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Gtpapay;[Gjpa ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;]

mstw;w mUshsDk;> epfuw;w md;GilNahDkhfpa Vf,iwtdpd; jpUg;ngauhy;...

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF) 1

nghUslf;fk;

G+kpAk; R+hpaf; FLk;gKk; 2 Rod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kp 3 ehk; thOk; G+kp 4 tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk; 5 Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs; 5 Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; epyf;Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G 7 thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk; 9 Nghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik 13 Nguhopapay; - Xh; mwpKfk; 13 ts Mjhuq;fs; 14 ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk; 15 Kjy; epiy njhopypd; tiffs; 16 Ruq;fj; njhopy; 16 gaph;fs; 17 ,uz;lhk;epiy njhopy; 18 njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs; 18 tzpfk; 19 Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; 19 kf;fs;njhif tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; guty; 20 kf;fs;njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk; 20 jkpo;ehL 21 jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;Gfs; 21 jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy 22 jkpo;ehL - tsq;fs; 23 jkpo;ehL - Ntshd;ik 24 jkpo;ehL - cw;gj;jp njhopw;rhiyfs; 25 Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk; 25 jkpo;ehL - thzpgk; 26 jkpo;ehL - kf;fs; njhif 26 Rw;Wr;R+oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila epfo;TfSk; 27 tsq;fs; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;r;rpAk; 27 ,e;jpah - miktplKk; ,aw;if mikg;Gk; 28 ,e;jpah - fhyepiy 32 ,e;jpah - ,aw;if tsq;fs; 33 ,e;jpah Ntshz;ik 35

,e;jpah - njhopyfq;fs; 37 Rw;Wr;R+oy; gpur;rpidfs; 38 tzpfk; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; 38 njhiy Ez;Zzh;T 41


Gtpapay;Gtpapay;Gtpapay;Gtpapay;

G+kpAk; #hpaf; FLk;gKk;G+kpAk; #hpaf; FLk;gKk;G+kpAk; #hpaf; FLk;gKk;G+kpAk; #hpaf; FLk;gKk;

Nfhs;fs; (Nfhs;fs; (Nfhs;fs; (Nfhs;fs; (Planets) : njhiyNehf;fp Nghd;w fUtpfs; ,y;yhky; ntWk;

fz;fshy; Gjd;> nts;sp> nrt;tha;> tpahod;> rdp Mfpa Ie;J Nfhs;fis kl;LNk ghh;f;f KbAk;.

Mdhy; ANud]; kw;Wk; neg;bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fisj; njhiyNehf;fpahy; kl;LNk fhz ,aYk;.

Gjd;> nts;sp Mfpa Nfhs;fs; R+hpa cjaj;jpw;Fr; rw;W Kd;Gk; khiyapy; kiwe;j gpd;Gk; Gyg;gLk;.

nts;spf; Nfhs; fhiyapy; R+hpa cjaj;jpw;Fr; rw;W Kd;G Gyg;gLk; NghJ tpbnts;sptpbnts;sptpbnts;sptpbnts;sp vd miof;fpd;wdh;.

G+kp Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fpr; Roy;tjhy;jhd; R+hpaDk; tpz;kPd;fSk; kw;Wk; thd; nghUs;fSk; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;F Nehf;fpr; nry;tJ Nghd;wnjhU Njhw;wk; fpilf;fpwJ.

R+hpaf; FLk;gk; (R+hpaf; FLk;gk; (R+hpaf; FLk;gk; (R+hpaf; FLk;gk; (Solar system) :) :) :) : njhiyNehf;fpfs; topNa Muha;e;jhy; ANud];> neg;bA+d;

Mfpa Nfhs;fisAk;> FWq;Nfhs;fisAk;> Fs;sf;Nfhs;fisAk;> thy;el;rj;jpuq;fisAk; gy Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;kPd;fisAk;> mz;lq;fisAk;> thAj; jpus;fisAk; fhzyhk;.

R+hpaDf;F nkhj;jk; cl;Lf; Nfhs;fs;> vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd. G+kpAk; xU Nfhs;jhd;. G+kpapd; tspkz;lyj;jpy; caph;tsp (Mf;]p[d;) ,Ug;gjhy; gw;gy caph;fSk;> ehKk; tho KbfpwJ.

R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; vl;Lf; Nfhs;fisAk; jplf;Nfhs;fs;> thAf;Nfhs;fs; vd ,uz;L gphpYfshf gphpf;fyhk;. Gjd;> nts;sp> G+kp> nrt;tha; Mfpa ehd;Fk; jplf;Nfhs;fs;.

tpahod;> rdp> ANud];> neg;bA+d; Mfpa ehd;Fk; thAf;Nfhs;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; ePs;tl;lg;ghijapy; R+hpaidr; rw;Nwwf; Fiwa xNu rkjsj;jpy; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.

R+hpad; :R+hpad; :R+hpad; :R+hpad; :

R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; ehafd; R+hpad; jhd;.

R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; xsp kw;Wk; ntg;gj;jpw;F %y Mjhuk; R+hpad;jhd;.

,J G+kpapypUe;J Rkhh; 15 Nfhb fp.kP. njhiytpy; cs;sJ.

R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; jhNd xspUk; xNu thd;nghUs; Rhpad;jhd;.

R+hpa xsp G+kpia te;jila MFk; fhyk; - 8 epkplk; nehb.

rdpf;Nfhspd; tisak; :rdpf;Nfhspd; tisak; :rdpf;Nfhspd; tisak; :rdpf;Nfhspd; tisak; :

njhiyNehf;fp topNa ghh;j;jhy; rdpf;Nfhisr; Rw;wp tisak; Nghd;w mikg;G fhzg;gLk;. Ez;fw;fSk; JhRk; gdpAk; nfhz;l njhFjpNa ,e;j tisak;.

rdpapd; tisak;jhd; vLg;ghdJ vd;whYk; tpahod;> ANud];> neg;bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fSf;Fk; tisaq;fs; cs;sd.

Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; :Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; :Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; :Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; :

GSl;Nlh> nru];> Vhp];> Nkf;Nkf;> `t;kpNa Kjypad 2006Mk; Mz;L Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; vd Gjpjhf tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.

ve;jf; NfhSf;Fk; jhdhf xsp ckpOk; jd;ik ,y;iy. mjhtJ Nfhs;fSf;Fr; Ra xsp fpilahJ. R+hpa xspiaNa mit gpujpgspf;fpd;wd.

FWq;Nfhs;fs; (FWq;Nfhs;fs; (FWq;Nfhs;fs; (FWq;Nfhs;fs; (Asteroids) :) :) :) : nrt;tha; NfhSf;Fk; tpahod; NfhSf;Fk; ,ilapy;

,yl;rf;fzf;fhd FWq;Nfhs;fs; cs;sd.

,e;jpahtpd; thdtpay; mwpQh; itZghg;G> tpz;ntsp Jiwapd; je;ij rhuhgha;> fzpjNkij ,uhkhD[k; MfpNahh; ngah;fspy; FWq;Nfhs;fs; cs;sd.

re;jpud; :re;jpud; :re;jpud; :re;jpud; :

epyT> epyh> kjp. jpq;fs; vdg; gy ngah;fspy; re;jpud; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

re;jpud; xUNfhs; ,y;iy.

Nfhs;Nfhs;Nfhs;Nfhs; Nfhs;fisr; Rw;Wk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs;Nfhs;fisr; Rw;Wk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs;Nfhs;fisr; Rw;Wk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs;Nfhs;fisr; Rw;Wk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs;

Gjd; 0

nts;sp 0

G+kp 1

nrt;tha; 2

tpahod; 63

rdp 60

ANud]; 27

neg;bA+d; 13

Nfhs;fs; jd;iNfhs;fs; jd;iNfhs;fs; jd;iNfhs;fs; jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tu vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhyKk;dj;jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tu vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhyKk;dj;jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tu vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhyKk;dj;jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tu vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhyKk;

Nfhs;Nfhs;Nfhs;Nfhs; R+hpaidr; Rod;wthW R+hpaidr; Rod;wthW R+hpaidr; Rod;wthW R+hpaidr; Rod;wthW Rw;wp tUk; fhyk;Rw;wp tUk; fhyk;Rw;wp tUk; fhyk;Rw;wp tUk; fhyk; R+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyTR+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyTR+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyTR+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyT Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;

Gjd; 87.97 ehs;fs; 5.79 Nfhb fp;kP 58.6 ehs;fs;

nts;sp 224.7 ehs;fs; 10.82 Nfhb fp.kP (-) 243 ehs;fs;

G+kp 365.24 ehs;fs; 15 Nfhb fp.kP 23 kzp 56 epkplq;fs;

nrt;tha; 687 ehs;fs; 22.79 Nfhb fp.kP 24 kzp 37 epkplq;fs;

tpahod; 11Mz;Lfs; 10khjq;fs; 77.83 Nfhb fp.kP 9 kzp 55 epkplq;fs;

rdp 29Mz;Lfs; 5khjq;fs; 142.7 Nfhb fp.kP 10 kzp 40 epkplq;fs;

ANud]; 84Mz;Lfs; 287.1 Nfhb fp.kP (-) 17 kzp 14 epkplq;fs;

neg;bAd; 164Mz;Lfs; 9khjq;fs; 449.7 Nfhb fp.kP 16 kzp

(-) Fwpapl;l nts;sp kw;Wk; ANud]; Nfhs;fs; jw;Row;rpapy; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhfr; Rw;Wfpd;wd. Mdhy; kw;w midj;Jf;

Nfhs;fSk; jw;Row;rpapy; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhfr; Rw;Wfpd;wd. Mjhuk; : NASA-USA


re;jpud; R+hpaid Neubahfr; Rw;Wtjpy;iy. mJ G+kpiaj;jhd; Rw;wp tUfpwJ. vdNt re;jpuidj; Jizf;Nfhs; vd miof;fpd;wdh;.

re;jpud; G+kpapd; tpl;lj;jpy; Rkhh; fhy;gq;F msT kl;LNk cs;s NfhskhFk;. G+kpf;F kpf mUNf cs;sjhy;jhd; mJ nghpjhfg; Gyg;gLfpwJ. mJ ruhrhp 3>84>401 fp.kP njhiytpy; G+kpiar; Rw;wp tUfpwJ.

re;jpud; G+kpiar; Rw;wptu Vwj;jho 27.3 ehs;fs; vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. re;jpud; jd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf;nfhs;s Vwj;jho 27.3 ehs;fs; vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. vdNtjhd; G+kpapypUe;J ghh;j;jhy; re;jpudpd; xU gf;fk; kl;LNk njhpfpwJ.

re;jpudpd; kWgf;fj;ij Yhdh 3 vd;w nraw;iff;Nfhs;jhd; 1959 ,y; Kjd; Kjypy; Gifg;glk; vLj;jJ.

G+kpapy; cs;sJ Nghd;w tspkz;lyk; ,y;iy. re;jpudpy; JhR Kjypa nghUs;fs; epiwe;j gdpg;ghiwjhd; mJ. R+hpaDf;F mUNf mJ tUk;NghJ gdp cUfp MtpahjyhYk;> R+hpaxsp gpujpg;gypg;gjhYk; thy; Nghy; ePz;L Njhd;WfpwJ.

thy; el;rj;jpuj;jpd; thy; vg;NghJk; R+hpaDf;F vjph;j;jpirapy; mikAk;.

N`ypthy; el;rj;jpuk; 76 tUlq;fSf;F xUkiw Njhd;Wk;.

Last - 1986 : Next - 2062. Nguz;lk; :Nguz;lk; :Nguz;lk; :Nguz;lk; :

gy Nfhbf;fzf;fhd tpz;kPd;fspd; njhFjpNa mz;lk; vdg;gLk;.

gy Nfhbf;fzf;fhd mz;lq;fisf; nfhz;l njhFjpNa Nguz;lkhFk;.

Nguz;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; gy;NtW mz;lq;fspd; xd;W ghy;tsp mz;lk; MFk;.

ghy;ntsp mz;lk; :ghy;ntsp mz;lk; :ghy;ntsp mz;lk; :ghy;ntsp mz;lk; :

R+hpad; cl;gl fz;fSf;Fg; Gyg;gLk; tpz;kPd;fs; vy;yhk;

ghy;ntsp mz;lj;ijr; (Milk Way Galaxy) rhh;e;jit. ,jid ekJ Kd;Ndhh; ghy;ntsp (Milk Way) vdTk;>

Mfha fq;if vdTk; mioj;jdh;.

G+kp Xh; caph;f;Nfhsk; :G+kp Xh; caph;f;Nfhsk; :G+kp Xh; caph;f;Nfhsk; :G+kp Xh; caph;f;Nfhsk; :

R+hpadplkpUe;J %d;whtJ Nfhsfg; G+kp mike;Js;sJ. nts;spAk;> GjDk; kpFe;j ntg;gk; nfhz;l Nfhs;fs;.

nrt;tha;> tpahod;> rdp> ANud];> neg;bA+d;> Mfpa Nfhs;fs; R+HpadpypUe;J ntF njhiytpy; ,Ug;gjhy; fLq;Fsph; epyTfpwJ.

G+kpapy; kl;LNk ePUk;> fhw;Wk; cfe;j ntg;g epiyAk; ,Ug;gjhy; caph;fs; cUthfpg; ngUFfpd;wd.

1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; kl;LNk Gyg;gLk; Nfhs;1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; kl;LNk Gyg;gLk; Nfhs;1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; kl;LNk Gyg;gLk; Nfhs;1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; kl;LNk Gyg;gLk; Nfhs; m) Gjd; M) ANud]; ,) tpahod;

tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

2. 2. 2. 2. vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaidvy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaidvy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaidvy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaid ................apy;apy;apy;apy; Rw;wp Rw;wp Rw;wp Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.tUfpd;wd.tUfpd;wd.tUfpd;wd. m) tl;lg;ghij M) ePs;tl;lg;ghij ,) rJug;ghij tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

3. FWq;Nfhs;fspd; ghij 3. FWq;Nfhs;fspd; ghij 3. FWq;Nfhs;fspd; ghij 3. FWq;Nfhs;fspd; ghij ................ m) G+kpf;Fk; nrt;tha;f;Fk; ,ilNa M) nrt;tha;f;Fk; tpahoDf;Fk; ,ilNa ,) tahoDf;Fk; rdpf;Fk; ,ilNa tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

Rod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kpRod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kpRod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kpRod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kp

G+kp vg;NghJk; gw;gy ,af;fq;fs; efh;Tfisf; nfhz;lJ.

,tw;Ws; jw;Row;rp (Rotation) kw;Wk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUjy; (Revolution) Mfpa ,af;fq;fs; Kf;fpakhdit.

jw;Row;rp jw;Row;rp jw;Row;rp jw;Row;rp (Rotation) : Rkhh; 23 Kjy; 56 epkplj;jpw;F xUKiw G+kp

jd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf; nfhs;fpwJ.

,jd; fhuzkhfj;jhd; gfy; ,uT khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.

,e;jpahtpd; gfyhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ G+kpapd; kWgf;fk; cs;s mnkhpf;fhtpy; ,uTg;nghOjhf ,Uf;Fk;.

Mhpag;gl;lh ,th; gz;ila ,e;jpa thdtpay; mwpQh;fSs; xUth;> ,th; G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;WfpwJ vd;W mwptpay; topapy; tpsf;fpf; $wpdhh;.

G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;WtJ kl;Lkpy;yhky; R+hpaid ePs;tl;l tbtg; ghijapy; Rw;wp tUfpwJ.

Rw;wp 365.24 ehs;fs; nfhz;lJ Xh; Mz;L MFk;.

G+kpapd; Roy; mr;R G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; jsj;jpy;

Neh;Fj;jpw;F 23 0 rha;e;Js;sJ. ,g;gb rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy;jhd; gUt fhy khw;wk;

Vw;gLfpwJ.

R+hpaidr; RwR+hpaidr; RwR+hpaidr; RwR+hpaidr; Rw;wptUjy; (;wptUjy; (;wptUjy; (;wptUjy; (Revolution) ) ) ) : Nfhilf;fhyk;> tre;jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk;> ,iyAjph;fhyk;

vd ehd;F gUt fhyq;fs; cs;sd.

G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; Rw;Wg;ghij ePs;tl;lkhdJ.

xUrkak; G+kp R+hpaDf;F mUNf mikAk;. xU rkak; R+hpaDf;Fj; njhiytpy; mikAk;.

(aphelion) nghJthf [Piy 4> khjj;jpy; G+kp R+hpaDf;F ntFnjhiytpy; ,Uf;Fk;> [dthp 3> khjj;jpy; jpd

mUNf ,Uf;Fk; (perihelion). tlNfhsj;jpy; cs;s jkpofj;jpy; brk;gh; khjk;

Fsph;fhykhf ,Uf;Fk;. mNj rkak; njf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;s M];jpNuypahTf;F NfhilfhykhFk;.

tlNfhsj;jpy; Nfhilf;fhyk; vd;why; njd;Nfhsj;jpy; Fsph;fhyk;> tlNfhsj;jpy; Fsph; fhyk; vd;why; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; Nfhil fhyk; vd khwpkhwp mikAk;.


G+kpapd; mr;R rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy; gUtfhy khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.

,uz;L ehs;fs; kpfr; rhpahff; fpof;F Kfkhfr; R+hpad;

cjpf;Fk;. ,JNt rk ,uT gfy; ehs;fs; (Equinox). khh;r; 21 kw;Wk; nrg;lk;gh; 23 Mfpa ,U ehs;fs; rk ,uT

- gfy; ehs;fshf ,Uf;Fk;.

brk;gh; 22> M];jpNuypahtpy; Nfhil vdNt mq;Ff; fpwp];Jk]; gz;bif Nfhil tpohthf mikfpwJ.

jkpo; kugpd;gb gUt fhyq;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; ,uz;L khjq;fs;nfhz;l MW gUtfhyq;fshf cs;sd.

fhh; (kio)> Fsph;> Kd;gdp> gpd;gdp> ,sNtdpy;> KJNtdpy; vd;gitjhk; ,e;j MW gUtfhyq;fs;.

cyfyhtpa ghh;itapy; ehd;F gUtfhyq;fis tFj;Js;shh;fs;. mit ,iyAjph;fhyk;> Nfhilfhyk;> tre;jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk; vd;git MFk;.

1. G+kpapd; mr;R1. G+kpapd; mr;R1. G+kpapd; mr;R1. G+kpapd; mr;R................bfphp rha;bfphp rha;bfphp rha;bfphp rha;e;Js;sJe;Js;sJe;Js;sJe;Js;sJ

m) 230 M) 660 ,) 900 tpil : mtpil : mtpil : mtpil : m 2222. G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLG+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLG+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLG+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLk; k; k; k; tpisTtpisTtpisTtpisT m) gUtfhy khw;wk; M) ,uTg;gfy; khw;wk; ,) njd; Xl;lk; tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M 3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs;3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs;3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs;3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs; m) 28 M) 29 ,) 27 tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

ehk; thOk; G+kpehk; thOk; G+kpehk; thOk; G+kpehk; thOk; G+kp

Rw;wpAs;s epyg;gFjpfistplr; rw;Nw caukhfTk; mjd; Nkw;gFjp jl;ilahfTk; cs;s epymikg;G gPlG+kp vdg;gLfpwJ. jpngj; gPlG+kpjhd; cyfpd; kpf caukhd gPlG+kp MFk;.

gue;J tphpe;J jho;thd rkkhd epyg;gug;G rkntsp vdg;gLfpwJ. fq;if MW ghAk; tl ,e;jpag; gFjp cyfpd; Kf;fpar; rkntspfspy; xd;W.

Mrpah> Mg;hpf;fh> tlmnkhpf;fh> njd;mnkhpf;fh> INuhg;gh> M];jpNuypah> mz;lhh;l;bfh vd nkhj;jk; VO fz;lq;fs; cyfpy; cs;sd.

VO fz;lq;fs; :VO fz;lq;fs; :VO fz;lq;fs; :VO fz;lq;fs; : 1. Mrpah1. Mrpah1. Mrpah1. Mrpah

VO fz;lq;fspy; kpfg; nghpaJ Mrpah. ,J G+kpapd; tlmiuf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;sJ.

ehk; thOk; ,e;jpah Mrpahf; fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ. Nfhgp Fsph;ghiytdk;> caukhd ,kakiyj;njhlh; Kjypait ,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sd.

2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh

gug;gstpy; ,J ,uz;lhtJ nghpa fz;lk; MFk;.

epyeLf;NfhL ,e;jf; fz;lj;ij ,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fpwJ.

cyfpy; kpf ePskhd iey;ejp (6695 fp.kP) ,f;fz;lj;jpy; gha;fpwJ.

kpfg;nghpa ghiytdkhd rfhuhTk; ,f;fz;lj;jpy;jhd; cs;sJ.

3. tlmnkhpf;fh3. tlmnkhpf;fh3. tlmnkhpf;fh3. tlmnkhpf;fh

ml;yhz;bf;> grpgpf; kw;Wk; Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;fshy; R+og;gl;l fz;lk; ,J. ,jd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapYs;s uhf;fp kiyj;njhlh; kpf ePz;l kiyj;njhlh;.

4. njd; mnkhpf;fh4. njd; mnkhpf;fh4. njd; mnkhpf;fh4. njd; mnkhpf;fh

cyfpd; ePykhd Mz;b]; kiyj;njhlh; ,e;jf; fz;lj;jpy;jhd; cs;sJ. cyfpd; kpf mfd;w mNkrhd; MW (6586 fp.kP ePsk;) ,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.

5. INuhg;gh5. INuhg;gh5. INuhg;gh5. INuhg;gh

Mrpahtpd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s fz;lk; ,J. My;g;]; kiyj;njhlh; INuhg;ghtpy; cs;sJ

6. M];jpNuypah6. M];jpNuypah6. M];jpNuypah6. M];jpNuypah

ehd;F gf;fKk; fly;fshy; R+og;gl;l M];jpNuypah

xU jPTf; fz;lk; (Island Continent). ,f;fz;lk; epA+rpyhe;J> gp[p Nghd;w gy jPTfisf; nfhz;lJ.

gp[pj; jPTfs;> ghg;Gth> epA+fpdpah Kjypa jPTfs; nghJthf xrpahdpaj; jPTfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.

fpNul; ghhpah; hPg; vdg;gLk; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa gtsg;ghiw M];jpNuypaf; flw;fiwapy; cs;sJ.

7. mz;lhh;l;bfh7. mz;lhh;l;bfh7. mz;lhh;l;bfh7. mz;lhh;l;bfh

ngd;Fapd; gwit> rPy; Nghd;w caphpdq;fspd; tho;tplk; ,J.

,q;F Ma;Tfs; Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf jl;rpz; fq;Nfhj;hp ikj;Nuap kw;Wj; ghujp (2012) vDk; Ma;Tf; FbapUg;Gfis ek; ehL epWtpAs;sJ.

jPjPjPjPT :T :T :T :

ehd;F gf;fq;fSk; ePuhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpiaj; jPT vdf; $WfpNwhk;.

ngUq;fly;fs;ngUq;fly;fs;ngUq;fly;fs;ngUq;fly;fs;

G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; Rkhh; 71rjtPjk; (%d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F) ePh; cs;sJ.

cyfpy; Ie;J ngUq;fly;fs; cs;sd.

mit grpgpf; ngUq;fly;> ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;> ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;> Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; kw;Wk; mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly;.

jkpofj;jpd; fpof;Nf cs;s gFjpia tq;fhs tphpFlh vdTk;> Nfusj;jpd; Nkw;Nf cs;s fly; gFjpia mugpf;fly; vdTk; $WfpNwhk;.

grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :

cyfpd; Mokhd ngUq;fly; grpgpf;ngUq;fly;jhd;.

vhpkiyfs; neUg;Gf; Fok;igf; ff;Ftjhy; ,g;gFjp

grpgpf; neUg;G tisak; (Pacific Ring of Fire) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahdh mfop (Mariana Trench) vDk; fly;gFjp. ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhd; cs;sJ Mok; 111nr.kP.

,e;j khpahdh mfop vDk; gs;sj;jpw;Fs; ,kakiyapd; vtnu];L rpfuk;$l mkpo;e;JtpLk; mt;tsT Mok;.

ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;

,J cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ ngUq;fly; kpf typik nfhz;l R+whtspfs; ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhk; mjpfkhfj; Njhd;Wfpd;wd

,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;

,J cyfpd; %d;whtJ nghpa ngUq;fly; ,g;ngUq;flypy; cUthFk; gUtf; fhw;W kioapdhy;jhd; ,e;jpah tsk; ngWfpwJ.

mz;mz;mz;mz;lhh;l;bf; ngUq;fly; lhh;l;bf; ngUq;fly; lhh;l;bf; ngUq;fly; lhh;l;bf; ngUq;fly; (South Ocean - 550South) njd;JUtg; gFjpapy; cs;s mz;lhh;;bfh fz;lj;ijr; Rw;wpg; gue;Js;s fly; njd; ngUq;fly; vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jid mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly; vd;Wk; miog;gh;. Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; tlJUtg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s kpfr; rpwpa ngUq;fly; Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; MFk;.


epyg;gFjpfs; nfhz;l G+kpapd; Nkw;gFjp epyf;Nfhsk;

(Lithosphere) vdTk;> ePh; Njq;fpa gFjpfs; eP;h;f;Nfhsk; (Hydrosphere) vdTk; fhw;W glh;e;j gFjp tspkz;lyk; (Atmosphere) vd;Wk; $wg;gLk;.

,uz;L ePh;g;gug;Gfis ,izf;Fk; FWfpa ePh;g;gFjpf;F ePh;r;re;jp vd;W ngah;. ,e;jpah> ,yq;if ,uz;Lf;Fk;

,ilapy; cs;sJ ghf; ePh;r;re;jp (Palk Strait). epyf;Nfhsk;> ePh;f;Nfhsk; kw;Wk; tspkz;lyk; vDk; %d;W

Nfhsq;fspd; $l;L tpisTjhd; caph;f;Nfhsk; (Biosphere) MFk;.

flypy; kPd;fs; kl;Lky;yhky; kPd;fSf;F czthf cs;s gpshq;f;ld; vdg;gLk; fly; caphpfSk; cs;sd.

tphpe;j ,uz;L epyg;gug;GfSld; kpff; FWfpa epyg;gug;G

,ize;jpUe;jhy; mjid epyr;re;jp (Isthmus) vd miog;gh;. njd; mnkhpf;fh kw;Wk; tl mikhpf;fhit ,izg;gJ gdhkh epyr;re;jp MFk;.

,Uk;G> epf;fy; (Nife) Nghd;w cNyhfq;fs; ,e;j ikag;gFjpapy; nrwpthf ,Uf;fpd;wd ,jid G+kpf;fU

(Core) vdf; $WfpNwhk;. ikaf;fUtpw;F Nky; nkd; ,ilkz;lyk; (Mantle) vd;w

mLf;F ,Uf;fpwJ.

Mg;gpspd; Njhy;Nghy kpf nky;ypa Nky;mLf;F G+kp XL

(Crust) vdg;gLfpwJ. ngUq;fly; mbapy; Xl;bd; jbkd; Rkhh; 5 Kjy; 10 fp.kP.

tiukl;LNk. Mdhy; fz;lq;fs; cs;s gFjpapy; Xl;bd; jbkd; Rkhh; 30 Kjy; 50 fp.kP. tiu MFk;.

1. ehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjp m) ePh;r;re;jp M) jPT ,) jPgfw;gk; tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop mike;Js;s 2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop mike;Js;s 2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop mike;Js;s 2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop mike;Js;s ngUq;fly;ngUq;fly;ngUq;fly;ngUq;fly; m) grpgpf; M) ml;yhz;bf; ,) Mh;bf; tpil : mtpil : mtpil : mtpil : m

3. ,yq;if xU,yq;if xU,yq;if xU,yq;if xU m) jPT M) jPgfw;gk; ,) ePh;r;re;jp tpil : mtpil : mtpil : mtpil : m

tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;

G+kpapd; tbtk; jdpj;jd;ik tha;e;jJ. Mq;fpyj;jpy; mij

[paha;l; (Geoid) vd;fpwhh;fs;.

tiuglq;fspd; tiffs;tiuglq;fspd; tiffs;tiuglq;fspd; tiffs;tiuglq;fspd; tiffs;

kiyfs;> gPlg+kpfs;> MWfs;> fly;fs; Nghd;w ,aw;iff; $Wfis tiue;J fhl;LtJ ,aw;if mikg;G

tiuglq;fs; (Physical maps) vdg;gLk;. ehLfs;> khepyq;fs;> khtl;lq;fs;> efuq;fs;> fpuhkq;fs;

,tw;wpd; vy;iyfisf; fhl;b tiuag;gLk; glq;fs;

murpay; tiuglq;fs; (Political maps) vdg;gLk;. ntg;gepiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk; tiuglk; fhLfisg; gw;wp

kl;L;k; fhl;Lk; tiuglk; fUj;Jr;rhh; tiuglq;fs;

(Thematic maps) vdg;gL;k;. G+kp jdJ mr;rpy; 23 bfphp rha;e;J Roy;fpwJ. cyf cUz;ilapy; (tiuglj;jpYk;$l) fpiltrkhf

my;yJ fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gidf; Nfhl;bw;F

ml;rf;NfhL (Latitude) vd;W ngah;. nrq;Fj;jhf my;yJ njw;F tlf;fhfr; nry;Yk;

Nfhl;bw;Fj; jPh;f;ff;NfhL (Longitude) vd;W ngah;.

G+kpapd; ikaj;jpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; NfhL

epyeLf;NfhL (Equator) (G+kj;jpa Nuif) vdg;gLk;. G+kpapd; nkhj;jf;Nfhz msT 3600 MFk;. epyeLf;NfhL 00

ml;rf;Nfhlhf mikfpwJ. ,J Kf;fpa ml;rf;NfhL.

Kjd; Kjyhf tiuglj;jpy; ml;rf;NfhL jPh;f;ff;NfhLfis tiue;jth; lhykp fp.gp.2 Mk; Ehw;whz;by; tho;e;j fpNuf;f thdtpay; mwpQh;.

00 ml;rf;Nfhl;Lf;F tlf;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;igj; tl miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;.

njw;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;ig njd; miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;.

,yz;ldpy; cs;s fphPd;tpr; vd;fpw ,lj;jpy; xU thdtpay; Muha;r;rpf;$lk; mike;Js;sJ.

mjd; topNa nry;Yk; jPh;f;ff;NfhL 00 jPh;f;ff;NfhL MFk;.

,e;jpah 80 t.ml;rf;NfhL Kjy; 370 t.ml;rf;NfhL tiuAk; 680 fp.jPh;f;ff; NfhL Kjy; 970 fp.jPh;f;ff;NfhL tiuAk; gutpAs;sJ.

1. cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid 1. cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid 1. cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid 1. cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid NfhLfspd; ngah;NfhLfspd; ngah;NfhLfspd; ngah;NfhLfspd; ngah;

m) ml;rf;NfhL M) G+kp mr;R ,) jPh;f;ff;NfhL tpil : mtpil : mtpil : mtpil : m

2. 2. 2. 2. 0o jPh;f;ff;NfhL vd;gJjPh;f;ff;NfhL vd;gJjPh;f;ff;NfhL vd;gJjPh;f;ff;NfhL vd;gJ m) fphpd;tPr;NfhL M) ml;rf;NfhL ,) G+kp mr;R tpil tpil tpil tpil : m: m: m: m

3. 3. 3. 3. ehLfs;> fz;lq;fs;> jiyeehLfs;> fz;lq;fs;> jiyeehLfs;> fz;lq;fs;> jiyeehLfs;> fz;lq;fs;> jiyefuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw fuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw fuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw fuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw

cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij ................ vd miog;gh;vd miog;gh;vd miog;gh;vd miog;gh; m) ,aw;if mikg;G tiuglk; M) murpay; tiuglk; ,) fUj;Jrhh; tiuglk; tpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : Mtpil : M

Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;

ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;if (Big Bang Theory) Nfhl;ghNl ngUk;ghd;ikapduhy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l xd;whFk;.

10 gpy;ypad; Kjy; 20 gpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G fh];kpf; ntbg;G epfo;e;jJ. ,e;epfo;Nt ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;if MFk;.

,g;Nguz;lkhdJ ,d;Dk; tphptile;J nfhz;Ljhd; tUfpwJ vd mnkhpf;f thdpiy Muha;r;rpahsh; vl;tpd; `gps; tpsf;fpdhh;.

Nk khjk; 30> 2010 Mk; Mz;L ek;Kila mwptpay;

mwpQh;fs; yhh;r; n`l;uhd; nfhyha;lh; (Large Hadron Collider-LHC) Rtpl;rh;yhe;J vd;w fUtpia cUthf;fp ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;ifia ghpNrhjid nra;J ghh;j;jhh;fs;. (flTspd; Jfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ-`pf;]; Ngh]hd;)

fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; NguNguNguNguhhhhopfs; cUthFjy;opfs; cUthFjy;opfs; cUthFjy;opfs; cUthFjy;

jw;nghOJ cs;s midj;J fz;lq;fSk; njd; JUtj;jpy; xd;wpize;J ,Ue;jJ. ,g;nghpa epyg;gug;ig ghd;[pah

(Pangea) vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;epyg;gug;ig Rw;wp ,Ue;j nghpa Nguhopia nge;jyhrh

(Penthalasa) my;yJ gpuk;khz;lkhd Nguhop vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ.

ghd;[pah gy jl;Lfshf cile;jJ. ,t;thW cile;j

jl;LfNs epyf;Nfhs; jl;Lfs; (Lithiphere Plate) vd mwpag;gLfpwJ.

ghd;[pah VO nghpa jl;LfshfTk; cilgl;Ls;sd. ANurpah> mz;lhh;bfh> tl mnkhpf;fh> njd; mnkhpf;fh>


grpgpf;> Mg;gphpf;fh kw;Wk; ,e;Njh-M];jpNuypah Nghd;wit nghpa jl;LfshFk;.

G+kpapd; cs;sikg;GG+kpapd; cs;sikg;GG+kpapd; cs;sikg;GG+kpapd; cs;sikg;G

G+kp (cs;sikg;G) mikg;G gw;wpa Nfhl;ghl;il Kjypy; Kjypy; cUthf;fpatH Irf; epA+l;ld; MthH.

Ntjpg;nghUl;fspd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy; %d;W mLf;Ffshf gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mitfs; G+kp NkNyhLfs;> ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtk; MFk;.

#a]; vd;w M];jphpah ehl;bd; Gtp mikg;gpay; ty;YdH NkNyhL> ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtj;jpw;F rpahy;> rpkh kw;Wk; ie/g; vd KiwNa ngahpl;Ls;sdH.

NkNyhLNkNyhLNkNyhLNkNyhL

G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;G NkNyhL (Crust) my;yJ epyf;Nfhsk; (Lithosphere) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

fz;lj;jpd; Nky; mLf;fhdJ rpahy; ;(SIAL) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

,J rpypf;fh kw;Wk; mYkpdpaj;hyhdJ. flyb NkNyhL

grhy;l; mLf;Ffshy; cUthdjhFk;. ,ij rpkh (SIMA) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J rpypf;fh kw;Wk; nkf;dPrpaj;jhy; MdJ.

rpahy; mLf;fhdJ rpkh mLf;fpd; kPJ kpje;J nfhz;L cs;sJ.

NkNyhl;bd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 3 MFk;. ftrk;ftrk;ftrk;ftrk;

ftrk; G+kpapd; NkNyhl;bw;Fk; fUtj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ.

,f;ftrk; G+kpapd; vilapy; 83 rjtPj;ij nfhz;Ls;sJ.

,t;tLf;fpd; Nkw;gFjpia m];jpNdh];gpaH

(Asthenosphere) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,f;ftr mLf;fpd; fPo;g;gFjp Fok;G (Magma) epiyiaAk;

kw;Wk; nefpOk; jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,jd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 8 MFk;.

fUtk;fUtk;fUtk;fUtk;

G+kpapd; cs;ika mLf;if fUtk; my;yJ Nghp];gpaH

(Barysphere) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. epf;fy; kw;Wk;l ,Uk;G ,Ug;gjd; fhuzkhf ,ij ie/g;

(NIFE) vdTk; $wg;gLfpwJ. ,tw;wpy; ,uz;L gphpTfs; cs;sd mitfs; ntspf;fUtk;

kw;Wk; cl;fUtk; MFk;.

ntspf;fUtkhdJ jput epiyapYk;> cl;fUtkhdJ Rw;wpAs;s mLf;fspd; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf nghUl;fs; jplepiyapYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 12 MFk;.

Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiyGtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiyGtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiyGtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiy

ntg;gepiyahdJ Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapy;

ntg;gepiyahdJ 50000C ,Uf;Fk; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,ay;ghd ngUtpfpj (Normal Gain Rate) ntg;gepiyahdJ

xt;nthU 32 kPl;lh; Moj;jpw;Fk; 10C mjpfhpf;fpwJ. vz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jpvz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jpvz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jpvz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jp

GtpNahl;bd; kPJ nghpasT khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLtij

vz;Nlhn[dpf; my;yJ fz;l efh;Tfs; (Tectonic Movements)

mq;fhuh kw;Wk; Nfhz;Lthdh vd;w ,uz;L nghpa epyg;gFjpfSf;F ,ilNa mike;jpUe;j Mok; Fiwe;j fly; gFjp nlj;jp]; MFk;.

ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh;jy;ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh;jy;ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh;jy;ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh;jy; vgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;TvgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;TvgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;TvgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;T

nrq;Fj;J efh;thdJ G+kpapd; NkNyhl;L gFjpia Nky;Nehf;fp my;yJ fPo;Nehf;fp gytPdkhd Nfhl;bd;

topahf nry;tijNa gpsTfs; (Faults) vd;fpNwhk;. gpsTNfhl;bw;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; gFjp Nky; Nehf;fp

js;sg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gpjph;T kiy (Block Mountain) my;yJ gPlG+kp (Plateau) vdTk;

khwhf fPo;Nehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mij gpsT gs;sj;jhf;F

nfhg;giu (Basin of Rift Valley) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg; nghpastpw;F nrq;Fj;J efh;T

Vw;gLtij fz;l Mf;f my;yJ vgpNuhn[dpf; efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; nghpa gpsT gs;sj;jhf;F nfhg;giu kw;Wk; eh;kjh gs;sj;jhf;F Mfpad ,t;tifahd tb epyq;fSf;Fr; rpwe;j cjhuzq;fs; MFk;.

xNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;TxNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;TxNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;TxNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;T

rhjhuz kbg;Gfs; xU Nky; tisitAk; (Anticline) kw;Wk; xU fPo; tisitAk; (Syncline) nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

GtpNahl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F fpilkl;l efh;T Vw;gLtij kiyahf;f efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ> cjhuzk; ,kakiy.

vf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jpvf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jpvf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jpvf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jp epyeLf;fq;fs;epyeLf;fq;fs;epyeLf;fq;fs;epyeLf;fq;fs;

,J ,kakiy epyeLf;fk; (Volcanic Earthquake) kw;Wk; fz;l efh;T epyeLf;fk; (Tectonic Earthquake) vd ,Utifg;gLk;.

epyeLf;fk; Njhd;Wk; ,lj;ij epyeLf;f ikak; (Focus) vd;Wk;

,k;ikaj;jpw;F Neh; vjpNu G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;

mike;jpUf;Fk; Gs;sp ntsp ikak; (Epicenter) vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

rP];Nkhfpuhk; vd;w fUtpiaf; nfhz;L epyeLf;fj;jpd; miyfs; gjpT nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

,e;epyeLf;fj;ij kjpg;gPL nra;a msTNfhs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs;epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs;epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs;epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs;

,t;tiyfis cl;Gw miyfs; (Body wavws) vd;Wk; Nkw;Gw miyfs; (Surface Wavws) vd;W ,Utifahf gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

P miymiymiymiy cl;Gw miyfis ,uz;L tifahf gphpf;fyhk;.

Kjy;epiy miyfs; my;yJ P miyfs; kpf Ntfkhf gazpf;fpwJ. ,it xyp miyfisg; Nghd;Nw thA> jput kw;Wk; jpl epiyapYs;s nghUl;fspy; CLUtpr; nry;Yk;.

P miyfs; gazk; nra;Ak; jpirapYs;s G+kpapd; nghUl;fis Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; mOj;jpf; nfhz;L nry;fpwJ. ,J xU nehbf;F 8 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazpf;fpwJ.

S miymiymiymiy ,uz;lhk; epiy miyfs; my;yJ S miyfs;> ,itfs;

P miyfis tpl nkJthf gazpg;git. ,it jpl epiyapy; cs;s nghUl;fspy; kl;LNk CLUtpr;

nry;Yk; jd;ikAilaJ.


jhd; gazk; nra;Ak; jpirapy; cs;s G+kpapd; nghUl;fis nrq;Nfhz jpirapy; mirj;J nfhz;L nry;Yk;.

xU nehbf;F 5 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;af;$bajhFk;.

L miymiymiymiy Nkw;Gw miyfs; epyeLf;fkhdpapy; ,Wjpahf gjpthfpwJ.

,it G+kpapy; kpf mjpfg;gbahd mopTfs; Vw;gLtjw;F fhuzkhf mikfpwJ.

,ij L-miyfs; vd;Wk; mwpag;gLfpwJ. ,t;tiyfs; xU nehbf;F 4 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;fpwJ.

vhpkiyfs;vhpkiyfs;vhpkiyfs;vhpkiyfs;

G+kpapd; cl;gFjpapypUe;J ntg;gkhd ghiwf; Fok;ig

(Magma) xU jpwg;G (Vent) my;yJ Jis topNa G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gij vhpkiy vd;fpNwhk;.

mt;thW ckpOk; (Eruption) ghiwf;Fok;G yhth (Lava) vd vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs; nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;

`tha; jPtpy; cs;s Nkhdh Nyhth cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa nray;gLk; vhpkiy MFk;.

,e;jpahtpy; xs;s xNu xU nray;gLk; vhpkiy ghud; (me;jkhd;) jPtpy; cs;sJ.

,e;jpahtpYs;s jf;fhz gPlG+kpapd; tlNkw;F gFjpahdJ vhpkiy Fok;ghy; cUthf;fg;gl;lhjhFk;.

vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;vhpkiyfspd; tiffs; vhpkiyfs;

nray;gLk; jzpe;j capuw;w jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;

,t;tif vhpkiyfs; cwq;Fk; vhpkiyfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

,j;jhypapYs;s ntR+tpay; (Vesuvius) vhpkiy kw;Wk; `tha; jPtpYs;s nksdfpah (Mauna Kea) vhpkiyfis cjhuzkhf $wyhk;.

capuw;w vhpkiyfs;capuw;w vhpkiyfs;capuw;w vhpkiyfs;capuw;w vhpkiyfs;

,t;tif vhpkiyfis ,we;j vhpkiyfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Mg;hpf;fhtpy; cs;s kTz;l; fpspkhQ;Nuh kw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s ehh;fz;lk; jPT Mfpatw;iwf;$wyhk;. ,J tlf;F me;jkhd; jPtpd; tlfpof;F gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.

jkpo;ehl;bYs;s Gfo;ngw;w jpUtz;zhkiy Fd;W kw;Wk; Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpYs;s gdfh Fd;W Mfpad ,we;j vhpkiyfshf fUjg;gLfpwJ.

ePh; epuk;gpa vhpkiy thia ngUtha; Vhp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

1. 1. 1. 1. ................ Nfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sdNfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sdNfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sdNfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sd m) G+kp M) nts;sp ,) nrt;tha;


FWl;lhWfs;FWl;lhWfs;FWl;lhWfs;FWl;lhWfs;

nghJthf FWl;lhWfs; vd;gJ Mw;wpd; tise;J nry;Yk; ghijfspYs;s tisthFk;.

Mw;WePh; Gtp tpy; my;yJ tprpwp tbt nly;lh (Arcute or Fan Shaped Delta)> nghq;FKf nly;lh (Estuarine Delta) kw;Wk; $hpa tbt nly;lh (Cone Shaped Delta).

tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; kpf ePz;l MW kprprpgp MFk;.

,J tl mnkhpf;fhtpy; cs;s kpNdh];lhtpd; ,l;];fh Vhpapy; cUthfpwJ.

gwit ghj nly;lh mikg;G ,q;Fs;sJ. fq;iffq;iffq;iffq;if

fq;if ,e;jpa Jizf;fz;lj;jpd; ePz;l MW tl ,e;jpahtpypUe;J fq;ifr; rkntsp topahf fpof;F Nehf;fp Xb gq;fshNjir milfpwJ.

cj;ufhz;bYs;s ,kakiyapy; ,Ue;J 2510 fp.kP ePsk; nfhz;l ,e;j MW cWthfpwJ.

,e;jpahtpd; Njrpa Mwhf fq;if MW mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ Mz;L - 2008.

Xq;fy;fs; (Xq;fy;fs; (Xq;fy;fs; (Xq;fy;fs; (Cliff)))) nghJthf nrq;Fj;jhd ghiw fliy Nehf;fp

mikAk;NghJ Xq;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. gdpahWfsgdpahWfsgdpahWfsgdpahWfs;

gdpg;ghiwfs; efh;jNy gdpahWfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

gdpahWfs; M];jpNuypahitj; jtpu midj;J fz;lq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

jpl epiyia miltjhy; cUthFk; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhfTk;> Jizg;gzpahw;wpid tpl mjpf msT mhpg;Gj;jpwd; nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ njhq;Fk; gs;sj;jhf;F cUthfpd;wJ.

gdpahWfspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; kw;w

epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd> nrk;kwp Ml;Lg;ghiw (Rocke Mountonnee)> thy; tbtg; ghiw (Crag and Tail), nghUj;jhg;ghiw my;yJ jphpAk; ghiw (Boulder Clay or Glacial) kw;Wk; vuhbf;fs; (Erractics).

gbTfs;gbTfs;gbTfs;gbTfs; nkhiud;fs;nkhiud;fs;nkhiud;fs;nkhiud;fs;

nkhiud;fs; vdg;gLgit ghiwj;Jfs;fs;> Jz;Lfs;> ghiw cUz;ilfs; kw;Wk; NrWfshy; Mdit.

mitfs; tpspk;G nkhiud;fs; (Terminal Moraines)> gf;f nkhiud;fs; (Lateral Moraines) kw;Wk; kj;jpa nkhiud;fs; (Medial Moraines) vd gphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

buk;ypd;fs;buk;ypd;fs;buk;ypd;fs;buk;ypd;fs;

ghiwj;Jfs;fs; kw;Wk; NrW fyitayhd epyj;Njhw;wNk buk;ypd;fs; MFk;.

,itfs; ghh;g;gjw;F Kl;ilfs; Gijj;Js;sJNghy; Njhw;wkspf;Fk;.

tz;ly; rkntsp kw;Wk; v];fh;fs; Mfpad ,ju gbtpj;jyhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; MFk;.

flj;jy; flj;jy; flj;jy; flj;jy; nray;Kiwfs;nray;Kiwfs;nray;Kiwfs;nray;Kiwfs;

flj;jy; nrayhdJ gpd;tUk; epfo;Tfs; %yk;

eilngUfpwJ. mitfshtd jhTjy; (Saltation) kw;Wk; njhq;Fjy; (Suspension) MFk;.

fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;

fhw;whdJ Gilj;njLj;jy; (Deflation) kw;Wk; mhpj;J jpd;dy; (Abration) Mfpa nray;fs; %yk; gy;NtW


tifahd epyj;Njhw;wq;fis Fwpg;ghf ghiytdg; gFjpfspy; cUthf;Ffpd;wd.

gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs;gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs;gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs;gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs;

ghiwj;JhzhdJ fhshd; Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf;fpwJ. ,t;thwhd ghiwfs; gPlg;ghiwfs; vdTk; miof;fg;glfpwJ.

R+fd;R+fd;R+fd;R+fd;

nkd;ghiw mlf;fpd;Nky; jl;ilahd fbdg;ghiw mLf;Ffs; fpilahf mile;jpUe;jhy; mit fhw;wpdhy; FWf;fhf mhpf;fg;gl;L ePz;l Fd;W Njhd;WfpwJ.

ahh;lhq;ahh;lhq;ahh;lhq;ahh;lhq;

ghiytdr; R+oypy; fhw;wpdhy; mhpf;fg;gl;L ePz;;l kiyj;njhlh; Nghy fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ahh;lhq; MFk;.

ahh;lhq;Ffs; mfd;w ePs;tl;l tbtKila epyj;Njhw;wq;fshFk;.

,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs;,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs;,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs;,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs;

mhpf;fg;glhj vQ;rpa Fd;Wfshf jiug; gFjpapypUe;J cah;e;J fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs; MFk;.

fhw;wpd; mhpg;NghL njhlh;Gila kw;w

epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd> Nkrh (Dreikanter) kw;Wk; CJ gs;sq;fs; (Deflation Hallows)

fhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gilafhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gilafhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gilafhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gila epyj;Njhw;wq;fs;epyj;Njhw;wq;fs;epyj;Njhw;wq;fs;epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; gh;fhdgh;fhdgh;fhdgh;fhd;

,itfs; gpiwr;re;jpu tbt epiyahf efUk; jd;ik nfhz;lit> fhw;W tPRk; jpirahdJ td; rhptpidAk; kw;Wk; vjph; jpirahdJ nkd; rhptpidAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs;nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs;nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs;nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs;

fhw;WtPRk; jpirf;F ,izahf gy fpNyh kPl;lh;fs; ePsj;jpw;F mike;jpUf;Fk; FWfshd kzw;Fd;WfNs nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs; mFk;.

NyhaNyhaNyhaNyha];];];];

ghiytdj;jpw;F mUfhikapYs;s gFjpfspy; gbe;jpUf;Fk; Ez;zpa Jfs;fNs Nyhah]; MFk;.

1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ m) ,Uk;G JUgpbj;jy; M) Ntjpg;nghUl;fs; $l;likg;G ,) ntg;g mjph;r;rp


vy;epNdhtpd; kw;w tpisTfshtd M];jpNuypahtpy; Vw;gl;l gQ;rk;> gpNurpy; kw;Wk; njd;fpof;F Mrpahtpy; Vw;gl;l fhl;Lj; jP.

kdpjdpd; Mjpf;fk;

ek;Kila tho;f;ifg; Gtp ntg;gkhjy; (Global Warming), gRq;Fby; tpisT (Green House Effect). khriljy; (Pollution), Nghd;wit fhpakpy thAit (Corbon-di-Oxide) fhw;wpy; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;Js;sjhf czh;fpd;Nwhk;.

efu ntg;gj;jPT (Urban Heat Island) vd;gJ xU ngU efukhdJ mjidr; Rw;wpAs;s gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk; mjpf ntg;gj;JlNd ,Ug;gjhFk;.

ntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiy

Gtp ngWk; xsp kw;Wk; ntg;gj;jpw;F %yhjhuk; R+hpadhFk;.

,J Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig mila 8 epkplq;fs; 20 tpdhbfs; vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ.

xU ehspy; epyTk; mjpf msT kw;Wk; Fiwe;j msT ntg;g epiyf;F ,ilNa cs;s ntg;gepiy NtWghNl

jpdrhp ntg;g tpahg;jp (Diurnal Range of Temperature) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

tspkz;lyj;jpy; fjph;tPry; (Radiation) KiwapYk;> epyj;jpy; flj;jy; (Conduction) KiwapYk;> ePhpy; ntg;gr; ryid (Convection) KiwapYk; eilngWfpwJ.

G+kpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ R+hpa fjph;tPriytpl (Insolation) Gtpf; fjph;tPryhy; (Terrestrial Radiation) mjpfk; ntg;gkilfpwJ.

xU tUlj;jpy; epyTk; ntg;gkhd khjj;jpw;Fk; Fspuhd khjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd NtWghNl tUlhe;jpu ntg;g

tpahg;jp (Annual Range of Tempereture). Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;

Gtpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ thAf;fshy; R+og;gl;Ls;sJ. ,itfs; Gtp madpaLf;F (Ionosphere) kw;Wk; ntspaLf;F (Ezosphere).

mbaLf;FmbaLf;FmbaLf;FmbaLf;F(Troposhphere) mbaLf;F Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J JUtg; gFjpfspy; 8

fp.kP tiuapYk;> G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapy; 18 fp.kP tiuapYk; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

thdpiy %yq;fshd ntg;gepiy> fhw;W> fhw;wpd; mOj;jk;> Nkfq;fspd; cUthf;fk; kw;Wk; kiog;nghopT Mfpa midj;J khw;wq;fSk; ,e;j mLf;fpNyNa eilngWfpd;wJ.

Nrzpil mLf;F (Troposhphere) vd;w nky;ypa mLf;fhdJ mbaLf;F kw;Wk; gilaLf;F ,itfSf;fpilNa mike;Js;sJ.

gilaLf;FgilaLf;FgilaLf;FgilaLf;F

gilaLf;fhdJ Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J Rkhh; 50 fp.kP tiu fhzg;gLfpwJ.

n[l; tpkhdq;fs; ,e;j mlf;fpy;jhd; gadpf;fpd;wd.

gilaLf;fpd; cr;rp tpspk;gpy; XNrhd; thA mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,it R+hpadplkpUe;J tUk; Gw Cjhf; fjph;fis tbfl;b nfljy;fspypUe;J ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.

,e;j mLf;fhdJ rkntg;g mLf;F (Isothermal Layer) kw;Wk; XNrhd; mLf;F vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

gLifaLf;fpid njhlh;e;J kPz;Lk; nky;ypa mLf;F

fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J kPtsp ,ilaLf;F (Stratopause) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

,ilaLf;F (Mesophere). 50-80 fp.kP cauk; tiu ngw;Ws;sJ. cauk; mjpfhpf;f mjpfhpf;f ,q;F ntg;gk;

FiwAk; (80 fp.kP y; - 1000C) tpz;ntspapy; ,Ue;J G+kpf;F tUk; ghiwfs; ,q;Fjhd;

vwpe;J rhk;gyhfpwJ. madpaLf;FmadpaLf;FmadpaLf;FmadpaLf;F

madpaL Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 80 fp.kP Kjy; 500 fp.kP tiu gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

,it thndhyp miyfis G+kpf;F jpUg;gp mZg;Gtjhy; etPd njhiy njhlh;gpw;F kpfTk; cjTfpd;wJ.

xU jpwg;nghd;ndd;wiof;fg;gLk; (Auroras) tz;zkakhd fhl;rpaikg;gpid tlNfhsj;jpy; tlKid tsnuhsp

(Northern lights) my;yJ tlJUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurora Borealis) kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;Kid tsnuhsp (Southern lights) my;yJ njd;JUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurura Australis) MfpaitAk; ,q;Nf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

ntspaLf;FntspaLf;FntspaLf;FntspaLf;F

vf;N]h];gpah; mLf;fhdJ ngUksT i`l;u[d; kw;Wk; `Pypak; thAf;fis nfhz;Ls;sJ.

ntg;gepiyia msf;f cjTk; cgfuzj;jpd; ngah;

ntg;gkhdpahFk; (Thermometer) xNu msTila ntg;gepiyia nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,lq;fis

,izf;Fk; fw;gid Nfhl;bw;F rkntg;gf; NfhLfs;

(Isotherms) vd;W ngah;. ntg;g kz;lyk; ntg;g kz;lyk; ntg;g kz;lyk; ntg;g kz;lyk;

flf Nuiff;Fk; (23 0 t) kfu Nuiff;Fk; (23 0 nj) ,ilg;gl;l gFjpapy; ntg;g kz;lykhdJ fhzg;gLfpwJ.

kpj ntg;g kz;lykkpj ntg;g kz;lykkpj ntg;g kz;lykkpj ntg;g kz;lyk;

flf Nuiff;Fk; (230 t) Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (660 t) ,ilg;gl;l gFjpia tl kpjntg;g kz;lyk; vd;Wk;

kfu Nuiff;Fk; (230 nj) mz;lhh;l;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (660 nj) ,ilgl;l gFjpia njd; kpj ntg;g kz;lyk; vd;Wk; $WfpNwhk;.

Fsph; kz;lyk;Fsph; kz;lyk;Fsph; kz;lyk;Fsph; kz;lyk;

Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (660t)tl JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 t) ,ilgl;l gFjpiaAk; mz;lhh;l;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk;.

(660 nj) njd; JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 nj) ,ilgl;l gFjpiaAk; Fsph; kz;lyk; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.

fhw;W mOj;jk;fhw;W mOj;jk;fhw;W mOj;jk;fhw;W mOj;jk;

fhw;wpd; moj;jkhdJ G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; fhw;wpd; epiwapdhy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; moj;jNk MFk;.

fly; kl;lj;jpy; epyTk; fhw;wOj;jj;jpd; ruhrhp msT 1013 kpy;yp ghh;fshFk;.

tsp kz;ly mOj;jj;ij mstplg; gad;glk; cgfuzk;

my;yJ fUtp moj;jkhdp (Barometer) MFk;. G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;j kz;lyk;j kz;lyk;j kz;lyk;

,e;j kz;lykhdJ 50 tlf;F Kjy; 50 njw;F ml;rNuif gFjpfspy; mike;Js;sJ

,e;j kz;lyj;jpid mikjp kz;lyk; (Belt of calm) my;yJ Nlhy;Luhk;]; vd;wiog;gh;.

Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk;Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk;Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk;Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk; ,e;j kz;lykhdJ 250 Kjy; 350 tlf;F Kjy; njw;F tiuapyhd ml;rNuiffSf;F ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ. ntg;g


kz;lyj;jpypUe;J NknyOk;gpa fhw;W> Fiwe;jntg;gepiyapd; fhuzkhf Fsph;e;J 300-350 ml;rNuifg; gFjpfspy; jiug;gFjpia Nehf;fp fPopwq;FfpwJ.

,k;kz;lykhdJ Fjpiu ml;rNuif (Horse Latitudes) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Jiz JJiz JJiz JJiz JUUUUt jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;t jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;t jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;t jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;

,e;j kz;lykhdJ 600Kjy; 650 tiu tl kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsq;fspy; mike;Js;sJ.

fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; tPRk; jpirapid mstpl

fhw;Wkhdp (Anemometer) vd;w fUtp gad;gLfpwJ. fhw;Wfs;fhw;Wfs;fhw;Wfs;fhw;Wfs;

Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; Mz;L KOtJk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpiria Nehf;fp tPRk;

fhw;WfSf;F Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; vd;W ngah;.

tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; (Trade Winds) madkz;lyq;fSf;F ,ilNa tPRfpd;wd.

,it tl Nfhsj;jpy; tlfpof;F tpahghuf; fhw;WfshfTk;> kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;fpof;F tpahghuf; fhw;WfshfTk; tPRfpd;wd.

Gtp Row;rpapd; fhuzkhf tlNfhsj;jpy; tyg;GwkhfTk;> njd;Nfhsj;jpy; ,lg;GwkhfTk; tpyfpr; nry;fpwJ. ,e;j khw;wkp;y;yhj tpjp ng/uy; tpjp my;yJ nfhhpahyp]; tpir vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

/nguy; tpjpapd; gb ,t;tifahd fhw;whdJ tpyfp tPRfpd;wJ.

Nkiyf; fhw;WfshdJ (Westerlies) ,U Nfhsq;fspYk; Jiz mad kz;ly cauOj;j gFjpapypUe;J Jiz JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.

,t;tifahd fhw;Wfs; Nkw;fpypue;J fpof;fhf tPRfpd;wJ.

JUtf; fhw;Wfs; (Polar Winds) JUt cauOj;jg; gFjpapypue;J Jiz JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp fPiof; fhw;Wfshf tPRfpd;wd. ,it fLq;Fsph; fhw;WfshFk;.

gUtfgUtfgUtfgUtfhy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs;hy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs;hy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs;hy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs;

Gtpapd; kPJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; Fspuhjy; epfo;r;rpfspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf ,f;fhw;Wfs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

gUtf; fhw;Wfs;gUtf; fhw;Wfs;gUtf; fhw;Wfs;gUtf; fhw;Wfs;

khd;R+h; vd;w nrhy;yhdJ kTrpk; (Mausim) vd;w mNugpa nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ.

njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;fhw;whdJ mnjd; ,e;jpa kw;Wk; njd; grpgpf; Nguhopfspy; ,Ue;J Mrpag; gFjpfis Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.

fly; fhw;Wfs;fly; fhw;Wfs;fly; fhw;Wfs;fly; fhw;Wfs;

ilG+d;fs; (Japan> China) kw;Wk; mhpf;Nfd;fs;; (fhpgpad; fly;) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpd;wd. tpy;yp tpy;yp - M];jpNuypah> rKdh];> Mg;gphpf;fh.

tlNfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;W jpirapYk; kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw;whfTk; efh;fpd;wd. nlhuz;Nlh - mnkhpf;fh.

vjph; vjph; vjph; vjph; #w#w#w#whtspfs;htspfs;htspfs;htspfs;

vjph; R+uhtspfs; vd;gJ cah; mOj;j mikg;gpd; ikakhFk;.

vjph; R+uhtspfs; tlNfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw;Wj; jpirapYk; kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;W jpirapYk; efh;fpd;wd.

jyf;fhw;Wfs;jyf;fhw;Wfs;jyf;fhw;Wfs;jyf;fhw;Wfs;

ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs;ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs;ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs;ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs; ,lq;fs;,lq;fs;,lq;fs;,lq;fs;

/gphpf; gPy;lh; M];jpNuypah

rpd;D}f; mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehLfs;

/ghd; tlf;F ,j;jhyp

rpuhf;Nfh rfhuh ghiytdk;

Y} ,e;jpahtpd; jhh; ghiytdk;

Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs;Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs;Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs;Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs; ,lq;fs;,lq;fs;,lq;fs;,lq;fs;

Mh;kj;jhd; kj;jpa Mg;gphpf;fh

kp];l;uy; My;g;]; kiy

Gh;fh ,u\;ah

ehh;l; nkf;rpNfh tisFlh

/ghk;ngNuh mh;n[d;ildh

Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;

tspkz;lyj;jpYs;s ePuhtpahdJ ePh; RUq;Fjy; %yk; Ez;zpa ePh; jptisfshfNth my;yJ gdpg;

fhw;Wfs;


gbfq;fshfNth khw;wg;gLtjpd; njhFg;Ng Nkfq;fs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

fPw;W Nkfq;fs; fPw;W Nkfq;fs; fPw;W Nkfq;fs; fPw;W Nkfq;fs; (Cirrus) fPw;w Nkfq;fs; cah; Nkfq;fs;; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ

Vnddpy; ,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Vwj;jho 5000 kPl;lh; cauj;jpy; cUthfpd;wd.

xUNghJk; kiog;nghoptpid nfhLg;gjpy;iy.

gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; (Stratus) gil Nkfq;fs; fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 2000 kPl;lUf;Fk;

,ilapNyNa cUthtjhy; jho; Nkfq;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ.

mlh; rhk;gy; epw tphpg;G Nghd;w Njhw;wj;ijAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

jpus; Nkfq;fs; jpus; Nkfq;fs; jpus; Nkfq;fs; jpus; Nkfq;fs; (Cumulus) tbj;j gUj;jpiag; Nghd;W fhzg;gLk;.

Nkfq;fSld; kiog;nghopT> kpd;dy; kw;Wk; ,b Mfpatw;NwhL njhlh;GilaitfshFk;.

,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Rkhh; 12000 kPl;lh; cauk; tiu fhzg;gLk;.

fhh;fhh;fhh;fhh;gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; gil Nkfq;fs; (Nimbus) fhh; gil Nkfq;fshdJ nrq;Fj;jhd Nkfq;fshFk;.

fdj;j kiog; nghoptpid nfhLg;gjhy; ,it Gay; my;yJ kio Nkfq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

kiog;nghopTkiog;nghopTkiog;nghopTkiog;nghopT

kiog;nghopT ntg;gr;ryd kio> kiyj; jLg;G kio kw;Wk; Gay; kio vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

kio msit mstplg; gad;gLk; cgfuzq;fs; my;yJ fUtp kiokhdp MFk;.

kiof;NfhLfs; (Isohytes) vd;W ngah;. kiog;nghopT ,b kw;Wk; kpd;dypidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

khiy Neuq;fspy; Fwpg;ghf 4 kzpf;F tUtjhy; khiy

Neu ehd;F kzp kiog;nghopT (40 Clock rain fall) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

epy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kioepy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kioepy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kioepy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kio

flw;gFjpapypUe;J tPRk; fhw;whdJ Fsph;e;J fhw;W kfg;

gFjpapy; (Windward side) mjpf kioia cUthf;FfpwJ. gpwF mit vjph; Kff; fhw;W jpirapy; (Leeward side)


3. fhw;Wkhdp - fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtp 4. R+whtspapd; fz; - ntw;wplk; 5. ,b> kpd;dy;> Gay; - thdpiy njhopw;rhiy

Nghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikNghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikNghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikNghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik

Nghplh;fs; ,aw;if Nghplh; (Natural Disaster) kw;Wk; kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh; (Man Made Disaster) vd ,U tifg;gLj;jg;gLfp;wd.

,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;

epyeLf;fq;fs;> vhpkiy ntbg;Gfs;> epyr;rhpTfs;> gdpg;ghiw tPo;r;rp> Gay;> nts;sg; ngUf;ffs;> twl;rpfs;> R+iwf;fhw;Wfs; kw;Wk; gpw.

kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fskdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fskdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fskdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fs;

Nghh;> jP-tpgj;Jfs;> rhiy tpgj;Jfs;> fg;gy; %o;Fjy;> mZFz;L ntbg;Gfs;> kpd;rhu tpgj;Jfs; kw;Wk; gpw.

epyeLf;fk;epyeLf;fk;epyeLf;fk;epyeLf;fk;

Gtpj;jl;Lefh;Tfs;> vhpkiy ntbg;Gfs;> gUg;nghUs; rpijT> epyr;rhpTfs; kw;Wk; epyg;gpsTfs; Mfpafhuzq;fshy; epyeLf;fk; Vw;gLfpd;wd.

,jdhy; Xj miyfs; kw;Wk; Mopg;NguiyfSk; (Rdhkp) Vw;gLfpd;wd.

[dthp 26> 2001 y; 51 tJ FbauR jpd tpohtpd; NghJ F[uhj;jpy; kpfg;nghpa epyeLf;fk; Vw;gl;lJ. (G[; epyeLf;fk;)

Gtp ntg;grf;jpia (Geothermal Energy) jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ. kzpf;fhud; Fd;Wfs; (,khr;ry gpuNjrk;)

vhpkiy gutiyg; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s gad;gLk; rha;T

kzp (Tilt Meter) fUtpiag; gw;wp kf;fSf;F tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;Lj;j Ntz;lk;.

flw;Nfhs;fs;flw;Nfhs;fs;flw;Nfhs;fs;flw;Nfhs;fs;

flw;Nfhs;fspd; Mq;fpyr;nrhy; Rdhkp (Trunamis) ,r;nrhy; [g;ghdpa nkhopapypUe;J te;jJ. Tsu vd;gjd; nghUs; Harbour (JiwKfk;) Nami vd;gjd; nghUs; (miyfs;)

brk;gh; 26>2004-y; njd;fpof;F Mfpa ehLfspy; Vw;gl;l Rdhkpfspd; jhf;fj;jpdhy; 1>50>000 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh; ,we;jdh;.

ghiwj;Jfs;fs; ePUld; Nrh;e;J efh;tij NrW topjy;

(Debris flow) vd;fpNwhk;. Gay;fs;Gay;fs;Gay;fs;Gay;fs;

jho;tOj;jg; gFjpapy; ntg;g kw;Wk; Fsph; tspKfq;fs; re;jpg;gjhy; cUthFk; gyj;jf; fhw;iwNa Gay;fs; vd;fpNwhk;.

1999 mf;Nlhgh; 29-y; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; Vw;gl;l

jho;tOj;jj;jpdhy; xhp];]htpy; khngUk; Gay; (Super Cyclone) cUthdJ.

Riwf;fhw;Wfs;Riwf;fhw;Wfs;Riwf;fhw;Wfs;Riwf;fhw;Wfs;

fhw;wpdhy; cUthFk; fhh; jpus; Nkfk; G+kpapd; jiug;gFjp Gdy; tbtj;jpy; njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

jPtpu jho; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf ,itfs; cUthfpd;wd.

R+iwf; fhw;wpid mnkhpf;fh If;fpa ehl;by; (USA) Ltp];lh; (Twister) vd miof;fpd;wdh;.

1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk;1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk;1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk;1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk; m) gw;whf;Fiwthd kiog;nghopT M) Rw;Wr;Roy; rPh;NfL ,) fhLfis tsh;j;jy; epA+gTz;l;yhe;J> Nkw;F ,e;jpaj; jPTfs;> nth;bkid kw;Wk; fhdhP]; MFk;.

ml;yhz;bf; Nguhopapy; th;j;jf topahdJ cyfpd; kpfTk; Nghf;Ftuj;J epiwe;j xd;whf fUjg;gLfpwJ.

,e;jpa ,e;jpa ,e;jpa ,e;jpa NguhopNguhopNguhopNguhop

me;jkhd;> epf;Nfhghh;> khyj;jPT> klfh];fh;> ,yq;if> Rkj;uh kw;Wk; [hth Mfpad ,e;jpa Nguhopapd; ed;F mwpe;j jPTfshFk;.


mz;lhh;bfh Nguhopmz;lhh;bfh Nguhopmz;lhh;bfh Nguhopmz;lhh;bfh Nguhop

,J njd; Nguhop vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

mnyf;]hz;lh; jPTfs;> ghypdp kw;Wk; Nuh]; jPTfs; ,g;Nguhopapy; cs;s rpy jPTfs;.

Mh;bf; NguhopMh;bf; NguhopMh;bf; NguhopMh;bf; Nguhop

,jd; Kf;fpa jPTfs; tpf;Nlhhpah jPTfs;> vyprngj; jPTfs;> I];yhe;J ];gpl;ngh;n[d; kw;Wk; Nehthf Nrhk;ypah MfpadthFk;.

cyfj;jpd; fly;fs;cyfj;jpd; fly;fs;cyfj;jpd; fly;fs;cyfj;jpd; fly;fs;

njd; rPdf;fly;> fhPgpad; fly;> kj;jpa jiuf;fly; Mfpad cyfpd; Kf;fpakhd fly;fshFk;.

Nguhopapd; jiu mikg;GNguhopapd; jiu mikg;GNguhopapd; jiu mikg;GNguhopapd; jiu mikg;G m) fz;lj;jpl;L> M) fz;lr;rhpT> ,) fly;jiu MFk;. fz;lj;jpl;Lfz;lj;jpl;Lfz;lj;jpl;Lfz;lj;jpl;L

,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpahdJ kpfr;rpwe;j kPd; gpbj;jskhf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ.

,q;F kPd;fspd; czthf fly;tho; Ez;Zaphpfs; (Plankton) mjpf msT fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy; epiwe;;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

epagTd;l;yhe;jpy; cs;s fpuhz;l; Ngq; kw;Wk; gphpl;ldpy; cs;s lhfh; jpl;LfshFk;. ,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy; ngl;Nuhypa Mo;Foha; fpzWfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. v.fh: Kk;ig i` (,e;jpah)

fz;lr;rhpTfz;lr;rhpTfz;lr;rhpTfz;lr;rhpT

fz;lr;rhpT kw;Wk; fz;lj;jpd; gFjpfis fz;l tpspk;G

(Continental Margin) vd miof;fp;Nwhk;. flybf; Fd;Wfisr; Rw;wp fPo; kl;lj;jp;y; Mo;fly;

rkntsp (Abyssal Plain) cs;sJ. eLfly; kiyj; njhluhdJ (Ocean Ridge) fz;ljjpl;L

tpirapdhy; Vw;gLfpd;wd. fly; kiyfs;fly; kiyfs;fly; kiyfs;fly; kiyfs;

fly; kl;;lj;jpw;F Nky; cs;s jPTfs; miy kw;Wk; thdpiy nray;fshy; mhpf;fg;gl;L fpo;g;gFjpf;F

nrd;wpUe;jhy; mit fahl; (Guyot) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

Nguhopapd; mfopfs; (Oceanic Tranches) vd;git Nguhopapd; Mokhd gFjpahFk;.

ePh;ePh;ePh;ePh; R+oR+oR+oR+ow;rpw;rpw;rpw;rp

fly; ePhpy; Nrhbak; FNshiuL> nkf;dPrpak; FNshiuL> nkf;dPrpak; ry;Ngl;> fhy;rpak; ry;Ngl;> nghl;lhrpak; ry;Ngl;> fhyrpak; fhh;gNdl; kw;Wk; nkf;dPrpak; GNuhikl; Mfpa cg;Gf;fs; ngUksT fye;Js;sd.

Nguhopfs; cth;g;gJ Vd;?Nguhopfs; cth;g;gJ Vd;?Nguhopfs; cth;g;gJ Vd;?Nguhopfs; cth;g;gJ Vd;?

Gtpapy; cs;s ghiw kw;Wk; Mw;W gLifapd; kz;fspy; cs;s cg;ghdJ kioePuhy; fuhf;fg;gLk; MWfspy; gha;fpd;wJ. vdNt jhd; fly;ePh; cg;Gj; jd;ikAld; fhzg;gLfpwJ

cth;g;gpak;cth;g;gpak;cth;g;gpak;cth;g;gpak;

Nguhopapy; fiue;Js;s cg;gpd; msNt cth;g;gpak; MFk;. cth;g;gpak; vd;gJ xU ypl;lh; ePhpy; vj;jid fpuhk; msT

cg;G fiue;Js;sJ vd;gij Fwpg;gpLtuhFk; (FwpaPL 0/00) cyfpy; cs;s Nguhopfspd; ruhrhp cth;g;gpak; 35 fpuhk;

MFk;.

fly;fspNyNa rh;f;flypy; kpf mjpf msT cth;g;gpak; cs;sJ.

NNNNguhop ePNuhl;lq;fsguhop ePNuhl;lq;fsguhop ePNuhl;lq;fsguhop ePNuhl;lq;fs;

Nguho ePNuhl;lq;fs; jho; ml;rNuifapypUe;J cUthfp JUtq;fis Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd.

Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; cah; ml;rNuif gFjpfspy; cUthfp G+kj;jpa Nuifia Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd.

Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; 1. ntg;gepiyapy; NtWghL 2. Nguhop ePhpd; mlh;j;jp (cth;g;gpak;) 3. fhw;W kw;Wk; tspkz;ly mOj;jk; 4. nfhhpahyp]p]; tpir 5. GtpaPh;g;G tpir 6. kio tPo;r;rp kw;Wk; Mtpahjy; 7. gdp cUFjy; Xjq;fs; :Xjq;fs; :Xjq;fs; :Xjq;fs; :

R+hpad; kw;Wk; re;jpudpd; re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad xNu Neh;f;Nfhl;by; ,Uf;fpd;wd.

jho;it XjkhdJ (Neap tide) epytpd; Kjy;kw;Wk; %d;whtJ tsh;r;rp epiyapy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.

,e;epiyapy; R+hpad;> re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad nrq;Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;fpd;wd.

fly; R+hpa ntg;gj;jpid cl;ftUjyhy; Nguhopfs; ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gl;L ePNuhl;lq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. ,ij kpd;dhw;wyhf khw;w ,aYk;. ,e;epfo;r;rpahdJ Nguhopapd;

ntg;g Mw;wy; khw;wk; (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion - OTEC) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

1. 1. 1. 1. ePhpdhy; R+og;gl;L ,Uf;Fk; tprhykhd ngUk;gug;G ePhpdhy; R+og;gl;L ,Uf;Fk; tprhykhd ngUk;gug;G ePhpdhy; R+og;gl;L ,Uf;Fk; tprhykhd ngUk;gug;G ePhpdhy; R+og;gl;L ,Uf;Fk; tprhykhd ngUk;gug;G

................................................... ........... ........... ........... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m) Nguhop M) fly; ,) tisFlh


kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Kbahj R+oypy; cs;s ts Mjhuq;fs; ,ayhw;wpy; ts Mjhuq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. irgPhpah> mz;lhh;bf;fh Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fis ,jw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfshff; $wyhk;.

kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fis tsh;r;rpAw;w ts Mjhuq;fs; vd;W miof;fg;glfpd;wd. epyf;fhp> ,Uk;Gj;jhJ Nghd;wit ,jw;F vlj;Jf;fhl;LfshFk;.

GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq;fs; GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq;fs; GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq;fs; GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq;fs;

cNyhff; fdpkq;fs; vd;gJ cNyhfj; jhjf;fs; mlq;fpa %yg;nghUl;fs; MFk;.

epyf;fhp> vz;nza;. ,aw;ifthA kw;Wk;; mZrf;jp fdpkq;fs; Mfpait tpiutpy; jPh;e;J NghFk; kf;fpakhd vhpnghUs; fdpkq;fs; MFk;.

epyf;fhpepyf;fhpepyf;fhpepyf;fhp Gij vhpnghUs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Gtpapd; ntg;gk; kw;Wk; mOj;jk; fhuzkhf Gije;JNghj jhtuq;fs; epyf;fhpahf khw;wk; mile;jd.

jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s nea;Ntypapy; epyf;fhp mjpfkhf ntl;b vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,q;F ypf;idl; my;yJ gOg;G epyf;fhp mjpf mstpy; fpilf;fpwJ.

vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthAvz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthAvz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthAvz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthA nghJthf vz;nza; flYf;fbapYs;s gbTg; ghiwfsh

Nrw;Wkz;gbTfs; (Mudstone) nkd;fspfy; (Shale) kw;Wk; kzw;ghiy (Sandstone) Nghd;w mLf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk;.

vz;nza; gbTfs; epyg;gFjpfspYk; (Onshore) fly; gFjpfspYk; (Offshore) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpakhd vz;nza; tay;fs; m];]hk; epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa Kk;ig i` vd;Dk; vz;nza; tay; flw;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.

jkpo;ehl;by; fhtphp nly;lh gFjpfspy; vz;nza; tsk; fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.

mZrf;jp fdpkq;fsmZrf;jp fdpkq;fsmZrf;jp fdpkq;fsmZrf;jp fdpkq;fs;

ANudpak;> Njhhpak; Nghd;w fdpkq;fs; mZrf;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehL kw;Wk; Nfus flw;fiu kzw;gug;Gfspy; ,y;kidl; mjpfsT fhzg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpNyNa mjpfsT (30%) mZrf;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ehL mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehL MFk;.

mZrf;;jp vhpnghUis njpfstpy; (75%) gad;gLj;Jk; ehL gpuhd;R MFk;.

GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs; ePh;kpd;rf;jpePh;kpd;rf;jpePh;kpd;rf;jpePh;kpd;rf;jp

rPdhtpy; cs;s ahq;brp Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf mike;jpUf;Fk; Kg;gs;sj;jhf;F mizapy; (jphp fhh;[y;) cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd;rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;sJ.

,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh;kpd; rf;jp gf;uheq;fs; mizapy; cs;sJ.

R+hpa Mw;wy;R+hpa Mw;wy;R+hpa Mw;wy;R+hpa Mw;wy;

xspkpd; Nthy;lh kpd;fyk; (Photo Voltic Cells) R+hpa rf;jpia Nrkpg;gjw;F Njitg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpd; mjpf msT R+hpa Mw;wiy cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ehL n[h;kdp MFk;.

fhw;W Mw;wy;fhw;W Mw;wy;fhw;W Mw;wy;fhw;W Mw;wy;

INuhg;gh fz;lk; fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;JfpwJ.

nlf;khh;f;fpd; 20% kpd;rhuk; fhw;W Mw;wy; %ykhfg; ngwg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk; kw;Wk; jkpo; ehl;by; fhw;W Mw;wy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

jkpo;ehl;by; fd;dpahFkhp khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s Muy;tha;nkhop vd;Dk; gFjpapy; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa fhw;whiy epWtdk; cs;sJ.

caphp Mw;wy;caphp Mw;wy;caphp Mw;wy;caphp Mw;wy;

rhz vhpthA my;yJ kPj;Njd; khl;Lr; rhzj;jpypUe;J cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

jw;nghOJ caphp vhpnghUs; fUk;gpypUe;Jk;>

Mkzf;F tif jhtuq;fspypUe;Jk; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf :Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf :Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf :Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf : 1. ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; ve;j xU nghUSk; kdpjh;fSf;F

gadspg;gjhf ,Ug;gpd; mJ ts Mjhukts Mjhukts Mjhukts Mjhuk; vdg;gLk;. 2. Gtpapd; fdpkr; Ruq;fq;fspypUe;J xU Kiw ntl;b

vLf;fg;gl;lij kPz;Lk; ek;khy; cUthf;f; cUthf;f; cUthf;f; cUthf;f ,ayhJ. 3. xU ehl;bd; nghUshjhu Nkk;ghl;bw;F ts Mjhuq;fsts Mjhuq;fsts Mjhuq;fsts Mjhuq;fs; kpf

Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ. 4. ANudpak; xU mZrf;jpmZrf;jpmZrf;jpmZrf;jp fdpkkhFk;. 5. madmadmadmad kz;lyk; R+hpa Mw;wiy kpf mjpf mstpy; cw;gj;jp

nra;a VJthf cs;sJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. 1. 1. 1. kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fs;kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fs;kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fs;kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fs; m) tsh;r;rpAw;w tsk; M) ,ayhw;wy; tsk; ,) Nghf;Ftsk; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git m) GJgpf;ff;$ba tsq;fs; M) GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs; ,) caphpay; tsq;fs; tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;l3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;l3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;l3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;lk;k;k;k; m) INuhg;gh M) njd; mnkhpf;fh ,) mz;lhh;bfh tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 4. 4. 4. 4. ekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhpekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhpekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhpekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhp m) gOg;G epyf;fhp M) Md;j;uirl; ,) fpuhigl; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s 5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s 5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s 5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s

,lk;,lk;,lk;,lk; m) gf;uheq;fs; M) Nkl;^ h; ,) jhNkhjh; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m

ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk; Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs;

,k;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fsp;y; kdpjh;fs; ,aw;if ts Mjhuq;fNshL Nehpilahf ,ize;J nray;gLfpd;wdh;.

fdpkq;fis ntl;bnaLj;jy;> kPd; gpbj;jy;> kuk; ntl;Ljy;> Ntshz;ik ,itaidj;Jk; Kjy;epiy njhopy;fs; MFk;.

,j;njhop;y;fspy; kjpg;gpidAk; ngUf;Ffpd;wdh;.

,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; GhpAk; gzpahsh;fs; ePy

fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Blut collar workers) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.


%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

tzpfk;> Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G Nritfis %d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.

%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fspy; gzpGhpNthiu ntsph;rptg;G

fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Pink Collar workers) vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.

ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

fy;tpj;Jiw> ePjpj;Jiw. kUj;Jtk;> nghOJNghf;F> Nfspf;iffs;> eph;thfk;> Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp Mfpa jdpj;jd;ik nfhz;l R+oy;fspy; Nrit GhpNthh; ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fspy; mlq;Fth;.

,j;Jiwapy; gzpGhpAk; gzpahsh;fs; nts;is

fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (White Collar workers) vd;wiof;fg;gLth;.

Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

MNyhrid toq;FNthh; kw;Wk; jpl;lk; tFg;Nghh; Nghd;w cah;epiyapy; cs;Nshh; ,t;tif njhopypy; mlq;Fth;.

rl;lG+h;tkhd mjpfhhpfSk; Ie;jhk;epiyj; njhopy;fspy;

mlq;Fth;. ,th;fs; fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Gold Collar workers) vd miof;fg;gLth;.

Nfhbl;l ,lqNfhbl;l ,lqNfhbl;l ,lqNfhbl;l ,lq;fis Njh;e;njL :;fis Njh;e;njL :;fis Njh;e;njL :;fis Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. Kjy;epiy njhopyKjy;epiy njhopyKjy;epiy njhopyKjy;epiy njhopy;; ;;

m) kuk; ntl;Ljy; M) tq;fp Ntiy ,) MNyhrid toq;Fjy; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m

2. 2. 2. 2. ....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is ....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is ....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is ....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is fOj;Jg;gl;il fOj;Jg;gl;il fOj;Jg;gl;il fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; vd gzpahsh;fs; vd gzpahsh;fs; vd gzpahsh;fs; vd miof;fpNwhk;.miof;fpNwhk;.miof;fpNwhk;.miof;fpNwhk;. m) Kjy;epiy M) ,uz;lhk; epiy ,) %d;whk; epiy ngU> fdlh> tlfly; gFjp kw;Wk; tlNkw;F ml;yhz;bf; fly; Mfpa gFjpfs; Kf;fpa kPd;gpb jsq;fshFk;.

kuk; ntl;Ljykuk; ntl;Ljykuk; ntl;Ljykuk; ntl;Ljy;

cyfpy; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F kpjntg;g kz;ly fhLfspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpd;wd.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. kdpjd; Neubahf ,aw;ifiar; rhh;e;J nray;glk; njhopy;fs;

Kjd;ikj;Kjd;ikj;Kjd;ikj;Kjd;ikj; njhopy;fsnjhopy;fsnjhopy;fsnjhopy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 2. Nka;j;jyNka;j;jyNka;j;jyNka;j;jy; njhopypy;> Nka;r;ry; epyq;fspy; mjpf

vz;zpf;ifapyhd tpyq;Ffis Nka;g;gh;. 3. czTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jyczTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jyczTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jyczTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jy; kw;Wk; Ntl;ilahLjyNtl;ilahLjyNtl;ilahLjyNtl;ilahLjy;

Nghd;wit Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fSs; goikahd njhopy;fshFk;.

4. kpjntg;g kz;lyf;fhLfspy; nkd;ikahd kuq;fsnkd;ikahd kuq;fsnkd;ikahd kuq;fsnkd;ikahd kuq;fs; kw;Wk; fhl;L kuq;fs; fhzg;gLtjhy; kpfg; gutyhfg; gad;glfpwJ.

5. flypy;flypy;flypy;flypy; kPd; gpbg;gJ vd;gJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd nrayhFk;. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. 1. 1. 1. [huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk;[huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk;[huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk;[huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk;

m) me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; M) Mg;gphpf;fh ,) fdlh tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2. 2. 2. 2. fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs;fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs;fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs;fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs;

m) Ntl;ilahLgth; M) czT Nrfhpg;gth; ,) Nka;j;jy; njhopy; Ghpgth;fs; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 3. 3. 3. 3. kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT

fpilf;fpd;wJ.fpilf;fpd;wJ.fpilf;fpd;wJ.fpilf;fpd;wJ. m) fz;lj;jpl;L M) fz;lr;rhpT ,) ngUq;fly;Fop tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m

4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; 4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; 4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; 4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe;,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe;,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe;,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpd;wd.J ngwg;gLfpd;wd.J ngwg;gLfpd;wd.J ngwg;gLfpd;wd. m) kpjntg;g kz;ly; fhLfs; M) mad kz;ly fhLfs;

,) Jhe;jpuf; fhLfs; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; 5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; 5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; 5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; njhopy;njhopy;njhopy;njhopy;

m) czT Nrfhpj;jy; M) Ntl;ilahLjy; ,)Ruq;fj;njhopy; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. G\;nkd; - Mg;gphpf;fh 2. [g;ghd; - kPd;gpbjsk; 3. Njf;F - madf;fhLfs; 4. Crpapiyf;fhLfs; - nkd;ikahd kuq;fs; 5. jPtdk; - fhy;eil czT

Ruq;fj;njhopy;Ruq;fj;njhopy;Ruq;fj;njhopy;Ruq;fj;njhopy; fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf;f Kbahj tskhFk;. vdNt Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU nfhs;isj;njhopy; vd;W miof;fg;gL;k;.


jhJf;fspd; gbtq;fs; ghiwfspDhNl Fiwe;j msT

,Ug;gpd; mJ Fiwe;j msT jhJg;gLif (veins) vdTk;> mjpf mstpy; ,Ug;gpd; ngUksT jhJg;gLif (lodes) vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

vz;nza; fpzWfspy; ,Ue;J Jise;J vz;nza; vLf;f

vz;nza; hpf; (Rigs) vdg;gLk; xUtif Nkiliag; gad;gLj;Jth;.

Jisapl;L vz;nza; vLf;Fk; vz;nza; tay;fs; ,Uf;Fk;

,lq;fis mq;F fhzg;gLk; nlhpf; (derricks) vdg;gLk; ,ae;jpuq;fspdhy; Md NfhGuk; Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf;Fk; fl;likg;Gfisf; nfhz;L fhzyhk;.

fdpkq;fspd; guty;fdpkq;fspd; guty;fdpkq;fspd; guty;fdpkq;fspd; guty;

Nkf;idl;> N`kill;> ypNkhidl; kw;Wk; rpliul; Mfpait ,Uk;Gj; jhJtpd; tiffshFk;.

ghf;i]l;ghf;i]l;ghf;i]l;ghf;i]l; ghf;i]l; mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ MFk;. jufk; jufk; jufk; jufk;

jfuj;jpd; jhJ Nfrpliul; (Cassiterite) MFk;. jq;fk;jq;fk;jq;fk;jq;fk; jq;fk; xU tpiyAah;e;j cNyhfk; vd;gij mwpNthk;.

jq;fk; ngUk;ghYk; tz;ly; gphpj;jy; Kiw %yk; gphpj;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.

fhul; (carat) vd;w nrhy; jq;fj;jpd; Jha jd;ikia njhpe;Jf;nfhs;sg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj;Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj;Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj;Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj; njhopy; vdTk;

fUjg;gLfpwJ. 2. jpwe;jntspr; Euq;f Kiw vd;gJ Fthhpaq;Fthhpaq;Fthhpaq;Fthhpaq; vdTk;

miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 3. fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf;f ,ayhj tskhFk;.tskhFk;.tskhFk;.tskhFk;. 4. ikf;fh kpd;rf;jp jahhpf;Fk;kpd;rf;jp jahhpf;Fk;kpd;rf;jp jahhpf;Fk;kpd;rf;jp jahhpf;Fk; njhopw; rhiyfspy;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. 5. nlhpf;nlhpf;nlhpf;nlhpf; vd;gJ vz;nza; tay;fspy; NfhGuk; Nghd;w

Njhw;wKila fl;likg;ghFk;. rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk;tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk;tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk;tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk; m) jq;fk; M) ,Uk;G ,) epyf;fhp tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2. 2. 2. 2. mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJmYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJmYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJmYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ m) fe;jfk; M) ghf;i]l; ,) epyf;fhp tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 3.3.3.3. Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk;Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk;Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk;Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk; m) ,Uk;G M) rpliul; ,) jq;fk; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 4.4.4.4. ,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk;,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk;,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk;,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk; m) ngl;Nuhypak; M) fe;jfk; ,) jfuk; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. vhpnghUs; - epyf;fhp 2. kNyrpah - jfuk; 3. tz;ly; gphpj;njLj;jy; - jq;fk; 4. Rz;zhk;Gf;fy; - fl;llg;nghUs; 5. nrk;G - rpyp

Ntshz;ikNtshz;ikNtshz;ikNtshz;ik

Mw;Wr;rkntspMw;Wr;rkntspMw;Wr;rkntspMw;Wr;rkntsp ehfhpfk;ehfhpfk;ehfhpfk;ehfhpfk; fz;lk;fz;lk;fz;lk;fz;lk;

rpe;J `ug;gh - nkhfQ;rjhNuh Mrpah

iey; vfpg;J Mg;gphpf;fh

A+g;uB]; nkrgNlhkpah Mrpah

ntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiy

ney;> mad kz;lyj;jpy; tpistpf;fg;gLk; Kjd;ik gapuhFk;. Vnddpy;> mjpf ntg;gKk;> mjpfsT ePUk; new;gaph; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ. NfhJik xU kjntg;g

kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. NfhJik tsu Fsph;e;j fhyepiyj; Njitg;gLfpwJ.

cah; gFjpfspy; kpjntg;g kz;ly gapuhfpa fhul; (Carrot) Nghd;w gsph;fis tpistpf;fyhk;.

gUj;jp Nghd;w gaph;fs; KOikahd tsh;r;rp ngw 200 gdpnghoptw;w ehl;fs; Njitg;gLtjy; Fiwe;j ntg;gk; epyTk; gUt fhyq;fspy; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

gy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiwgy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiwgy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiwgy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiw fhy;thy; mkqkiyg; gFjpapy; xNu tpisepyj;jpy; 12 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;l gy;NtW tpjkhd gPd;];> gUg;G kw;Wk; jpid tif gaph;fs; gaph; nra;ag;gl;L mg;gaph;fspd; mWtil fhyq;fl;lq;fSf;F Vw;wthW mWtil nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

fyg;Gg;gz;izfyg;Gg;gz;izfyg;Gg;gz;izfyg;Gg;gz;iz ,jpy; gaph; tpistpj;jy; kw;Wk; fhy;eil tsh;jjy; Mfpa ,uz;Lk; eilngWfpwJ.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Ntshz;ik xU Kf;fpakhd Kf;fpakhd Kf;fpakhd Kf;fpakhd KKKKjd;ikjd;ikjd;ikjd;ik njhopyhFk;. 2. Ntshz; gaph;fis> czTg; gaph;fs; kw;Wk; gzg;gzg;gzg;gzg; gaph;fs;

vd ,U ngUk;gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. 3. nrhl;LePh;nrhl;LePh;nrhl;LePh;nrhl;LePh; ghrd Kiwapy; ePh; nrbfspd; NtUf;F

mUfhikapy; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. 4. ntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiyntg;gepiy kw;Wk; kioapd; msT Ntshd; njhopiy

ghjpf;Fk; fhyepiy fhuzpfshFk;. 5. tpisepyj;jpy; xNu xU gaph; kl;Lk; xUKiw

tpistpf;fg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiwtpistpf;Fk; Kiwtpistpf;Fk; Kiwtpistpf;Fk; Kiw vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. ................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w ,lkhFk;,,lkhFk;,,lkhFk;,,lkhFk;, m) gPlG+kp M) rkntsp ,) kiyg;gFjp tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 2. 2. 2. 2. .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph;fs; .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph;fs; .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph;fs; .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph;fs;

tpitpitpitpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.stpf;fg;gLfpwJ.stpf;fg;gLfpwJ.stpf;fg;gLfpwJ. m) jd;dpiwT M) khw;wpl ,) tzpf tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: , 3. 3. 3. 3. gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik

....................... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ........................ vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ........................ vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ........................ vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m) [Pk; M) Nuhf;Nfh ,) Njhl;lg;gaph; tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 4. 4. 4. 4. ney; xU ......................... gapuhFkney; xU ......................... gapuhFkney; xU ......................... gapuhFkney; xU ......................... gapuhFk; m) kpjntg;g kz;ly M) gz ,) madkz;ly tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: , 5. 5. 5. 5. kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; ......................... kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; ......................... kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; ......................... kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; .........................

mtrpak;mtrpak;mtrpak;mtrpak; m) ePh;g;ghrk; M) fpzWfs; ,) xU gaph; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. jd;dpiwT Ntshz;njhopy; - rpWepyg;gFjpfs; 2. iey; gs;sj;jhf;F - vfpg;J 3. tzpf Ntshz;njhopy; - tpw;gidf;fhd gaph; 4. tl;ltbt epyk; - ika Row;rp Kiw 5. Njapiy - kiyr;rhpTfs;

gaph;fs;gaph;fs;gaph;fs;gaph;fs; ney;ney;ney;ney;

rPdhtpd; ahh;bq; Mw;Wr; rkntspapy; ,g;gaphpd; gad;ghL Kjd;Kjypy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ vd;w fUj;Jk; epyTfpwJ.

ney; tsh;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd R+yney; tsh;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd R+yney; tsh;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd R+yney; tsh;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd R+y;epiyfs;;epiyfs;;epiyfs;;epiyfs;

ney; tsh;tjw;F ruhrhpahf 240 nr jl;gntg;gepiyAk;> ruhrhpahf 150 nr.kP kioasTk; Njitg;gLfpwJ.

98% tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; ney; cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.

ney; cw;gj;jpapy; rPdh> ,e;jpah> ,e;NjhNdrpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; Mfpa ehLfs; cyfpy; Kjy; ehd;F cw;gj;jp ehLfshfj; jpfo;fpd;wd.


NfhJikNfhJikNfhJikNfhJik

NfhJik xU kpjntg;g kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.

cyfpd; 25% epyg;gFjp NfhJik tsh;f;f gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

Nfhjikg; gapUf;F 150 nr.ypUe;J 200 nr tiu cs;s jl;gntg;gepitNa rhpahd ntg;gj;Njit MFk;.

,jw;F 50-60 nr.kP ruhrhp msT Njitg;gLfpwJ. gUj;jpgUj;jpgUj;jpgUj;jp

,ioapypUe;J tpijfisg; gphpf;Fk; Kiw (Ginning) vd;w nray;Kiw ,jpy; gad;glj;jg;gLk;.

jl;gntg;gepiy 200 Kjy; 300 nr ,Uf;Fk;.

mad kz;lyg; gFjpfspy; 500-1000 nr.kP kio msT cs;s gFjpfspy; gUj;jp tpisfpwJ.

rzy;rzy;rzy;rzy; 300 nr cs;s mjpf ntg;gKk; 150 nr.kP Nkyhd kioasTk;

rzy; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ.

rzy; nrfis ePhpy; Cuitj;J kf;fr;nra;J ,iofis

gphpj;njLf;Fk; nra;iff;Fj; (retting) njhopyhsh;fs; Njitg;gLfpd;wdh;.

,e;jpahTk; tq;fhs NjrKk; rzy; cw;gj;jpapy; Kjyplk; tfpf;Fk; ehLfshFk;.

fUk;GfUk;GfUk;GfUk;G fUk;G xU caukhd madkz;ly Gy;tif jhtukhFk;. ,J 3.5

kPl;lh; tiu tsuf;$ba jhtukhFk;.

fUk;G tsu ruhrhpahf 240 nr ntg;gk; Mz;L KOtjk; njitg;gLfpwJ.

Njapiy

ruhrhpahd 210 nr ntg;gKk;> 150 nr.kP kioAk; ey;y kz; tskk; Njapiy tsuj; Njitg;gLfpwJ.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. jhdpaq;fNsjhdpaq;fNsjhdpaq;fNsjhdpaq;fNs kdpjdJ mbg;gil czthFk;. 2. cyfpd; rpwe;j tif NfhJikg;NfhJikg;NfhJikg;NfhJikg; gaph;fs; kpj ntg;g

kz;lyg; Gy;ntspfspypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ. 3. ,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk;> F[uhj; kw;Wk; jkpo;ehL Mfpa

khepyq;fs; gUj;jpgUj;jpgUj;jpgUj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kf;fpa khepyq;fs; MFk;.

4. ney; xU madmadmadmad kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. rhpahrhpahrhpahrhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :d tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :d tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :d tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. ....................... tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk;....................... tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk;....................... tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk;....................... tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk;

gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.

m) 98% M) 80% ,) 75% tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2. 2. 2. 2. ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh

Mfpa khepyq;fs. mjpf msT ....................Mfpa khepyq;fs. mjpf msT ....................Mfpa khepyq;fs. mjpf msT ....................Mfpa khepyq;fs. mjpf msT ........................... cw;gj;jp ....... cw;gj;jp ....... cw;gj;jp ....... cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;.nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;.nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;.nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;.

m) ney; M) fUk;G ,) NfhJik tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: , 3. 3. 3. 3. Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk;.Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk;.Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk;.Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk;. m) kpjntg;gkz;ly M) mad kz;ly ,) epyeLf;NfhL tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 4.4.4.4. gUj;jp ............................ kz;zpy; mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ.gUj;jp ............................ kz;zpy; mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ.gUj;jp ............................ kz;zpy; mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ.gUj;jp ............................ kz;zpy; mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ. m) fhpry; M) tz;ly; ,) rptg;G tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 5.5.5.5. ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy;

Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd.Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd.Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd.Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd. m) gUj;jp M) rzy; ,) NfhJik tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. tpij gphpf;Fk; nray; - gUj;jp 2. Cwitj;J kf;fr;nra;jy; - rzy; 3. fspkz; fye;j tz;ly; kz; - NfhJik 4. tz;ly;kz; - ney; 5. caukhd madg;Gy; tif - fUk;G

,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;

%yg; nghUs;fis KbTw;w nghUl;fshf khw;Wk; nray;fs; ,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

epyf;fhp njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Kjy; vhpnghUs; MFk;.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epuNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epuNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epuNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gfg;Gfg;Gfg;Gf 1. ,aw;ifapy; %yg;nghUl;fs%yg;nghUl;fs%yg;nghUl;fs%yg;nghUl;fs; tbtpy; fpilf;Fk; tsq;fis

ehk; mg;gbNa cgNahfpf;f KbahJ. 2. njhopw;rhiyfs; njhlq;fg;gLtij Gtpapay; fhuzpfsGtpapay; fhuzpfsGtpapay; fhuzpfsGtpapay; fhuzpfs;

kw;Wk; kf;fs; tho;tpay; fhuzpfs; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 3. fdkhd %yg;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;Jk; njhopw;rhiyfs;

%yg;nghU%yg;nghU%yg;nghU%yg;nghUl;fs;l;fs;l;fs;l;fs; fpilf;Fk; ,lq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa njhlq;fg;gfpd;wd.

4. njhopy;Jiw cyfpd; 70707070% vhpnghUs; rf;jpia ,ae;jpuq;fs; ,af;fg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;fpwJ.

5. vspjpy; cilaf;$ba> El;gkhd fz;zhbg; nghUs;fis jahhpf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyfs; re;ijf;Fre;ijf;Fre;ijf;Fre;ijf;F mUfpNyNa epWtg;gl;Lfpd;wd.

rhprhprhprhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :ahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :ahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :ahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. vspjpy; vspjpy; vspjpy; vspjpy; cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs;cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs;cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs;cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs; m) fz;zhbg; nghUl;fs; M) fha;fwpfs; ,) tz;bfs; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2. 2. 2. 2. njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Knjhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Knjhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Knjhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Kjy; vhpnghUs; ........................ jy; vhpnghUs; ........................ jy; vhpnghUs; ........................ jy; vhpnghUs; ........................

MFk;.MFk;.MFk;.MFk;. m) vz;nza; M) ,Uk;G ,) epyf;fhp tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: , 3.3.3.3. nghJthfnghJthfnghJthfnghJthf ........................ epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa ........................ epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa ........................ epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa ........................ epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa

mikf;fg;gLk;.mikf;fg;gLk;.mikf;fg;gLk;.mikf;fg;gLk;. m) mYkpdpak; njhopw;rhiyfs; M) ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy ,) fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopw;rhiy tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M 4.4.4.4. ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... gzpahsh; gzpahsh; gzpahsh; gzpahsh;

Njitg;gLfpwJ.Njitg;gLfpwJ.Njitg;gLfpwJ.Njitg;gLfpwJ. m) Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j M) njhopw;El;gk; njhpahj ,) XusT njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. mjpfsT nghUs; cw;gj;jp - njhopw;Gul;rp 2. ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy - %yg;nghUs;fs; 3. [hhpah - epyf;fhp Ruq;fk; 4. nghUl;fis mLf;fpf;fl;Lk; - gzpahsh;fis ikakhff; njhopw;rhiy nfhz;L 5. cjphpg;ghfq;fis ,izf;Fk; - re;ijapid ikakhff; njhopw;rhiy nfhz;L

njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;

rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; (Foot Loose) ,t;tif njhopyfq;fs; vt;tplj;jpYk; epWtg;glyhk;>

Vnddpy; ,jd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd; ghfq;fs; MFk;. v.fh : fbfhuk; jahhpf;Fk; njhopyfq;fs;.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Nyrhd my;yJ fdkw;w %yg; nghUs;fisf; nfhz;L

jahhpf;Fk; fdkw;wfdkw;wfdkw;wfdkw;w njhopw;rhiyfs; vq;F Ntz;LkhdhYk; epWtg;glyhk;.

2. thfdj; njhopw;rhiy xU ghfq;fisghfq;fisghfq;fisghfq;fis ,iz,iz,iz,izf;Fk;f;Fk;f;Fk;f;Fk; njhopw;rhiyahFk;.

3. re;ij rhh;e;jre;ij rhh;e;jre;ij rhh;e;jre;ij rhh;e;j njhopw;rhiyfs; re;ijfSf;F mUNf epWtg;gLfpd;wd.

4. ifj;jwp njhopy;fs; ifj;ifj;ifj;ifj; njhopyfq;fSf;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhFk;.


5. gjgLj;Jk; njhopy;fs; %yg;nghUs;fis gjg;gLj;jpa nghUs;fshf khw;wpaikf;fpd;wd.

rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1.1.1.1. jdpahh; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljdpahh; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljdpahh; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljdpahh; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;L

m) hpiyad;R M) ngy; (BHEL) ,) ghuj; rQ;rhh; epfhk; ypkpnll; (BSNL) tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m

2. nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F 2. nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F 2. nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F 2. nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F ........................... Kjypy; Njit........................... Kjypy; Njit........................... Kjypy; Njit........................... Kjypy; Njit

m) mjpf M) kpjkhd ,) Fiwthd tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 3.3.3.3. mmmmiwfyd;fs; nra;Ak; njhopyfq;fs; ............................ iwfyd;fs; nra;Ak; njhopyfq;fs; ............................ iwfyd;fs; nra;Ak; njhopyfq;fs; ............................ iwfyd;fs; nra;Ak; njhopyfq;fs; ............................

njhopyfq;fSs; njhopyfq;fSs; njhopyfq;fSs; njhopyfq;fSs; mlq;Fk;. m) fhLfs; rhh;e;j M) Ntshd;nghUs;fs; rhh;e;j ,) fdpkq;fs;rhh;e;j tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 4.4.4.4. gUj;jp njhopw;rhiygUj;jp njhopw;rhiygUj;jp njhopw;rhiygUj;jp njhopw;rhiy xU ..........................xU ..........................xU ..........................xU .......................... njhopyhFk;. m) ifj;njhopy; rhh;e;j M) cjphp ghfq;fis ,izf;Fk; ,) Ntshz; nghUs; rhh;e;j tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: ,tpil: , 5.5.5.5. rh;f;fiuj; njhopw;rhiy ............................. rhh;e;j rh;f;fiuj; njhopw;rhiy ............................. rhh;e;j rh;f;fiuj; njhopw;rhiy ............................. rhh;e;j rh;f;fiuj; njhopw;rhiy ............................. rhh;e;j

njhopyfkhFk;.njhopyfkhFk;.njhopyfkhFk;.njhopyfkhFk;. m) %yg;nghUs; M) rpjhpf;fhzg;gLk; ,) re;ij tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 1. tpijg; gphpj;jy; Kiw - gUj;jp njhopw;rhiy 2. gjg;gLj;Jjy; - Njhy; njhopw;rhiy 3. cUf;Fjy; - ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy 4. %yjdk; - fduf njhopw;rhiy 5. nerT - ifj;jwp njhopw;rhiy

tzpfk;tzpfk;tzpfk;tzpfk; tzpfj;ij Nkd;NkYk; cah;j;Jtjw;F mz;il ehLfSld;

xd;wpize;J xU FOthf nray;gLtij tzpff;

$l;likg;Gfs; (Trading blocks) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. v.fh: njd;fpof;F Mrpa $l;likg;G ehLfs; (ASEAN) INuhg;gpa $l;likg;G Nghd;wit MFk;.

Vw;Wkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk;> ,wf;Fkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s NtWghl tzpfr; rkepiy vdg;glfpwJ.

Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;G ,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; me;ehl;bd; rhjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ vdyhk;.

,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;G Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; ghjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ vdyhk;.

Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. ,yj;jpd; mnkhpf;fh czTg;nghUl;fs;czTg;nghUl;fs;czTg;nghUl;fs;czTg;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;

%yg;nghul;fisAk; Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ. 2. ,ug;gh; kw;Wk; jfuk; mjpfk; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; kNyrpahkNyrpahkNyrpahkNyrpah

MFk;. 3. njhopy;Jiwapy; tsh;r;rpaile;j ehLfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a cw;gj;jp nra;a cw;gj;jp nra;a cw;gj;jp nra;a

KbTg; KbTg; KbTg; KbTg; nghUs;fisj; njhopy;Jiw tsh;r;rpailahj ehLfSf;F Vw;Wkjp nra;fpd;wJ.

rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. 1. 1. 1. xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; .......................xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; .......................xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; .......................xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; ....................... m) cs;ehl;L thzpgk; M) gd;dhl;L thzpgk; ,) jpwe;j thzpgk; tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 2.2.2.2. njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ........................... njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ........................... njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ........................... njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ...........................

nghUs;fshFk;.nghUs;fshFk;.nghUs;fshFk;.nghUs;fshFk;. m) Kjy;epiy M) ,uz;lhk; epiy ,) %d;whk; epiy tpil: mtpil: mtpil: mtpil: m 3.3.3.3. Rtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; GRtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; GRtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; GRtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; Gfo;ngw;wJfo;ngw;wJfo;ngw;wJfo;ngw;wJ m) gl;L M) iff;fbfhuk; ,) Njapiy tpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: Mtpil: M

1. rPdh - gl;L 2. vz;nza; - kj;jpa fpof;F ehLfs; 3. fhfpjk; - fdlh 4. Mg;gphpf;fh - fdpk jhJf;fs; 5. jfuk; - kNyrpah

Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jrhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jrhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jrhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J

rhiyfis fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd rhiyfs;

(Transcontinental roads) Njrpa rhuyfs; kw;Wk; cs;Sh; rhiyfs; vd tifg;gLj;jyhk;. fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd rhiyfs; Kf;fpakhdit. mit xU vy;iyapypUe;J kw;nwhU vy;iyf;F ,izf;Fk; ePz;l rhiyfs; MFk;.

gaz Neuj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; tz;zk; ghtq;fs; kw;Wk; FilTfs; topahf ehlfSf;fpilNa mikf;fg;gl;L ,lq;fis ,izf;Fk;gbahf mike;Js;sJ. n[h;kdpapy; cs;s Ml;Nlhghd;]; rhiyfs; Kjypy; mikf;fg;gl;l ,j;jifa rhiyfs; MFk;.

,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy 2500 fp.kP ePsKs;s fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy ,e;jpahtpd;

ePskhd> Kjd;ikahd rhiyahFk;.

,e;neLQ;rhiy tq;fhs Njrj;jpYs;s Nrhdhh;fs; vd;w ,lj;jpypUe;J ghfp];jhdpYs;s ng\hth; vd;w ,lj;jpw;F tl ,e;jpahtpd; topahf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

buhd;]; irgPhpad; ,uapy; ghij fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd xU ,Ug;Gg; ghijahFk; . ,J u\;ahtpd; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s tpshbth];lhf; vd;w ,lj;Jld; ,izf;fpwJ.

buhd;]; Mrpa ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J rpq;fg;G+hpid 26 ehLfspd; topahf 18000 fp.kP njhitypy; cs;s JUf;fpapd; ,];jhd;Gy; gFjpAld; ,izf;fpwJ.

,e;jpahtpd; ,uapy;Nghf;Ftuj;J mikg;ghdJ Mrpah fz;lj;jpNyNa kpfg;nghpaJ.

cyfpy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.

vk;.Mh;.b.v]; (M.R.T.S) vd;gJ kjpo;ehl;by; nrd;idapy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;d cah;gFjpapy; mike;Js;s ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.

jw;NghJ ,r;Nrit 17 ,uapy; epiyaq;fNshL nrd;id flw;fiu ,uapy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J Ntsr;Nrhp ,uapy; epiyak; tiuapyhd 25 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;fF nray;gLfpwJ.

ePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J

ePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J topahFk;.

gf;fpq;fhk; fhy;tha; Nghf;Ftuj;J ney;YhUf;Fk; kuf;fhzj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa nghUs;fis nfhz;Lnry;y gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs;cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs;cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs;cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs; tltltltl ml;yhz;bf; topml;yhz;bf; topml;yhz;bf; topml;yhz;bf; top

,J kf;fs; epiwe;j gFjpahfpa Nkw;F INuhg;gpa ehLfisAk; tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; fpof;Fg; gFjpfisAk; ,izf;Fk; topahFk;.

ed;dk;gpf;if Kid toped;dk;gpf;if Kid toped;dk;gpf;if Kid toped;dk;gpf;if Kid top ,J Nkw;F kw;Wk; njw;F INuhg;gpa gFjpfis njd;Nkw;F Mrpah kw;Wk; M];jpNuypa cld; ,izf;Fk; topahFk;.

gdhkh fhy;tgdhkh fhy;tgdhkh fhy;tgdhkh fhy;tha; topha; topha; topha; top

,J tl kw;Wk; njd; mnkhpf;fhtpd; Nkw;F flw;fiug; gFjpfis mf;fz;lk; fpof;F flw;fiu gFjpfNshL ,izf;Fk; topahFk;.

,e;jpah 6100 fp.kP ePsKs;s ePz;l flw;fiuiaf; nfhz;lJ.


rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;

nghpa ,dr; iyd; (Big Inch Line) nlf;rh]; Kjy; epA+n[h;rp tiu nry;Yk; Foha; top.

lhg;]; (TAPS) tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; buhd;]; myh];fh Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J.

lhg; iyd; (TAP) rTjp mNugpahtpd; ifRkh gFjpapypUe;J nygdhdpy; cs;s irld; gFjptiu 1214 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;Js;s Foha;g; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.

jfty; njhlh;gpd; Kjw;tsh;r;rp 1844-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l je;jpj;njhlh;G MFk.

1875-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l njhiyNgrp njhiyj; njhlh;gpy; mLj;j Kf;fpa tsh;r;rpahFk;.

1935-y; je;jp njhlh;gpy; (TELEX) Vw;gl;l tsh;r;rp nra;jpfis xU ,lj;jpy; jl;nlOjp njhiyTg; gFjpfSf;F mDg;Gk;NghJ mit njhiy mr;rpy;

(Teleprinter) nra;jpfshfg; ngwg;gl;ld. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;GfNfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. buhd;]; irgphpad; fz;lq;fSf;fpilNaahd ,Ug;Gg;ghij

nydpd; jpuhl;nydpd; jpuhl;nydpd; jpuhl;nydpd; jpuhl; vd;w ,lj;jpid tpshnth];lhf;Fld; ,izf;fpwJ.

2. ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;JePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J vd;gJ kpfTk; kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J rhjdkhFk;.

3. gf;fpq;fhk;fhy;tha; topahf nghUs;fs; ney;YhhpypUe;J kuf;fhzj;jpw;Fkuf;fhzj;jpw;Fkuf;fhzj;jpw;Fkuf;fhzj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gl;ld.

rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL :rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. 1. 1. 1. .....

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