairs)
Source: Whooping Crane ConservationAssociation
Whooping Crane Cons. Assoc.
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P: human population growth