Tinjauan Psikologis

Tinjauan Psikologis

1967, Vol. 74, No. 3, 183-200 1967, Vol. 74, No 3, 183-200

SELF-PERCEPTION: PERSEPSI DIRI:

AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION OF COGNITIVE SEBUAH INTERPRETASI ALTERNATIF KOGNITIF

DISSONANCE PHENOMENA1 DISONANSI PHENOMENA1

DARYL J. BEM Daryl J. BEM

Carnegie Institute of Technology Institut Teknologi Carnegie

A theory of self-perception is proposed to provide an alternative interpretation for several of the major phenomena embraced by Festinger's Sebuah teori persepsi diri diusulkan untuk memberikan interpretasi alternatif untuk beberapa fenomena utama yang dianut oleh Festinger's

theory of cognitive dissonance and to explicate some of the teori disonansi kognitif dan untuk menjelaskan beberapa

secondary patterns of data that have appeared in dissonance experiments. sekunder pola data yang muncul dalam percobaan disonansi.

It is suggested that the attitude statements which comprise the Disarankan bahwa pernyataan sikap yang terdiri dari

major dependent variables in dissonance experiments may be regarded variabel utama dalam percobaan disonansi dapat dianggap

as interpersonal judgments in which the observer and the observed sebagai penilaian interpersonal di mana pengamat dan yang diamati

happen to be the same individual and that it is unnecessary to postulate terjadi menjadi individu yang sama dan bahwa tidak diperlukan untuk dalil

an aversive motivational drive toward consistency to account for drive motivasi aversive terhadap konsistensi untuk memperhitungkan

the attitude change phenomena observed. fenomena menyikapi perubahan tersebut diamati. Supporting experiments are percobaan Pendukung

presented, and metatheoretical contrasts between the "radical" behavioral disajikan, dan metatheoretical kontras antara "radikal" perilaku

approach utilized and the phenomenological approach typified pendekatan yang digunakan dan pendekatan fenomenologis ditandai

by dissonance theory are discussed. oleh teori disonansi dibahas.

If a person holds two cognitions that Jika seseorang memiliki dua kognisi yang

are inconsistent with one another, he tidak konsisten satu sama lain, dia

will experience the pressure of an akan mengalami tekanan dari

aversive motivational state called cognitive motivasi negara permusuhan disebut kognitif

dissonance, a pressure which he disonansi, tekanan yang ia

will seek to remove, among other ways, akan berusaha untuk menghapus, antara cara-cara lain,

by altering one of the two "dissonant" dengan mengubah salah satu dari dua "disonan"

cognitions. This proposition is the kognisi. proposisi ini adalah

heart of Festinger's (1957) theory of jantung) teori Festinger's (1957 dari

cognitive dissonance, a theory which disonansi kognitif, teori yang

has received more widespread attention telah menerima perhatian lebih luas

from personality and social psychologists dari kepribadian dan psikolog sosial

in the past 10 years than any other dalam tahun terakhir 10 dari yang lainnya

contemporary statement about human kontemporer pernyataan tentang manusia

behavior. perilaku. Only 5 years after its introduction, Hanya 5 tahun setelah diperkenalkan,

Brehm and Cohen (1962) Brehm dan Cohen (1962)

could review over 50 studies conresearch bisa review lebih dari 50 studi conresearch

was supported in part by didukung sebagian oleh

Ford Foundation Grant 1400SS to Carnegie 1400SS Ford Foundation Grant Carnegie

Institute of Technology and in part by the Institut Teknologi dan sebagian oleh

Center for Research on Language and Language Pusat Penelitian Bahasa dan Bahasa

Behavior, University of Michigan, Perilaku, University of Michigan,

with funds from the Bureau of Higher Education dengan dana dari Biro Pendidikan Tinggi

Research, United States Office of Education. Penelitian, Amerika Serikat Kantor Pendidikan.

The author is grateful to George Penulis berterima kasih kepada George

R. Madaras and Kenneth M. Peterson for R. Madaras dan Peterson M. Kenneth untuk

aid in conducting the research and to Sandra bantuan dalam melakukan penelitian dan kepada Sandra

L. Bern for critical comments on the manuscript. L. Bern untuk komentar kritis atas naskah ini.

ducted within the framework of dissonance menyalurkan dalam rangka disonansi

theory; and, in the 5 years teori, dan, dalam 5 tahun

since the appearance of their book, sejak munculnya buku mereka,

every major social-psychological journal setiap jurnal sosial-psikologis utama

has averaged at least one article memiliki rata-rata minimal satu artikel

per issue probing some prediction "derived" per masalah memeriksa prediksi beberapa "turunan"

from the basic propositions of dari proposisi dasar

dissonance theory. teori disonansi. In popularity, even Dalam popularitas, bahkan

the empirical law of effect now appears hukum empiris efek sekarang muncul

to be running a poor second. harus menjalankan kedua miskin.

The theory has also had its critics. Teori ini juga telah pengritiknya.

Reservations about various aspects of Reservasi tentang berbagai aspek

the theory have ranged from mild teori telah berkisar dari ringan

(eg, Asch, 1958; Bruner, 1957; Kelly, (Misalnya, Asch, 1958; Bruner, 1957; Kelly,

1962; Osgood, 1960; Zajonc, 1960) to 1962; Osgood, 1960; Zajonc, 1960) untuk

severe (Chapanis & Chapanis, 1964), berat (Chapanis & Chapanis, 1964),

and alternative interpretations have dan interpretasi alternatif

been offered to account for the results telah ditawarkan untuk memperhitungkan hasil

of particular studies (eg, Chapanis & studi tertentu (misalnya, Chapanis &

Chapanis, 1964; Janis & Gilmore, 1965 ; Chapanis, 1964; Janis & Gilmore, 1965;

Lott, 1963; Rosenberg, 1965). Lott, 1963; Rosenberg, 1965). No Tidak ada

theoretical alternative to dissonance teoritis alternatif untuk disonansi

theory has been proposed, however, teori telah diusulkan, namun,

which attempts both to embrace its yang mencoba untuk merangkul yang baik

major phenomena and to account for fenomena besar dan untuk memperhitungkan

some of the secondary patterns of results beberapa pola sekunder hasil

which have appeared in the supporting yang telah muncul dalam mendukung

experiments but which were percobaan tetapi yang

183 183

184 DARYL J. BEM 184 Daryl J. BEM

not predicted by the theory. tidak diprediksi oleh teori. This article Artikel ini

proposes such an alternative. mengusulkan alternatif tersebut.

Like many theories in psychology, Seperti banyak teori dalam psikologi,

the theory of cognitive dissonance attempts teori disonansi kognitif upaya

to account for observed functional untuk memperhitungkan fungsional diamati

relations between current stimuli hubungan antara stimuli saat ini

and responses by postulating some dan tanggapan oleh beberapa mendalilkan

hypothetical process within the organism, hipotetis proses dalam organisme,

in this case, an inferred process of dalam hal ini, proses disimpulkan dari

the arousal and reduction of dissonance. gairah dan pengurangan disonansi.

Like many other contemporary Seperti banyak lainnya kontemporer

personality and social psychological kepribadian dan sosial psikologis

theories, dissonance theory is further teori, teori disonansi lebih lanjut

characterized by an emphasis on the ditandai dengan penekanan pada

individual's current phenomenology; individu saat ini fenomenologi;

the explanatory account in the theory rekening jelas dalam teori

itself is ahistorical. sendiri adalah ahistoris.

In contrast, the alternative formulation Sebaliknya, perumusan alternatif

to be presented here eschews any yang akan disajikan di sini eschews apapun

reference to hypothetical internal processes referensi untuk proses internal hipotetis

and seeks, rather, to account for dan mencari, lebih tepatnya, untuk memperhitungkan

observed functional relations between diamati hubungan fungsional antara

current stimuli and responses in terms saat rangsangan dan tanggapan dalam hal

of the individual's past training history. pelatihan masa lalu sejarah individu.

Such an approach has been called "radical" Pendekatan seperti telah disebut "radikal"

behaviorism (see Scriven, 1956), behaviorisme (lihat Scriven, 1956),

a position most often associated with posisi paling sering dikaitkan dengan

the name of BF Skinner. nama BF Skinner. In analyzing Dalam menganalisis

a complex behavioral phenomenon, fenomena perilaku yang kompleks,

the radical behaviorist attempts to upaya behavioris radikal

establish it as a special case of some menetapkan sebagai kasus khusus dari beberapa

previously substantiated functional relation sebelumnya dibuktikan hubungan fungsional

discovered in the experimental ditemukan di eksperimental

analysis of simpler behaviors. analisis perilaku sederhana. His Nya

functional analysis is thus based on empirical analisis fungsional dengan demikian didasarkan pada empiris

generalization and, accordingly, generalisasi dan karenanya,

is frankly inductive not only in its experimental ini terus terang induktif tidak hanya dalam eksperimen

execution, but in its formal eksekusi, tetapi dalam formalnya

presentation. presentasi.

A functional analysis characteristically Analisis fungsional khas

begins by inquiring into the ontogenetic dimulai dengan bertanya ke ontogenetic

origins of the observed dependent asal dari diamati tergantung

variable and attempts to ascertain variabel dan upaya untuk memastikan

the controlling or independent variables pengendalian atau independen variabel

of which that behavior is a function. yang perilaku yang merupakan fungsi.

The present analysis of dissonance Analisis disonansi sekarang

phenomena proceeds in the same fenomena hasil di sama

way by noting first that the dependent Cara pertama dengan mencatat bahwa tergantung

variable in cognitive dissonance studies variabel dalam studi disonansi kognitif

is, with very few exceptions, a subject's adalah, dengan beberapa pengecualian, sebuah subyek

(S's) self-descriptive statement (S) self-deskriptif pernyataan

of an attitude or belief. dari sikap atau keyakinan. Indeed, this Memang, ini

is the dependent variable in nearly all adalah variabel dependen di hampir semua

of contemporary social psychology. psikologi sosial kontemporer.

But how are such self-descriptive behaviors Tapi bagaimana perilaku self-deskriptif seperti

acquired ? What are their controlling diperoleh? Apa yang mengendalikan mereka

variables? It is to these questions variabel? Ini adalah untuk pertanyaan-pertanyaan ini

that the analysis turns first. bahwa analisis berubah pertama.

SELF-PERCEPTION : A SPECIAL CASE PERSEPSI DIRI: KASUS KHUSUS

OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION PERSEPSI INTERPERSONAL

Self-perception, an individual's ability Persepsi diri, kemampuan individu

to respond differentially to his own untuk merespon secara diferensial untuk sendiri

behavior and its controlling variables, perilaku dan variabel pengendali,

is a product of social interaction merupakan produk interaksi sosial

(Mead, 1934; Ryle, 1949; Skinner, (Mead, 1934; Ryle, 1949; Skinner,

1957). 1957). Verbal statements that are Verbal pernyataan yang

self-descriptive are among the most self-deskriptif adalah yang paling

common responses comprising self-perception, tanggapan umum yang terdiri dari persepsi diri,

and the techniques employed dan teknik yang digunakan

by the community to teach its members oleh masyarakat untuk mengajarkan anggotanya

to make such statements would not untuk membuat pernyataan seperti itu tidak akan

seem to differ fundamentally from the tampaknya berbeda secara fundamental dari

methods used to teach interpersonal metode yang digunakan untuk mengajar interpersonal

perception in general. persepsi pada umumnya. The community, Masyarakat,

however, does face severe limitations Namun, apakah parah keterbatasan wajah

in training the individual to make dalam pelatihan individu untuk membuat

statements describing internal events Laporan menggambarkan kejadian internal

to which only he has direct access. yang hanya dia memiliki akses langsung.

Skinner (1953, 1957) has analyzed Skinner (1953, 1957) telah menganalisis

the limited resources available to the keterbatasan sumber daya yang tersedia untuk

community for training its members komunitas untuk pelatihan para anggotanya

thus to "know themselves," and he has dengan demikian untuk "mengenal diri sendiri," dan ia

described the inescapable inadequacies menggambarkan kekurangan tak terhindarkan

of the resulting knowledge. dari pengetahuan yang dihasilkan.

Skinner suggests that some self-descriptions Skinner menyarankan bahwa beberapa deskripsi diri

of internal stimuli can be stimuli internal dapat

learned through metaphor or stimulus belajar melalui metafora atau stimulus

generalization. The child, for example, Contoh generalisasi. anak, untuk,

can easily learn to describe "butterflies dengan mudah dapat belajar untuk menggambarkan "kupu-kupu

in the stomach" without explicit discrimination di perut "tanpa diskriminasi eksplisit

training. pelatihan. More often, however, Lebih sering, bagaimanapun,

a socializing community must komunitas sosialisasi harus

teach the descriptive responses more mengajarkan tanggapan lebih deskriptif

directly. langsung. In training a child to describe Dalam pelatihan seorang anak untuk menggambarkan

pain, for example, the community, sakit, misalnya, masyarakat,

at some point, must teach him pada titik tertentu, harus mengajar dia

SELF-PERCEPTION 185 185 PERSEPSI DIRI

the correct response at the critical time respon yang benar pada saat yang kritis

when the appropriate private stimuli ketika rangsangan yang sesuai pribadi

are impinging upon him. yang menimpa kepadanya. But the Tapi

community itself must necessarily masyarakat itu sendiri tentu harus

identify the "critical time" on the basis mengidentifikasi "masa kritis" atas dasar

of observable stimuli or responses and stimuli diamati atau tanggapan dan

implicitly assume that the private stimuli implisit berasumsi bahwa rangsangan pribadi

are, in fact, accompanying these , pada kenyataannya, menemani ini

public events. acara publik.

This analysis suggests that many of Analisis ini menunjukkan bahwa banyak

the self-descriptive statements that appear deskriptif diri-pernyataan yang muncul

to be exclusively under the discriminative untuk secara eksklusif di bawah diskriminatif

control of private stimuli kontrol rangsangan pribadi

may, in fact, still be partially controlled mungkin, pada kenyataannya, sebagian masih dikendalikan

by the same accompanying public oleh masyarakat atas sama

events used by the training community acara yang digunakan oleh komunitas pelatihan

to infer the individual's inner states. untuk menyimpulkan batin negara individu.

Private stimuli may play a smaller role rangsangan swasta mungkin memainkan peran yang lebih kecil

than the individual himself suspects. dari individu sendiri tersangka.

For example, by manipulating the external Misalnya, dengan memanipulasi eksternal

cues of the situation, Schachter isyarat dari situasi, Schachter

and Singer (1962) were able to evoke dan Singer (1962) mampu membangkitkan

self-descriptions of emotional states as deskripsi diri negara emosional

disparate as euphoria and anger from berbeda sebagai euforia dan kemarahan dari

5s in whom operationally identical 5s dalam operasional yang identik

states of physiological arousal had been keadaan gairah fisiologis telah

induced. induksi. It appears that these 5s utilized Tampaknya ini dimanfaatkan 5s

internal stimuli only to make the rangsangan internal hanya untuk membuat

gross discrimination that they were kotor diskriminasi yang mereka

emotional, but that the more subtle emosional, tapi yang lebih halus

discrimination of which emotion they diskriminasi yang emosi mereka

were experiencing was under the control yang mengalami berada di bawah kontrol

of external cues. isyarat eksternal.

A similar division of control between Sebuah divisi serupa kontrol antara

internal and external stimuli appears rangsangan internal dan eksternal muncul

to operate in the domain of attitude untuk beroperasi dalam domain sikap

statements. Osgood, Suci, and laporan. Osgood, Suci, dan

Tannenbaum (1957) theorize that a Tannenbaum (1957) berteori bahwa

pattern of internal responses elicited pola jawaban internal ditimbulkan

by a word or an object comprises the oleh sebuah kata atau benda meliputi

connotative or "emotional" meaning of konotatif atau "emosional" makna

the stimulus for an individual, including stimulus bagi seorang individu, termasuk

his attitude toward it. nya sikap terhadap hal itu. Using the Menggunakan

Semantic Differential technique, these Semantik Diferensial teknik, ini

investigators report that an individual's peneliti melaporkan bahwa seorang individu

verbal descriptions of these hypothesized deskripsi verbal hipotesis ini

internal responses can be factor tanggapan internal dapat menjadi faktor

analyzed into a very small number of dianalisis ke dalam sejumlah kecil sangat

factors, factors which appear to have faktor, faktor yang tampaknya memiliki

extensive cross-cultural generality as ekstensif lintas-budaya umum sebagai

well (Osgood et al., 1957). baik (Osgood et al 1957.,). These Ini

findings, too, are consistent with the temuan, juga konsisten dengan

view that an individual is unable to pandangan bahwa seorang individu tidak mampu

make more than a small number of independent membuat lebih dari sejumlah kecil independen

discriminations among stimuli diskriminasi antara rangsangan

that have never been publicly available yang belum pernah tersedia secara umum

to a socializing community, and it untuk sebuah komunitas sosialisasi, dan

is suggested that the many subtle discriminations disarankan bahwa banyak diskriminasi halus

which individuals do make yang membuat individu melakukan

when describing their attitudes are ketika menggambarkan sikap mereka

based, rather, on the kinds of cues that berbasis lebih pada jenis-jenis isyarat yang

are potentially available to an outside berpotensi tersedia ke luar

observer. pengamat. In particular, it is suggested Secara khusus, disarankan

that self-descriptive attitude yang-deskriptif sikap diri

statements can be based on the individual's Laporan dapat didasarkan pada individu

observations of his own overt pengamatan terbuka sendiri

behavior and the external stimulus conditions perilaku dan kondisi stimulus eksternal

under which it occurs. dimana itu terjadi. A number Sejumlah

of recent experimental studies studi eksperimental terbaru

provide support for this proposition. menyediakan dukungan untuk proposisi ini.

Several studies have shown that an Beberapa studi telah menunjukkan bahwa

individual's belief and attitude statements individu keyakinan dan pernyataan sikap

can be manipulated by inducing dapat dimanipulasi oleh inducing

him to role-play, deliver a persuasive dia untuk peran-bermain, memberikan persuasif

communication, or engage in any behavior komunikasi, atau terlibat dalam perilaku apa pun

that would characteristically yang khas akan

imply his endorsement of a particular menyiratkan dukungan nya tertentu

set of beliefs (Brehm & Cohen, 1962; seperangkat keyakinan (Brehm & Cohen, 1962;

King & Janis, 1956; Scott, 1957, Raja & Janis, 1956; Scott, 1957,

1959). 1959). A recent experimental analysis Sebuah analisis eksperimental baru-baru ini

of these phenomena of "self-persuasion" fenomena ini "self-bujukan"

demonstrates that an individual bases menunjukkan bahwa seorang individu dasar

his subsequent beliefs and attitudes on Nya berikutnya keyakinan dan sikap pada

such self-observed behaviors to the seperti diri-mengamati perilaku ke

extent that these behaviors are emitted sejauh ini perilaku yang dipancarkan

under circumstances that have in the dalam situasi yang telah di

past set the occasion for telling the lalu mengatur kesempatan untuk menceritakan

truth (Bern, 1965, 1966). kebenaran (Bern, 1965, 1966). For example, Misalnya,

in one of three studies reported dalam salah satu dari tiga penelitian yang dilaporkan

in Bern (1965), 5s were first trained di Bern (1965), 5s pertama kali dilatih

to tell the truth in the presence of a mengatakan kebenaran dalam kehadiran

colored light and to tell lies in the presence berwarna terang dan berbohong di hadapan

of another. Later in the experimental lain. Kemudian di eksperimental

session, 5s were required to sesi, 5s diminta untuk

state attitudes with which they disagreed; sikap negara dengan yang mereka tidak setuju;

one of the two colored lights salah satu dari dua lampu berwarna

was illuminated as each attitude statement diterangi sebagai setiap pernyataan sikap

was made. dibuat. It was found that 5s Ditemukan bahwa 5s


subsequently endorsed the attitude kemudian mendukung sikap

statements they had uttered in the laporan mereka telah diucapkan dalam

presence of the "truth light" significantly kehadiran "cahaya kebenaran" secara signifikan

more than attitude statements lebih dari pernyataan sikap

they had made in the presence of the mereka telah dibuat di hadapan

"lie light"; the lights, in short, determined "Kebohongan cahaya", lampu, singkatnya, ditentukan

the degree to which 5"s believed derajat yang 5 "s percaya

what they had heard themselves apa yang mereka dengar sendiri

say. mengatakan. Furthermore, no 5" could report Selain itu, tidak ada 5 "dapat melaporkan

any awareness of the control exerted setiap kesadaran kontrol diberikan

by his statements or the lights over his oleh pernyataan atau lampu atas nya

subsequent attitudes. sikap berikutnya.

In another study, the same technique Dalam studi lain, teknik yang sama

was employed to demonstrate that an dipekerjakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa

individual can be induced to believe in individu dapat didorong untuk percaya

"false confessions" he has made if "Pengakuan palsu" ia telah dibuat jika

there are external cues present that ada isyarat eksternal hadir bahwa

characteristically set the occasion for bersifat mengatur kesempatan untuk

telling the truth (Bern, 1966). mengatakan kebenaran (Bern, 1966). These Ini

several studies have also illustrated that beberapa penelitian juga menggambarkan bahwa

the control over an individual's beliefs kontrol atas individu sebuah keyakinan

and attitudes exerted by his overt behavior dan sikap yang diberikan oleh perilaku terbuka nya

is vitiated to the extent that cues menjadi tidak efektif apabila isyarat

are present implying that the behavior hadir menyiratkan bahwa perilaku

is deceitful or, more generally, is being adalah bohong atau, lebih umum, sedang

emitted for immediate specific reinforcement. emitted untuk penguatan tertentu segera.

For example, just as a Sebagai contoh, hanya sebagai

communicator is more persuasive to komunikator yang lebih persuasif untuk

others if he is known to be receiving lain jika ia diketahui menerima

no payment for his communication, so ada pembayaran untuk komunikasi, jadi

too, it is found that he is more likely juga, ditemukan bahwa dia lebih cenderung

to believe himself under such circumstances untuk percaya diri dalam keadaan seperti

(Bern, 1965). The effectiveness (Bern, 1965). Efektivitas

of self-persuasion can thus be altered diri-persuasi dengan demikian dapat diubah

by many of the techniques typically oleh banyak teknik biasanya

used to manipulate the credibility digunakan untuk memanipulasi kredibilitas

of any persuasive communicator. dari setiap komunikator persuasif.

The major implication of these findings Implikasi utama dari temuan ini

is that, to the extent that internal adalah bahwa, sejauh internal

stimuli are not controlling, an individual's rangsangan tidak mengendalikan, individu

attitude statements may be pernyataan sikap mungkin

viewed as inferences from observations dilihat sebagai kesimpulan dari pengamatan

of his own overt behavior and its accompanying perilaku terbuka sendiri dan menyertainya

stimulus variables. As stimulus variabel. Seperti

such, his statements are functionally tersebut, pernyataannya secara fungsional

similar to those that any outside observer serupa dengan yang ada pengamat luar

could make about him. bisa membuat tentang dia. When Ketika

the answer to the question, "Do you jawaban atas pertanyaan, "Apakah Anda

like brown bread?" is "I guess I do, seperti roti coklat? "adalah" Saya kira saya lakukan,

I'm always eating it," it seems unnecessary Aku selalu makan itu, "sepertinya tidak perlu

to invoke a fount of privileged untuk memohon sebuah sumber dari istimewa

self-knowledge to account for the pengetahuan diri untuk menjelaskan

reply. menjawab. In such a case the reply is Dalam kasus seperti itu jawabannya adalah

functionally equivalent to one his wife fungsional setara dengan satu istrinya

might give for him: "I guess he does, bisa memberi untuk dia: "Saya kira dia tidak,

he is always eating it." Only to the dia selalu makan dalamnya. "Hanya untuk

extent that "brown bread" elicits sejauh bahwa "roti cokelat" memunculkan

strongly conditioned internal responses AC sangat respon internal

might he have additional evidence, not mungkin dia memiliki bukti tambahan, tidak

currently available to his wife, on saat ini tersedia pada istrinya, pada

which to base his self-descriptive attitude yang untuk mendasarkan diri deskriptif sikapnya

statement. pernyataan.

The present analysis of dissonance Analisis disonansi sekarang

phenomena, then, will rest upon the fenomena, kemudian, akan bersandar pada

single empirical generalization that an tunggal generalisasi empiris bahwa

individual's belief and attitude statements individu keyakinan dan pernyataan sikap

and the beliefs and attitudes that dan keyakinan dan sikap yang

an outside observer would attribute to seorang pengamat luar akan atribut

him are often functionally similar in that dia sering fungsional serupa di

both sets of statements are partial "inferences" kedua set laporan yang parsial "kesimpulan"

from the same evidence: the dari bukti yang sama:

public behaviors and accompanying umum perilaku dan atas

stimulus cues upon which the socializing isyarat stimulus yang di atasnya bersosialisasi

community has relied in training komunitas telah diandalkan dalam pelatihan

him to make such self-descriptive statements dia untuk membuat pernyataan diri deskriptif seperti

in the first place. di tempat pertama.

PHENOMENA OF DISSONANCE THEORY FENOMENA TEORI DISONANSI

The major phenomena of dissonance Utama fenomena disonansi

theory have been classified into three teori telah diklasifikasikan ke dalam tiga

main categories (Brehm & Cohen, kategori utama (Brehm & Cohen,

1962, p. 1962, p. 21) : (a) forced-compliance 21): (a) forced-kepatuhan

studies; (b) free-choice studies; and penelitian, (b)-pilihan studi bebas; dan

(c) exposure-to-information studies. (C) paparan-untuk-informasi studi.

Within each category, this discussion Dalam setiap kategori, diskusi ini

will treat the major functional relation akan memperlakukan hubungan fungsional utama

predicted and subject the data from a diprediksi dan subjek data dari

single dissonance experiment to detailed disonansi tunggal percobaan untuk rinci

analysis. analisis. Two sets of secondary Dua set sekunder

findings will also be discussed. Temuan ini juga akan dibahas.

Because the literature of dissonance Karena literatur disonansi

theory has now become so large that it teori sekarang telah menjadi begitu besar sehingga

would be impossible to discuss all the tidak mungkin untuk membahas semua

experimental paradigms that have been eksperimental paradigma yang telah

employed, the specific experiments selected digunakan, maka khusus percobaan yang dipilih

for detailed analysis had to untuk analisis rinci harus

satisfy certain criteria. memenuhi kriteria tertentu. First, whenSELF- Pertama, whenSELF-

PERCEPTION 187 PERSEPSI 187

ever possible, they had to be illustrative pernah mungkin, mereka harus ilustrasi

of several others in the same category beberapa orang lain dalam kategori yang sama

so that the applicability of the sehingga penerapan dari

self-perception analysis to studies not persepsi diri analisis untuk studi tidak

explicitly discussed would be apparent. dibahas secara eksplisit akan jelas.

Second, for each experiment there had Kedua, untuk setiap percobaan ada

to be at least one other study in the menjadi setidaknya satu studi lain di

literature that had successfully replicated sastra yang telah berhasil direplikasi

the same conceptual phenomenon fenomena konseptual yang sama

employing different experimental procedures menggunakan prosedur eksperimen yang berbeda

if possible. These first two jika mungkin. Kedua pertama

criteria together attempt to ensure that kriteria bersama-sama berusaha untuk memastikan bahwa

the analysis avoids "explaining" phenomena analisa menghindari "menjelaskan" fenomena

that are artifactual, while at the yang artifactual, sementara pada

same time not requiring that the particular saat yang sama tidak mensyaratkan bahwa yang khusus

study under analysis be invulnerable belajar di bawah analisis menjadi kebal

to methodological criticism. kritik metodologis.

Finally, the studies selected are those Akhirnya, studi yang dipilih adalah mereka

which are best known and most widely yang paling dikenal dan paling banyak

reprinted or cited. dicetak ulang, atau dikutip.

There will be no discussion of studies Tidak akan ada diskusi studi

that simply use the vocabulary of yang hanya menggunakan kosakata

dissonance theory but which explore teori disonansi tetapi yang mengeksplorasi

functional relations that are not derivations hubungan fungsional yang tidak derivasi

from the major propositions of dari proposisi utama

the theory (eg, studies of postdecision teori (misalnya, studi postdecision

regret; Festinger, 1964). menyesal; Festinger, 1964). There will Akan ada

also be no additional discussion of juga ada diskusi tambahan

phenomena which, although derivable fenomena yang, meskipun diturunkan

from dissonance theory propositions, dari teori disonansi proposisi,

are already considered by the dissonance sudah dipertimbangkan oleh disonansi yang

theorists themselves to be as teoretikus dirinya sebagai

parsimoniously accounted for by parsimoniously dicatat dengan

straightforward empirical generalizations langsung generalisasi empiris

concerning the interpersonal judgmental tentang interpersonal menghakimi

skills of 5"s (eg, attitude keterampilan dari 5 "s (misalnya, sikap

change phenomena produced by persuasive perubahan fenomena dihasilkan oleh persuasif

communication). (See Brehm komunikasi) Brehm. (Lihat

& Cohen, 1962, pp. 105-111.) Indeed, & Cohen, 1962, hlm 105-111 Memang.),

the primary purpose of the present tujuan utama saat ini

analysis is to extend this same kind of Analisis semacam ini untuk memperpanjang sama

empirical generalization to the very generalisasi empiris ke bagian paling

phenomena that the dissonance theorists fenomena bahwa teori disonansi

claim to be "entirely closed to mengaku sebagai "sepenuhnya tertutup bagi

the judgmental interpretation and penafsiran menghakimi dan

rather unequivocally explainable by the agak tegas dijelaskan oleh

dissonance formulation [Brehm & disonansi formulasi [Brehm &

Cohen, 1962, p. Cohen, 1962, hal 111]." 111]. "

THE FORCED-COMPLIANCE STUDIES THE-KEPATUHAN STUDI PAKSA

The most frequently cited evidence Yang paling sering dikutip bukti

for dissonance theory comes from an untuk teori disonansi berasal dari

experimental procedure known as the eksperimental prosedur yang dikenal sebagai

forced-compliance paradigm. dipaksa-kepatuhan paradigma. In these Dalam

experiments, an individual is induced eksperimen, seorang individu yang disebabkan

to engage in some behavior that would untuk terlibat dalam beberapa perilaku yang akan

imply his endorsement of a particular menyiratkan dukungan nya tertentu

set of beliefs or attitudes. seperangkat keyakinan atau sikap. Following Berikut

his behavior, his "actual" attitude or nya perilaku, "nya" sebenarnya sikap atau

belief is assessed to see if it is a function kepercayaan dinilai untuk melihat apakah fungsi

of the behavior in which he has dari perilaku di mana ia

engaged and of the manipulated stimulus terlibat dan stimulus dimanipulasi

conditions under which it was kondisi di mana itu

evoked. ditimbulkan. The best known and most Yang paling dikenal dan paling

widely quoted study of this type was banyak dikutip studi jenis ini

conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith dilakukan oleh Festinger dan Carlsmith

(1959). (1959). In their experiment, 60 undergraduates Dalam eksperimen mereka, 60 mahasiswa

were randomly assigned diberikan secara acak

to one of three experimental conditions. ke salah satu dari tiga kondisi percobaan.

In the $1 condition, 5" was first Dalam kondisi $ 1, 5 "pertama kali

required to perform long repetitive diwajibkan untuk melaksanakan panjang berulang

laboratory tasks in an individual experimental laboratorium tugas individu eksperimental

session. sesi. He was then hired Dia kemudian disewa

by the experimenter as an "assistant" oleh eksperimen sebagai "asisten"

and paid $1 to tell a waiting fellow dan dibayar $ 1 untuk memberitahu sesama menunggu

student (a stooge) that the tasks were mahasiswa (antek a) bahwa tugas-tugas yang

enjoyable and interestng. menyenangkan dan interestng. In the $20 Dalam $ 20

condition, each S was hired for $20 to kondisi, masing-masing S dipekerjakan sebesar $ 20 sampai

do the same thing. melakukan hal yang sama. Control 5"s simply Control 5 "s hanya

engaged in the repetitive tasks. terlibat dalam tugas yang berulang. After Setelah

the experiment, each 5" indicated how percobaan, masing-masing 5 "menunjukkan bagaimana

much he had enjoyed the tasks. ia sangat menikmati tugas. The The

results show that .$> paid $1 evaluated Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dibayar. $> 1 $ dievaluasi

the tasks as significantly more enjoyable tugas sebagaimana signifikan lebih menyenangkan

than did 5"s who had been paid $20. daripada 5 "s yang telah dibayar $ 20.

The $20 Ss did not express attitudes 20 Ss $ tidak mengekspresikan sikap

significantly different from those expressed signifikan berbeda dari yang diungkapkan

by the control 6"s. oleh kontrol 6 "s.

Dissonance theory interprets these teori Disonansi menafsirkan ini

findings by noting that all 5s initially temuan dengan mencatat bahwa semua 5s awalnya

hold the cognition that the tasks are terus kognisi bahwa tugas

dull and boring. In addition, however, kusam dan membosankan. Selain itu, bagaimanapun,

the experimental SB have the cognition SB eksperimental telah kognisi

that they have expressed favorable attitudes bahwa mereka telah menyatakan sikap yang menguntungkan

toward the tasks to a fellow terhadap tugas untuk sesama

student. siswa. These two cognitions are dissonant Kedua kognisi yang disonan

for 5s in the $1 condition be188 untuk 5s dalam 1 kondisi $ be188


cause their overt behavior does not menyebabkan perilaku jelas mereka tidak

"follow from" their cognition about the "Mengikuti dari" kognisi mereka tentang

task, nor does it follow from the small tugas, juga tidak mengikuti dari yang kecil

compensation they are receiving. kompensasi yang mereka terima. To Untuk

reduce the resulting dissonance pressure, mengurangi tekanan disonansi yang dihasilkan,

they change their cognition about mereka mengubah kognisi mereka tentang

the task so that it is consistent with tugas sehingga konsisten dengan

their overt behavior: they become more perilaku mereka jelas: mereka menjadi lebih

favorable toward the tasks. menguntungkan terhadap tugas. The 6"s in The 6 "s dalam

the $20 condition, however, experience 20 kondisi $, bagaimanapun, pengalaman

little or no dissonance because engaging sedikit atau tidak ada disonansi karena terlibat

in such behavior "follows from" dalam perilaku seperti "berikut dari"

the large compensation they are receiving. kompensasi besar mereka menerima.

Hence, their final attitude ratings Oleh karena itu, akhir mereka sikap peringkat

do not differ from those of the control tidak berbeda dengan kontrol

group. kelompok.

In contrast with this explanation, the Berbeda dengan penjelasan ini, maka

present analysis views these results as Analisis ini pandangan hasil ini sebagai

a case of self-perception. Consider the kasus persepsi diri. Pertimbangkan

viewpoint of an outside observer who sudut pandang pengamat luar yang

hears the individual making favorable mendengar individu membuat menguntungkan

statements about the tasks to a fellow pernyataan tentang tugas-tugas ke sesama

student, and who further knows that mahasiswa, dan yang lebih tahu bahwa

the individual was paid $1 ($20) to do individu dibayar $ 1 ($ 20) untuk melakukan

so. begitu. This hypothetical observer is then Ini pengamat hipotetis kemudian

asked to state the actual attitude of the diminta untuk menyatakan sikap aktual dari

individual he has heard. individu ia telah mendengar. An outside Sebuah luar

observer would almost certainly judge pengamat hampir pasti hakim

a $20 communicator to be "manding" 20 komunikator $ untuk menjadi "Manding"

reinforcement (Skinner, 1957); that penguatan (Skinner, 1957); yang

is, his behavior appears to be under the adalah, perilakunya tampaknya berada di bawah

control of the reinforcement contingencies kendali penguatan kontinjensi

of the money and not at all under uang dan tidak pada semua di bawah

the discriminative control of the tasks kontrol diskriminatif tugas

he appears to be describing. ia tampaknya menggambarkan. The $20 $ 20

communicator is not credible in that komunikator tidak kredibel di

his statements cannot be used as a pernyataannya tidak dapat digunakan sebagai

guide for inferring his actual attitudes. panduan untuk menyimpulkan sikap yang sebenarnya.

Hence, the observer could conclude that Oleh karena itu, pengamat dapat menyimpulkan bahwa

the individual found such repetitive individu yang ditemukan tersebut berulang-ulang

tasks dull and boring in spite of what tugas membosankan dan membosankan meskipun apa

he had said. Although the behavior of dia mengatakan. Meskipun perilaku

a $1 communicator also has some mand 1 komunikator $ juga memiliki beberapa mand

properties, an outside observer would sifat, pengamat luar akan

be more likely to judge him to be expressing lebih mungkin untuk menilai-Nya akan mengekspresikan

his actual attitudes and, hence, nya sikap dan aktual, maka,

would infer the communicator's attitude akan menyimpulkan sikap komunikator's

from the content of the communication dari isi komunikasi

itself. sendiri. He would thus judge this Dia dengan demikian akan hakim ini

individual to be favorable toward the individu untuk menguntungkan terhadap

tasks. tugas. If one now places the hypothetical Jika salah satu sekarang tempat hipotesis

observer and the communicator pengamat dan communicator

into the same skin, the findings obtained ke dalam kulit yang sama, temuan yang diperoleh

by Festinger and Carlsmith are oleh Festinger dan Carlsmith adalah

the result. There is no aversive motivational hasil. Tidak ada permusuhan motivasi

pressure postulated; the dependent tekanan mempostulatkan; tanggungan

variable is viewed simply as a variabel dipandang hanya sebagai

self-judgment based on the available diri berdasarkan penilaian yang tersedia

evidence, evidence that includes the bukti, bukti yang mencakup

apparent controlling variables of the jelas mengontrol variabel dari

observed behavior. mengamati perilaku.

If this analysis of the findings is correct, Jika ini analisis temuan benar,

then it should be possible to replicate maka mungkin untuk mereplikasi

the inverse functional relation between hubungan fungsional terbalik antara

amount of compensation and the jumlah kompensasi dan

final attitude statement by actually Pernyataan sikap akhir dengan benar-benar

letting an outside observer try to infer membiarkan seorang pengamat luar mencoba menyimpulkan

the attitude of an 5" in the original sikap dari 5 "dalam bahasa aslinya

study. studi. Conceptually, this replicates Secara konseptual, ini ulangan

the Festinger-Carlsmith experiment the-Carlsmith percobaan Festinger

with the single exception that the observer dengan pengecualian tunggal bahwa pengamat

and the observed are no longer dan yang teramati tidak lagi

the same individual. individu yang sama.

AN INTERPERSONAL REPLICATION OF AN REPLIKASI INTERPERSONAL DARI

THE FESTINGER-CARLSMITH ATAS FESTINGER-CARLSMITH

EXPERIMENT PERCOBAAN

Seventy-five college undergraduates participated Tujuh puluh lima mahasiswa perguruan tinggi berpartisipasi

in an experiment designed to "determine dalam percobaan yang dirancang untuk "menentukan

how accurately people can judge bagaimana orang dapat menilai secara akurat

another person." Twenty-five 5s each setiap orang lain. "Dua puluh lima 5s

served in a $1, a $20, or a control condition. disajikan dalam 1 $, a $ 20, atau kondisi kontrol.

All 5s listened to a tape recording which Semua 5s mendengarkan rekaman yang

described a college sophomore named Bob menggambarkan seorang mahasiswa perguruan tinggi bernama Bob

Downing, who had participated in an experiment Downing, yang telah berpartisipasi dalam percobaan

involving two motor tasks. melibatkan dua tugas motorik. The The

tasks were described in detail, but nonevaluatively; tugas-tugas yang digambarkan secara rinci, namun nonevaluatively;

the alleged purpose of the experiment tujuan dugaan percobaan

was also described. At this point, juga dijelaskan. Pada titik ini,

the control 5s were asked to evaluate Bob's 5s kontrol yang diminta untuk mengevaluasi Bob

attitudes toward the tasks. sikap terhadap tugas. The experimental Haaaasil

5s were further told that Bob had accepted 5s tersebut kemudian diberitahu bahwa Bob telah menerima

an offer of $1 ($20) to go into the tawaran sebesar $ 1 ($ 20) untuk pergi ke

waiting room, tell the next 5 that the tasks ruang tunggu, beritahu 5 berikutnya yang tugas

were fun, and to be prepared to do this yang menyenangkan, dan harus siap untuk melakukan hal ini

again in the future if they needed him. lagi di masa depan jika mereka membutuhkannya. The The

5s then listened to a brief conversation 5s kemudian mendengarkan percakapan singkat

which they were told was an actual recording yang mereka diberitahu adalah perekaman sebenarnya

of Bob and the girl who was in the Bob dan gadis yang berada di

waiting room. Bob was heard to argue ruang tunggu. Bob terdengar untuk berdebat

rather imaginatively that the tasks were fun lebih imajinatif bahwa tugas itu menyenangkan

and enjoyable, while the girl responded very dan menyenangkan, sedangkan gadis itu merespon dengan sangat


little except for the comments that Festinger sedikit kecuali untuk komentar yang Festinger

and Carlsmith's stooge was instructed dan's antek Carlsmith diperintahkan

to make. untuk membuat. The recorded conversation was Percakapan tercatat adalah

identical for both experimental conditions in identik untuk kedua kondisi percobaan dalam

order to remain true to the original study in untuk tetap setia pada studi asli dalam

which no differences in persuasiveness were yang ada perbedaan dalam persuasi adalah

found between the $1 and the $20 communications. ditemukan antara $ 1 dan 20 komunikasi $.

In sum, the situation attempted Singkatnya, situasi berusaha

to duplicate on tape the sitution actually experienced menduplikasi di tape sitution sebenarnya mengalami

by Festinger and Carlsmith's 6"s. oleh Festinger dan Carlsmith's 6 "s.

All 5s estimated Bob's responses to the Semua 5s diperkirakan's tanggapan Bob ke

same set of questions employed in the original set yang sama pertanyaan digunakan dalam bahasa aslinya

study. studi. The key question required 5s to Pertanyaan kunci yang dibutuhkan 5 detik untuk

rate the tasks (or for Bob's attitude toward Tingkat tugas (atau untuk Sikap Bob terhadap

them) on a scale from â€”5 to +5, where mereka) pada skala dari â € 5 "ke +5, dimana

â€”5 means that the tasks were extremely dull â € "5 berarti bahwa tugas itu sangat membosankan

and boring, +5 means they were extremely dan membosankan, +5 berarti mereka sangat

interesting and enjoyable, and 0 means they menarik dan menyenangkan, dan 0 berarti mereka

were neutral, neither interesting nor uninteresting. adalah netral, tidak menarik atau tidak menarik.

Results Hasil

Table 1 shows the mean ratings for Tabel 1 menunjukkan peringkat rata-rata untuk

the key question given by 5s in all pertanyaan kunci yang diberikan oleh 5s di semua

three conditions of both the original tiga kondisi baik yang asli

experiment and the present replication. percobaan dan replikasi ini.

The results show that in both studies Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dalam kedua studi

the $1 and control conditions are on $ 1 dan kondisi kontrol pada

different sides of the neutral point and berbeda sisi titik netral dan

are significantly different from one another secara signifikan berbeda satu sama lain

at the .02 level of significance pada tingkat signifikansi .02

(t = 2.48 in the original study; t â€” (T = 2,48 dalam studi asli; t â € "

2.60 in the replication).2 In both 2.60 di replikasi) .2 Dalam kedua

studies, the $1 condition produced significantly studi, 1 kondisi $ diproduksi secara signifikan

more favorable ratings toward lebih menguntungkan peringkat terhadap

the tasks than did the $20 condition tugas dari melakukan 20 kondisi $

(t = 2.22, p < .03 in the original (T = 2,22, p <.03 dalam bahasa aslinya

study; t - 3.52, p < .001 in the replication). penelitian; t - 3,52, p <.001 di replikasi).

In neither study is the $20 Dalam studi baik adalah $ 20

condition significantly different from Kondisi sangat berbeda dari

the control condition; and, finally, in kondisi kontrol; dan, akhirnya, di

neither study were there any significant penelitian tidak ada di sana ada yang signifikan

differences between conditions on the perbedaan antara kondisi di

other questions asked of 5s about the pertanyaan lain bertanya dari 5s tentang

experiment. Thus, the inverse relation percobaan,. Dengan demikian hubungan invers

between amount of compensation antara jumlah kompensasi

and the final attitude rating is clearly dan sikap akhir rating jelas

replicated; and, even though the present direplikasi, dan, meskipun saat ini

analysis does not require the attitude analisis tidak memerlukan sikap

judgments themselves of the inter- penilaian diri dari antar-

2 All significance levels in this article are 2 tingkat signifikansi Semua dalam artikel ini

based on two-tailed tests. berdasarkan tes dua sisi.

TABLE 1 TABEL 1

ATTITUDE RATINGS AND INTERPERSONAL SIKAP PERINGKAT DAN INTERPERSONAL

ESTIMATES OF ATTITUDE RATINGS TOWARD PERKIRAAN DARI SIKAP TERHADAP PERINGKAT

THE TASKS FOR EACH CONDITION TUGAS UNTUK SETIAP KONDISI

Study Studi

Festinger- Festinger-

Carlsmith Carlsmith

Interpersonal Interpersonal

replication replikasi

Experimental condition Kondisi eksperimental

Control Kontrol

-0.45 -0.45

-1.56 -1.56

SI SI

compensation kompensasi

+ 1.35 + 1.35

+0.52 +0.52

$20 $ 20

compensation kompensasi

-0.05 -0.05

-1.96 -1.96

Note.â€”For the Festinger-Carlsmith study, N = 20 Note.â € "Untuk-Carlsmith studi Festinger, N = 20

in each condition; for the Interpersonal replication dalam kondisi masing-masing, untuk replikasi Interpersonal

study, N = 25 in each condition. studi, N = 25 dalam kondisi masing-masing.

personal observers to duplicate those pengamat pribadi untuk menduplikasi mereka

of Ss in the original experiment, it is dari Ss dalam percobaan asli, maka

seen that the two sets of ratings are terlihat bahwa dua set peringkat

quite comparable on the 10-point scales. cukup sebanding pada skala 10 poin.

Since the above replication was conducted, Karena replikasi di atas dilakukan,

Jones (1966) has reported a Jones (1966) telah melaporkan

study in which 5s' attitudes and observers' studi di mana 5s 'sikap dan pengamat'

judgments were compared directly dibandingkan penilaian langsung

in the same experiment. dalam percobaan yang sama. Again, Sekali lagi,

the observers' judgments not only replicated pengamat 'penilaian tidak hanya direplikasi

the inverse functional relation hubungan fungsional invers

displayed by the attitude statements of ditampilkan oleh pernyataan sikap

5s themselves, but the actual scale positions 5s sendiri, tetapi posisi skala sebenarnya

of observers and 5s were again pengamat dan 5s lagi-lagi

similar. serupa.

These successful replications of the Ini sukses ulangan dari

functional relation reported by Festinger hubungan fungsional dilaporkan oleh Festinger

and Carlsmith provide support for dan Carlsmith menyediakan dukungan untuk

the self-perception analysis. the-persepsi analisis diri. The original Asli

5s may be viewed as simply making 5s dapat dilihat sebagai hanya membuat

self-judgments based on the same kinds penilaian diri berdasarkan jenis yang sama

of public evidence that the community bukti publik bahwa masyarakat

originally employed in training them to awalnya digunakan dalam pelatihan mereka untuk

infer the attitudes of any communicator, menyimpulkan sikap komunikator apapun,

themselves included. sendiri disertakan. It is not Hal ini tidak

necessary to postulate an aversive motivational diperlukan untuk mendalilkan suatu aversive motivasi

drive toward consistency. drive terhadap konsistensi.

These interpersonal replications are Ini ulangan interpersonal

illustrative of others which have been ilustrasi orang lain yang telah

reported elsewhere (Bern, 1965). dilaporkan di tempat lain (Bern, 1965). It Ini

has been shown that the present analysis telah menunjukkan bahwa analisis ini

applies as well to forced-compliance berlaku juga untuk dipaksa-kepatuhan

experiments which utilize compensa190 percobaan yang memanfaatkan compensa190


tions much smaller than $20, to studies tions jauh lebih kecil dari $ 20, untuk studi

which manipulate variables other than yang memanipulasi variabel selain

the amount of compensation, and to jumlah kompensasi, dan

studies which evoke different behaviors penelitian yang menimbulkan perilaku yang berbeda

from 5". Alternative dependent variables dari 5 "tergantung. variabel Alternatif

have also been considered. juga telah dipertimbangkan. For Untuk

example, Brehm and Cohen show that Misalnya, Brehm dan Cohen menunjukkan bahwa

6"s rating of how hungry he is can be 6 "s peringkat tentang bagaimana lapar dia dapat

manipulated by inducing him to volunteer dimanipulasi dengan membujuk dia untuk relawan

to go without food for different untuk pergi tanpa makanan untuk berbeda

amounts of compensation (1962, pp. Jumlah kompensasi (1962, hal

132-137), and a successful interpersonal 132-137), dan interpersonal yang sukses

replication of that experiment replikasi percobaan yang

again supports the present self-perception lagi mendukung diri sekarang persepsi

analysis of these forced-compliance analisis dari kepatuhan-paksa

phenomena (Bern, 1965). fenomena (Bern, 1965).

The merits of alternative formulations Manfaat dari formulasi alternatif

to an established theory are often untuk teori mapan sering

sought in their ability to explicate functional dicari dalam kemampuan mereka untuk mengutarakan fungsional

relations about which the original hubungan tentang yang asli

theory must remain mute. teori harus tetap bisu. Accordingly, Dengan demikian,

the analysis now turns to a analisis sekarang berubah menjadi sebuah

pattern of related findings which have pola temuan terkait yang telah

not been adequately accommodated by tidak diakomodasi secara memadai

dissonance theory: the observed relationships teori disonansi: hubungan diamati

between the amount of behavior antara nilai perilaku

evoked from S in a forced-compliance membangkitkan dari S dalam kepatuhan-paksa

setting and his final attitude pengaturan dan sikap terakhir

statements. laporan.

A number of forced-compliance experiments Sejumlah percobaan-kepatuhan terpaksa

have demonstrated that the telah menunjukkan bahwa

differential effects of the stimulus diferensial efek stimulus

manipulations on attitude statements manipulasi terhadap laporan sikap

can be obtaned even before any of the bisa obtaned bahkan sebelum salah satu dari

behavior to which the individual has perilaku yang individu memiliki

committed himself is actually emitted komitmen sendiri sebenarnya dipancarkan

(Brehm & Cohen, 1962, pp. 115-116). (Brehm & Cohen, 1962, hal 115-116).

That is, the behavior of volunteering to Artinya, perilaku sukarela

emit the behavior is sufficient to control memancarkan perilaku yang memadai untuk mengontrol

the individual's subsequent selfjudgment individu selanjutnya selfjudgment

of attitude. (The self-perception sikap. (Persepsi-diri

interpretation of this effect has interpretasi efek ini telah

also been confirmed by an interpersonal juga telah dikonfirmasi oleh interpersonal

replication, Bern, 1965.) In fact, in replikasi, Bern, 1965 fakta.) Pada, di

an experiment in which 5s volunteered percobaan di mana 5s sukarela

to write essays against their initial untuk menulis esai terhadap awal mereka

opinions, Rabbie, Brehm, and Cohen pendapat, Rabbie, Brehm, dan Cohen

(1959) report that the mean of attitude (1959) melaporkan bahwa rata-rata sikap

ratings obtained before the essays peringkat yang diperoleh sebelum esai

were actually written was not significantly sebenarnya ditulis tidak signifikan

different from the mean of berbeda dengan rata-rata

attitude ratings obtained after the essays sikap peringkat yang diperoleh setelah esai

were written. But the variance ditulis. Tapi varian

across 5s was much greater in the di 5s jauh lebih besar di

latter case. That is, actually writing terakhir kasus. Artinya, sebenarnya menulis

the essays increases and decreases the meningkat esai dan mengurangi

initial effect of volunteering. efek awal relawan. In addition, Selain itu,

there was a negative relationship terdapat hubungan negatif

between the number of arguments antara jumlah argumen

S wrote and the degree to which his S menulis dan sejauh mana nya

final attitude statement agreed with the Pernyataan sikap terakhir setuju dengan

position advocated in the essay. posisi yang dianjurkan dalam esai. On the Pada

other hand, Cohen, Brehm, and Fleming lain tangan, Cohen, Brehm, dan Fleming

(1958) report a positive relationship (1958) melaporkan suatu hubungan yang positif

between "original arguments" and antara "argumen asli" dan

amount of attitude change, but this relationship jumlah perubahan sikap, namun hubungan ini

appeared in only one of the hanya muncul di salah satu

experimental conditions. eksperimental kondisi. Unpublished Tidak diterbitkan

data from the Festinger-Carlsmith experiment data dari percobaan-Carlsmith Festinger

show a negative correlation in menunjukkan korelasi negatif dalam

one condition between attitude ratings satu kondisi antara peringkat sikap

and "number and variety" of arguments dan "jumlah dan berbagai" argumen

and a positive correlation in the dan korelasi positif di

other (reported by Brehm & Cohen, lain (dilaporkan oleh Brehm & Cohen,

1962, p. 1962, p. 119). Finally, when 5s themselves 119),. Akhirnya ketika 5s sendiri

rate the quality of their persuasive menilai kualitas persuasif mereka

communications, the confusion is komunikasi, kebingungan adalah

further compounded. Brehm and makin diperbesar. Brehm dan

Cohen conclude that "the role of discrepant Cohen menyimpulkan bahwa "peran discrepant

verbal behavior in the arousal verbal perilaku dalam gairah the

and reduction of dissonance remains dan pengurangan disonansi tetap

unclear [p. 121]." How might the jelas [p. 121]. "Bagaimana mungkin

self-perception analysis treat these persepsi diri analisis mengobati

effects ? efek?

If an outside observer begins with Jika seorang pengamat luar dimulai dengan

the discrimination that a communicator diskriminasi yang komunikator

is credible, then the more arguments kredibel, maka lebih argumen

put forth, the more persuasive the diajukan, semakin persuasif the

speaker might well become, if nothing pembicara mungkin menjadi, jika tidak ada

intervenes to change the observer's campur tangan untuk mengubah pengamat

judgment of the communicator's credibility. penilaian komunikator's kredibilitas.

If, however, the observer discriminates Namun, jika pengamat mendiskriminasikan

the communicator as manding komunikator sebagai Manding

reinforcement, then it seems likely penguatan, maka nampaknya

that the more insistent the speaker becomes bahwa lebih mendesak pembicara menjadi

in pushing his point of view, the dalam mendorong sudut pandangnya, maka

more it appears to the observer that lebih tampaknya pengamat yang

he "doth protest too much," and the less dia "protes Sesungguhnya terlalu banyak," dan kurang


likely it is that the speaker's statements besar kemungkinan bahwa pernyataan pembicara

will be taken to express his "actual" akan diambil untuk mengekspresikan "sebenarnya"

attitudes. sikap.

Now consider the self-observer. Sekarang perhatikan pengamat-diri. If Jika

5"s in the dissonance experiments begin 5 "s dalam percobaan disonansi mulai

with the discrimination that they are dengan diskriminasi yang mereka

not manding (Ss in the low compensation tidak Manding (Ss di kompensasi rendah

conditions, for example), then the kondisi, misalnya), maka

more arguments they put forth, the lebih argumen mereka lakukan, maka

more self-persuasive they might become. lebih persuasif diri mereka mungkin menjadi.

For any given S, however, Untuk setiap S diberikan, bagaimanapun,

presenting a communication counter to penyajian komunikasi kontra

his initial position might itself provide posisi awal mungkin sendiri memberikan

him with the cues that he is manding dia dengan isyarat bahwa ia Manding

and hence destroy the initial effect of dan dengan demikian menghancurkan pengaruh awal

volunteering under nonmand conditions; sukarela dalam kondisi nonmand;

he will become less self-persuasive ia akan menjadi kurang meyakinkan diri

as he continues. This analysis, saat ia melanjutkan. Analisis ini,

then, leads one to expect the increased kemudian, menyebabkan orang mengharapkan peningkatan

variability in postessay as compared variabilitas postessay dibandingkan

to pre-essay measures of attitude. ke-esai tindakan pra sikap. It Ini

is equally clear, however, that to confirm sama jelas, bagaimanapun, bahwa untuk mengkonfirmasi

this analysis, the hypothesized ini analisis, hipotesis

discrimination of credibility must be diskriminasi kredibilitas harus

brought under experimental control dikendalikan eksperimental

rather than being left under the control bukannya kiri bawah kontrol

of the unique past histories of individual dari sejarah masa lalu yang unik individu

5"^. To do this, the Festinger- 5 "^. Untuk melakukan ini, Festinger-

Carlsmith experiment is again Carlsmith percobaan lagi

used as an illustrative example. digunakan sebagai contoh ilustratif.

AN EXTENDED INTERPERSONAL REPLICATION AN REPLIKASI INTERPERSONAL DIPERPANJANG

OF THE FESTINGER-CARLSMITH DARI FESTINGER-CARLSMITH

EXPERIMENT PERCOBAAN

Festinger and Carlsmith found that Festinger dan Carlsmith menemukan bahwa

within the $1 condition, the greater the dalam 1 kondisi $, semakin besar

number and variety of arguments jumlah dan berbagai argumen

stated by 6" about the tasks, the more dinyatakan oleh 6 "tentang tugas-tugas, semakin

favorable his final evaluation was of Evaluasi akhir nya menguntungkan adalah dari

them. mereka. Within the $20 condition, however, Dalam 20 kondisi $, bagaimanapun,

the greater the number and variety semakin besar jumlah dan variasi

of arguments, the less favorable argumen, yang kurang menguntungkan

his final rating. The following study nya final rating. Studi berikut

thus seeks to replicate this pattern sehingga berusaha untuk meniru pola ini

of results with interpersonal observers. hasil dengan pengamat interpersonal.

Method Metode

In the earlier replication, the persuasive Dalam replikasi sebelumnya, persuasif

communication heard by Ss was identical komunikasi terdengar oleh Ss adalah identik

for both conditions. All Ss heard untuk kedua kondisi. Semua Ss mendengar

the speaker present a fairly imaginative pembicara yang hadir yang cukup imajinatif

and lengthy set of reasons as to why he dan panjang set alasan mengapa dia

had enjoyed the tasks. menikmati tugas. For the present extension, Untuk perpanjangan ini,

a second communication was designed, komunikasi kedua dirancang,

which was somewhat shorter and yang agak pendek dan

contained comparatively unimaginative arguments. terkandung tanpa fantasi argumen relatif.

The replication was then rerun on replikasi tersebut kemudian jalankan kembali pada

an additional SO 5s assigned either to a $1 sebuah SO tambahan 5s baik ditugaskan ke $ 1

or a $20 condition. The 5s were again atau 20 kondisi $. 5S lagi-lagi

asked to estimate the actual attitude of the diminta untuk memperkirakan sikap aktual dari

speaker. speaker. Thus, except for the length and Jadi, kecuali untuk panjang dan

variety of arguments in the communication, berbagai argumen dalam komunikasi,

this replication is identical with the earlier replikasi ini identik dengan sebelumnya

one. satu. The total design, then, contains four Desain total, kemudian, berisi empat

experimental groups: $l-long communication, eksperimental kelompok: komunikasi l-panjang $,

$l-short communication, $20-long communication, $ L-pendek komunikasi, 20-panjang komunikasi $,

and $20-short communication. dan $ 20-pendek komunikasi.

If the present analysis is correct, then Jika analisis ini benar, maka

within the $1 condition, where the communicator dalam 1 kondisi $, dimana communicator

is more likely to be perceived as credible, lebih cenderung dianggap sebagai kredibel,

the long communication should lead komunikasi yang panjang harus memimpin

interpersonal observers to infer that the pengamat interpersonal untuk menyimpulkan bahwa

communicator enjoyed the tasks more than komunikator menikmati tugas lebih dari

the short communication would. komunikasi pendek akan. Within the Dalam

$20 condition, however, the long communication 20 $ kondisi, bagaimanapun, komunikasi yang panjang

should be less persuasive than the harus kurang meyakinkan daripada

short one; the longer the speaker carries satu pendek; semakin lama pembicara membawa

on, the harder he appears to be trying to di, semakin keras ia tampaknya berusaha

earn his $20. He "doth protest too much." mendapatkan $ nya 20. Ia "Sesungguhnya terlalu banyak protes."

Thus, an interaction effect is predicted between Dengan demikian, efek interaksi diperkirakan antara

the two variables of communication dua variabel komunikasi

length and amount of compensation. panjang dan jumlah kompensasi. It will Ini akan

be noted that this is equivalent to saying that dicatat bahwa hal ini setara dengan mengatakan bahwa

the "dissonance" effect, the inverse functional yang "disonansi" efek, invers fungsional

relation between compensation and hubungan antara kompensasi dan

attitude change, is itself a function of perubahan sikap, itu sendiri merupakan fungsi dari

communication length. komunikasi panjang. The shorter the communication, Semakin pendek komunikasi,

the smaller the inverse relationship kebalikan kecil hubungan

should become, perhaps even reversing harus menjadi, mungkin bahkan membalikkan

itself at very short communication lengths. sendiri dalam berkomunikasi panjang pendek yang sangat.

Results Hasil

Tables 2 and 3 display the results Tabel 2 dan 3 menampilkan hasil

and their analysis, respectively. dan analisis mereka, masing-masing. It will Ini akan

be recalled that scores can range from Perlu diingat bahwa skor dapat berkisar dari

â€”5 to +5, the higher the score, the â € "5-5, semakin tinggi skor,

more favorable the communicator is lebih menguntungkan communicator

judged to be toward the tasks. dinilai terhadap tugas.

It is seen that the interpersonal interpretation Hal ini terlihat bahwa interpretasi interpersonal

of self-perception is supported diri-persepsi didukung

by these results. By employing dengan hasil ini mempekerjakan. Dengan

attitude estimates of outside observers, sikap perkiraan pengamat luar,

the study has replicated Festinger and penelitian ini telah direplikasi Festinger dan

Carlsmith's positive correlation between Carlsmith's korelasi positif antara


TABLE 2 TABEL 2

INTERPERSONAL ESTIMATES OF ATTITUDE INTERPERSONAL PERKIRAAN DARI SIKAP

RATINGS TOWARD THE TASKS PERINGKAT TERHADAP TUGAS

Experimental Eksperimental

condition kondisi

$1 compensation $ 1 kompensasi

$20 compensation 20 $ kompensasi

Long communication Long komunikasi

+0.52 +0.52

-1.96 -1.96

Short communication Pendek komunikasi

-1.04 -1.04

-0.64 -0.64

Note.â€” N = 25 in each cell. Note.â € "N = 25 dalam setiap sel.

number of arguments and attitude jumlah argumen dan sikap

change within the $1 condition and the perubahan dalam kondisi $ 1 dan

negative correlation between these two korelasi negatif antara kedua

variables within the $20 condition. variabel dalam kondisi 20 $.

The main effect of compensation seen Pengaruh utama dari kompensasi dilihat

in Tables 2 and 3 is, of course, the pada Tabel 2 dan 3, tentu saja,

primary "dissonance" effect reported utama "disonansi" efek dilaporkan

earlier. sebelumnya. As also noted earlier, however, Seperti juga dicatat sebelumnya, bagaimanapun,

the "dissonance" effect is itself a function yang "disonansi" efek itu sendiri fungsi

of communication length, and the panjang komunikasi, dan

main effect is due entirely to the inverse efek utamanya adalah karena sepenuhnya kebalikannya

relation appearing in the conditions hubungan muncul dalam kondisi

employing the long communication, menggunakan komunikasi lama,

the communication designed to komunikasi yang dirancang untuk

duplicate these found in the original duplikat ini ditemukan dalam bahasa aslinya

Festinger-Carlsmith experiment. Festinger Carlsmith percobaan. A A

nonsignificant reversal actually appears pembalikan tidak bermakna sebenarnya muncul

when very short communications are

employed. dipekerjakan. It may be that communication

length is thus one of the confounding

parameters responsible for the conflicting

findings, including reversals,

reported in forced-compliance experiments,

a point noted by Aronson

(1966). (1966). If this is so, then the present

conceptualization might provide a rec-

TABLE 3 TABEL 3

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF

INTERPERSONAL ESTIMATES OF ATTITUDE

RATINGS TOWARD THE TASKS

Source of

variation

Long versus Short

$1 versus $20

Interaction Interaksi

Within cells

Sum of Jumlah

squares

0.360 0.360

27.040 27.040

51.840 51.840

637.920

df

111 111

96 96

Mean Berarti

square persegi

0.360 0.360

27.040 27.040

51.840 51.840

6.645

F F

0.05 0.05

4.07*

7.80**

*p <.05

** p < .01

onciliation of the conflicting predictions

made by a reinforcement theory (eg,

Scott, 1957, 1959), "incentive" theories

(Janis & Gilmore, 1965), and dissonance

theory within a single theoretical

framework (cf. Bern, 1965).

NONVERBAL DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Both dissonance theory and the present

analysis can be characterized as

dealing with cognitions, attitudes, beliefs,

or self-descriptive statements as

the dependent variables. There is,

however, a long history of evidence

demonstrating that an individual's beliefs

and attitudes can function as antecedent

or independent variables as well,

exercising partial control not only over

his instrumental and consummatory behaviors,

but over many of his physiological

responses as well. Accordingly, Dengan demikian,

the same "dissonance" manipulations

that can produce attitude change should

be expected to produce changes in some

of these nonverbal behaviors too, an

expectation that has now been well

confirmed (eg, Brehm, Back, & Bogdonoff,

1964; Brock & Grant, 1963;

Cohen, Greenbaum, & Mansson, 1963;

Freedman, 1965; Zimbardo, Cohen,

Weisenberg, Dworkin, & Firestone,

1966). 1966). It should be clear, however,

that, although either theory could

claim to anticipate these "noncognitive"

effects, neither formulation contains

the theoretical machinery for "explaining"

them in any nontrivial sense; this

is especially true for the striking physiological

effects (eg, Zimbardo et al.,

1966). 1966). In addition, Weick (in press)

has persuasively argued that the apparent

motivational effects of dissonance

manipulations on the intensity

of nonverbal instrumental behavior

often fail to show the predicted attitude

change that should accompany

such effects and that these effects are

more parsimoniously accounted for by

SELF-PERCEPTION 193

propositions drawn from frustration

theory and cue-utilization theory.

In sum, it is suggested that the interpersonal

model of self-perception provides

a viable alternative to the theory

of cognitive dissonance in accounting

for the attitudinal phenomena that have

emerged from the forced-compliance

experiments. percobaan.

THE FREE-CHOICE STUDIES

In the second major category of data

on dissonance theory, an S is permitted

to make a selection from a set

of objects or courses of action. The The

dependent variable is his subsequent

attitude rating of the chosen and rejected

alternatives. Dissonance theory

reasons that any unfavorable aspects

of the chosen alternative and any

favorable aspects of the rejected alternatives

provide cognitions that are

dissonant with the cognition that the

individual has chosen as he did. To Untuk

reduce the resulting dissonance pressure,

the individual exaggerates the

favorable features of the chosen alternative

and plays down its unfavorable

aspects. aspek. This leads him to enhance his

rating of the chosen alternative. Similar Mirip

reasoning predicts that he will lower

his rating of the rejected alternatives.

These predictions are confirmed in a

number of studies. (See Brehm &

Cohen, 1962, p. 303; see also Festinger,

1964).

A number of secondary predictions

concerning parameters of the choice

have also been confirmed. In an experiment

by Brehm and Cohen (1959),

school children were permitted to select

a toy from either two or four

alternatives. Some children chose

from qualitatively similar toys; others

chose from qualitatively dissimilar alternatives.

The children's postchoice

ratings of the toys on a set of rating

scales were then compared to initial

ratings obtained a week before the experiment.

The main displacement effect

appeared as predicted: Chosen

toys were displaced in the more favorable

direction; rejected toys were generally

displaced in the unfavorable direction.

In addition, however, the

displacement effect was larger when

the choice was made from the larger

number of alternatives. This is so,

according to dissonance theory, because

"the greater the number of alternatives

from which one must choose,

the more one must give up and consequently

the greater the magnitude of

dissonance [p. 373]." Similarly, the displacement

effect was larger when the

choice was made from dissimilar rather

than similar alternatives because "what

one has to give up relative to what one

gains increases [p. 373]," again increasing

the magnitude of the dissonance

experienced. berpengalaman.

To interpret these findings within the

framework of self-perception, consider

an observer trying to estimate a child's

ratings of toys; the observer has not

seen the child engage in any behavior

with the toys. Now compare this observer

with one who has just seen the

child select one of the toys as a gift for

himself. sendiri. This comparison parallels, respectively,

the prechoice and the postchoice

ratings made by the children

themselves. It seems likely that the

latter observer would displace the estimated

ratings of the chosen and rejected

alternatives further from one

another simply because he has some behavioral

evidence upon which to base

differential ratings of these toys. This Ini

is the effect displayed in the children's

final ratings.

The positive relation between the

number of alternatives and the displacement

effect can be similarly analyzed.

If an observer had seen the

selected toy "win out" over more competing

alternatives, it seems reasonable

194 DARYL J. BEM

that he might increase the estimated

displacement between the "exceptional"

toy and the group of rejected alternatives.

Finally, the fact that the displacement

effect is larger when the

alternatives are dissimilar would appear

to be an instance of simple stimulus

generalization. That is, to the extent

that the chosen and rejected alternatives

are similar to one another,

they will be rated closer together on

a scale by any rater, outside observer,

or the child himself.

In sum, if one regards the children

as observers of their own choice behavior

and their subsequent ratings as

inferences from that behavior, the

dissonance findings appear to follow.

The following demonstration illustrates

the point. titik.

AN INTERPERSONAL REPLICATION OF

THE TOY STUDY

Twenty-four college students served as

control 6"s by estimating how an 11-year-old

boy might rate several different toys. These Ini

toys were selected from the list reported

by Brehm and Cohen (1959) and were rated

on the same rating scales. The toys to be

rated in the subsequent experiment were

then selected on the basis of these ratings

according to the same criteria of selection

employed by the original investigators.

For the experiment itself, 96 college students

were given a sheet of paper with the

following information: "In a psychology experiment,

an 11-year-old boy was asked to

rate how well he liked toys that are typically

popular with this age group. He was Dia

then permitted to select one of these toys

to keep for himself. We are interested in

how well college students can estimate his

ratings." Each sheet also informed S which

toy the child had chosen and from which alternatives

he was permitted to choose. He Dia

then made his estimates of the child's ratings.

The 5s were randomly assigned to one of

four conditions corresponding to the combinations

of number of alternatives (two or

four) and similarity of alternatives (similar

or dissimilar).

Results Hasil

Table 4 lists the toys employed, the

control group means, and the displacements

from those means of the corresponding

experimental group means for

the chosen and rejected alternatives in

each condition. Scores can range from

0 to 5, where a higher number indicates

greater liking for the toy; a positive

displacement indicates increased

liking for the toy. To facilitate comparisons

among conditions, the toy

rated as most popular by the control

group, the swimming snorkel, was employed

as the "chosen" toy in all experimental

conditions. In addition, it

will be noted that it was possible to

TABLE 4 TABEL 4

MEAN DISPLACEMENT IN TOY RATINGS FROM CONTROL GROUP MEANS TOR

CHOSEN AND REJECTED ALTERNATIVES IN EACH CONDITION

Experimental condition

Two alternatives

Four alternatives

Chosen Terpilih

Rejected Ditolak

Chosen Terpilih

Rejected Ditolak

Similar alternatives

Toy

Swimming snorkel

Swimming mask

Swimming snorkel

Swimming mask

Swimming fins

Life jacket

Control Kontrol

3.45 3.45

3.44

3.45 3.45

2.54 2.54

Displacement Pemindahan

+.35

-.39

+ .69

-.01 -. 01

Dissimilar alternatives

Toy

Swimming snorkel

Archery set

Swimming snorkel

Archery set

Bowling game

Ship model

Control Kontrol

3.45 3.45

2.79 2.79

3.45 3.45

2.58 2.58

Displacement Pemindahan

+.22

-.42 -. 42

+.99

-.26 -. 26

Note.â€” N = 24 in the control and each experimental condition.

SELF-PERCEPTION 195

match closely the combined mean ratings

of the rejected alternatives in the

four-alternative conditions; unfortunately

this could not be done for the

two-alternative conditions.

It is seen in Table 4 that the chosen

alternative was rated higher and the

rejected alternatives were rated lower

than the corresponding control group

means in every condition. In both of

the two-alternative conditions, the total

displacement effect is significant at the

.01 level 0 = 3.66 and 2.81 for the

similar and dissimilar conditions, respectively)

; for both of the four-alternative

conditions, it is significant at

the .001 level (t = 5.26 and 9.18, respectively).

Some of the downward

displacement of the rejected alternatives

in the two-alternative conditions

can be attributed to regression effects

since the initial means of these alternatives

are above the grand mean, but

this problem has been avoided in the

four-alternative conditions by combining

the ratings of the three rejected

alternatives; in this case the predicted

displacement effect is opposite in direction

to that due to regression, as is the

upward displacement of the chosen alternative

in all four conditions. Thus, Dengan demikian,

the main displacement effect is clearly

replicated by interpersonal judgments.

Similarity oj alternatives. From

simple considerations of stimulus generalization,

it was predicted that the

displacement effect should be greater

in the dissimilar than in the similar

conditions. Because of the differential

effects of regression, mentioned above,

however, the analysis must be confined

to the four-alternative conditions where

it was possible to match the control

group means of the rejected alternatives.

Within this condition, the mean

total displacement is .70 in the similar

condition and 1.25 in the dissimilar

condition, a difference significance at

the .05 level (t = 2.22). The hypothesis

is confirmed insofar as it is possible

to test it with these data.

Number of alternatives. The present

experiment is attempting to replicate

the positive relation found between

the displacement and the

number of alternatives. Again, the

displacements of the rejected alternatives

in the two-alternative conditions

cannot be legitimately incorporated into

the comparison. The present analysis,

therefore, is confined to the upward

displacement of the chosen alternative.

For the four-alternative conditions, the

mean upward displacement of the

swimming snorkel is seen to be .84; for

the two-alternative conditions, it is .28.

This difference is significant at the .01

level (t = 3.29). The dissonance findings

are again replicated by interpersonal

observers. pengamat.

Although it would have been desirable

to test the predictions unconfounded

by the noncomparability of

the two-alternative base lines, this

would have required departing from

the toys employed in the original experiment.

More importantly, however,

this would still not have yielded a more

direct comparison between the replication

and the original experiment because

the results reported by Brehm

and Cohen are themselves confounded

by uncorrected regression effects. The The

present replication actually provides

clearer evidence for the predicted effects

than the original study.

It is suggested that this same kind of

analysis can be applied to the other

studies in this category of dissonance

experiments. Once again, it seems unnecessary

to invoke a motivational construct

to account for the data.

EXPOSURE-TO-INFORMATION STUDIES

The third category of dissonance

studies includes two general paradigms

: experiments in which an indi196

DARYL J. BEM

vidual is involuntarily exposed to information

that is discrepant with

information he already possesses, and

studies that examine an individual's

willingness to expose himself voluntarily

to dissonant information.

An experiment of the first type in

which male ,9s received information

discrepant with their "self-images"

was conducted by Bramel (1962).

Each S was first led to view himself

favorably or unfavorably on a number

of personality characteristics and then

given information that implied that he

was sexually aroused by homoerotic

pictures. gambar. This information was in the

form of numerical readings from a

meter which was supposedly measuring

,9's sexual arousal to the stimulus pictures

; actually, all ,9s received the same

meter readings. The dependent variable

of the study was S"s prediction of

the meter readings that were obtained

from his "partner," another male 5"

who was participating in the experiment

concurrently. bersamaan.

Bramel reasons from dissonance theory

that the arousal information would

be quite dissonant for ,9s who had been

led to view themselves favorably. In Dalam

order to reduce this dissonance, these

.9s would "project" or attribute a

higher amount of homosexual arousal

to their partners than would ,9s in the

Unfavorable condition, who would find

the information less dissonant with

their self-image. The results are consistent

with this prediction. The data

show that the higher 5"s measured

self-esteem, the more arousal he attributed

to his partner.

This study may be reanalyzed by

considering the nature of the task set

,9. He is asked to make a comparative

judgment of another person along a

numerical scale. His only standard of

reference is his own meter reading.

In addition, he knows that high meter

readings are to be associated with a

negative attribute, and he can again

use himself as the reference for a standard

of "good" and "bad." It would Ini akan

appear to follow that the more an >9

judges himself as "good," the higher

an arousal number, relative to his own,

he would assign to another person on

whom he has no additional data, precisely

the relationship reported by

Bramel.8

This straightforward "psychophysical"

interpretation is further supported

by the observed relationship between

,9's prediction of his partner's arousal

and his overall evaluation of the partner

which he had made prior to receiving

the experimental manipulation.

A simple "halo effect" is evident: ,9s

attribute high readings to partners toward

whom they had generally unfavorable

attitudes; they attribute

moderate readings to moderately esteemed

partners; and, with one exception,

they attribute low readings to

highly esteemed partners. This monotonic

relation is violated at only one

point: 5s who have high self-esteem

appear to use their own meter reading

as a lower bound of "goodness" and

simply assign a similar level of arousal

to partners whom they also regard

favorably. This finding, too, is consistent

with the judgmental interpretation

of Bramel's data.

A number of other experiments examine

the effects of giving ,9s information

that is dissonant with their selfimages.

Unfortunately, the more remarkable

effects (eg, Aronson &

Carlsmith, 1962) are apparently difficult

to reproduce, and it is still possible

that the original findings are

artifactual. (See McGuire, 1966, for

a review.)

Throughout this discussion, it has

8 Bramel briefly considers a similar interpretation,

but rejects it in favor of the

dissonance interpretation.

SELF-PERCEPTION 197

been argued that the data under analysis

could be accounted for without

postulating an aversive motivational

drive. drive. The second kind of exposureto-

information studies may be viewed

as a direct test for the existence of

such a drive. If cognitive dissonance

is, in fact, an aversive state, then a person

should avoid exposure to sources

of dissonant information and seek out

nondissonant sources. Compared with Dibandingkan dengan

the theoretical chain of reasoning behind

the other studies discussed, this

deduction from dissonance theory is by

far the most direct, the easiest to test,

and the most crucial for justifying a

motivational construct like dissonance.

The available evidence, however, is

not supportive. In an extensive review

of the relevant studies, most of which

were conducted by investigators whose

theoretical orientation would lead them

to look for selective exposure to nondissonant

information, Freedman and

Sears (1965) conclude that "clearly

experimental evidence does not demonstrate

that there is a general psychological

tendency to avoid nonsupportive

and to seek out supportive information."

There is, of course, nothing within

the behaviorist's functional framework

that would rule out a motivational phenomenon.

For example, it is not implausible

to suppose that punishment is

often contingent upon being inconsistent,

illogical, or just plain wrong in

our highly verbal culture. This would Hal ini akan

be particularly true for the college

students who typically serve as 5"s in

cognitive dissonance experiments. Accordingly, Dengan demikian,

evidence demonstrating that

it is aversive for such 5"s to maintain

incompatible responses in their verbal

repertoires might well be forthcoming.

Such a phenomenon is appropriately

labeled motivational, but it would be

the consequence of a particularly common

cultural practice and would not,

it is suggested, justify the reification of

a new internal drive that is assumed to

be an inherent characteristic of behaving

organisms. In any case, the assumption

of any motivational process

to account for the data reviewed in this

discussion would seem gratuitous.

SOME METATHEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In the opening remarks, some contrasts

were noted between the conceptual

approach typified by dissonance

theory and the behavioral

approach represented here by the functional

analysis of self-perception. It Ini

was pointed out that the behaviorist's

goal is to account for observed relations

between current stimuli and responses

in terms of an individual's past

training history and a small number

of basic functional relations discovered

in the experimental analysis of simpler

behaviors. The behaviorist's functional

analysis of complex behaviors like dissonance

phenomena was thus seen to

be based on empirical generalization, a

feature which infuses it with an inductive

flavor and spirit.

In contrast, the dissonance theorists

clearly prefer the "deductive" nature

of their theory and explicitly derogate

the "weakness of an empirical generalization

as compared with a true theoretical

explanation [Lawrence & Festinger,

1962, p. 1962, p. 17]." This criticism of

the behaviorist's functional analysis,

namely, that it has no deductive fertility

or predictive power, is often expressed.

The radical behaviorist, so

the criticism goes, will not venture a

specific prediction without knowing

the complete reinforcement history of

the organism. He cannot provide a

"true theoretical explanation."

It is suggested here that a functional

analysis appears to have limited predictive

power only because it makes

198 DARYL J. BEM

explicit the kinds of knowledge about

the past and present controlling variables

that any theorist must have if he

is to predict behavior accurately. How, Bagaimana,

for example, do the dissonance theorists

conclude that dissonance is present

in a particular case? That is, how do

they decide when one cognition does

not "follow from" another? According Menurut

to Festinger, "the vagueness in the conceptual

definition of dissonance-â€”

namely, two elements are dissonant if,

considered alone, the obverse of one

follows from the otherâ€”lies in the

words 'follows from'. . . . . . . One element

may follow from another because

of logic, because of cultural mores, because

of things one has experienced

and learned, and perhaps in other

senses too [1957, p. 278]." Five years

later, Brehm and Cohen note that "the

'follows from' relationship can sometimes

be determined empirically but is

limited by our abilities to specify and

measure cognitions and the relationships

among them . . . . . the 'follows

from' relationship is not always clear

and specifiable [1962, pp. 11-12]."

In actual practice, however, the dissonance

theorists do not experience difficulty

in inferring the existence of

dissonance from their stimulus operations.

But this is so precisely because

in that inference the dissonance theorists

sneak through the back door the

very knowledge they claim to do without.

It is in that inference that they

implicitly make use of the fact that they

have been raised by the same socializing

community as their 5s. The dissonance

theorists can thus infer that a

$1 compensation will produce more

dissonance than a $20 compensation,

just as it has been our common history

with these same 5s that permits us to

speculate that the difference in compensation

represents a difference in

the mand properties of the induced behavior.

Interpersonal observers are

successful in replicating dissonance

phenomena for the same reason. Dissonance Disonansi

theorists and radical behaviorists

need the same kinds of knowledge.

Only the behaviorists, however, take as

their explicit obligation the necessity

for accounting for both their own and

their 5"s' differential response to such

controlling variables.

In sum, it is concluded that the

greater "deductive fertility" of dissonance

theory is largely illusory. In Dalam

the process of adequately explicating

the phrase "follows from" in their fundamental

statement, the dissonance

theorists will necessarily have to perform

the explicit functional analysis

they had hoped to finesse. It remains

our conviction that the appeal to hypothetical

internal states of the organism

for causal explanations of behavior is

often heuristically undesirable. Such Seperti

diversion appears only to retard and

deflect the thrust of the analysis that is

ultimately required.

REFERENCES DAFTAR PUSTAKA

ARONSON, E. The psychology of insufficient

justification: An analysis of some conflicting

data. data. In S. Feldman (Ed.), Cognitive

consistency: Motivational antecedents and

behavioral consequents. New York: Academic

Press, 1966. Pp. 109-133.

ARONSON, E., & CAELSMITH, JM Performance

expectancy as a determinant of

actual performance. Journal of Abnormal

and Social Psychology, 1962, 65, 178-

182. 182.

ASCH, SE Review of L. Festinger, A

theory of cognitive dissonance. Contemporary Kontemporer

Psychology, 1958, 3, 194-195.

BEM, DJ An experimental analysis of

self-persuasion. Journal of Experimental

Social Psychology, 1965, 1, 199-218.

BEM, DJ Inducing belief in false confessions.

Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 1966, 3, 707-710.

BRAMEL, D. A dissonance theory approach

to defensive projection. Journal of Abnormal

and Social Psychology, 1962, 64,

121-129.

BREHM, JW, & COHEN, AR Re-evaluation

of choice alternatives as a function

SELF-PERCEPTION 199

of their number and qualitative similarity.

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,

1959, 58, 373-378.

BREHM, JW, & COHEN, AR Explorations

in cognitive dissonance. New York:

Wiley, 1962.

BREHM, ML, BACK, KW, & BOGDONOFF,

MD A physiological effect of cognitive

dissonance under stress and deprivation.


1964, 69, 303-310.

BROCK, T. C, & GRANT, LD Dissonance,

awareness, and motivation. Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963,

67, S3-60.

BRUNER, JS Discussion of L. Festinger,

The relationship between behavior and

cognition. In JS Bruner (Ed.), Contemporary

approaches to cognition. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press, 1957.

Pp. Pp. 151-156.

CHAPANIS, NP, & CHAPANIS, A. Cognitive

dissonance: Five years later. Psychological

Bulletin, 1964, 61, 1-22.

COHEN, AR, BREHM, JW, & FLEMING,

WH Attitude change and justification

for compliance. Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology, 1958, 56, 276-278.

COHEN, AR, GREENBAUM, CW, & MANSSON,

HH Commitment to social deprivation

and verbal conditioning. Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology,

1963, 67, 410-421.

FESTINGER, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance.

Stanford: Stanford University

Press, 1957. Tekan, 1957.

FESTINGER, L. Conflict, decision and dissonance.

Stanford: Stanford University

Press, 1964.

FESTINGER, L., & CARLSMITH, JM Cognitive

consequences of forced compliance.


1959, 58, 203-210.

FREEDMAN, JL Long-term behavioral effects

of cognitive dissonance. Journal of

Experimental Social Psychology, 1965, 1,

103-120. 103-120.

FREEDMAN, JL, & SEARS, DO Selective

exposure. eksposur. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances

in experimental social psychology.

Vol. Vol. 2. 2. New York: Academic Press,

1965. 1965. Pp. Pp. 57-97.

JANIS, IL, & GILMORE, JB The influence

of incentive conditions on the success

of role playing in modifying attitudes.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

1965,1,17-27.

JONES, RG Forced compliance dissonance

predictions: obvious, non-obvious, or nonsense?

Paper read at American Psychological

Association, New York, September

1966. 1966.

KELLY, G. Comments on J. Brehm, Motivational

effects of cognitive dissonance. In Dalam

MR Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium

on motivation: 1962. Lincoln: University

of Nebraska Press, 1962. Pp. Pp. 78-81.

KING, BT, & JANIS, IL Comparison of

the effectiveness of improvised vs. nonimprovised

role-playing in producing

opinion change. Human Relations, 1956,

9, 177-186.

LAWRENCE, DH, & FESTINGER, L. Deterrents

and reinforcement. Stanford: Stanford

University Press, 1962.

LOTT, BE Secondary reinforcement and

effort: Comment on Aronson's "The effect

of effort on the attractiveness of rewarded

and unrewarded stimuli." Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology,

1963, 67, 520-522.

MEAD, GH Mind, self, and society. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1934.

McGuiRE, WJ Attitudes and opinions.

Annual Revieiv of Psychology, 1966, 17,

475-514.

OSGOOD, CE Cognitive dynamics in human

affairs. Public Opinion Quarterly, 1960,

24, 341-365.

OSGOOD, CE, Suci, GJ, & TANNENBAUM,

PH The measurement of meaning.

Urbana: University of Illinois Press,

1957. 1957.

RABBIE, JM, BREHM, JW, & COHEN,

AR Verbalization and reactions to cognitive

dissonance. Journal of Personality,

1959, 27, 407-417.

ROSENBERG, MJ When dissonance fails:

On eliminating evaluation apprehension

from attitude measurement. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 1965,

1, 28-42.

RYLE, G. The concept of mind. London:

Hutchinson, 1949.

SCHACHTER, S., & SINGER, J. Cognitive,

social, and physiological determinants of

emotional state. Psychological Review,

1962, 69, 379-399.

SCOTT, WA Attitude change through reward

of verbal behavior. Journal of Abnormal

and Social Psychology, 1957, 55,

72-75.

SCOTT, WA Attitude change by response

reinforcement: Replication and extension.

Sociometry, 1959, 22, 328-335.

SCEIVEN, M. A study of radical behaviorism.

In H. Feigl & M. Scriven (Eds.),

200 DARYL J. BEM

Minnesota studies in philosophy of science.

Vol. Vol. 1. Foundations of science and the

concepts of psychology and psychoanalysis.

Minneapolis: University of Minnesota

Press, 1956. Pp. 88-131.

SKINNER, BF Science and human behavior.

New York: Macmillan, 1953.

SKINNER, BF Verbal behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.

WEICK, KE Dissonance and task enhancement:

A problem for compensation

theory? Organisational Behavior and

Human Performance, in press.

ZAJONC, RB The concepts of balance,

congruity, and dissonance. Public Opinion

Quarterly, 1960, 24, 280-296.

ZIMBARDO, PG, COHEN, AR, WEISEN BERG,

M., DWORKIN, L., & FIRESTONE, I.

Control of pain motivation by cognitive

dissonance. Science, 1966, 151, 217-219.

(Received July 8, 1966)

Tinjauan Psikologis

Documents

Transcript of Tinjauan Psikologis